turkey essay

• Countries and Their Cultures
• Culture of Turkey

Culture Name

Orientation.

Identification. The English word "Turkish" comes from the ancient Turkish word Türk , which can be used as an adjective or a proper noun. In Turkish, the name of the country is Türkiye . After decades of nationalistic indoctrination, most citizens self-identify as Turks regardless of ethnic background. Some of the major non-Turkish ethnic groups—the Kurds in the southeast, the Arabs in the south, the Laz of the western Black Sea coast, and the Georgians in the northeast and northwest—express double identities.

Location and Geography. Turkey occupies Asia Minor and a small portion of Europe. Its area is 301,382 square miles (814,578 square kilometers). It is bounded on the west by the Aegean Sea; on the northwest by the Sea of Marmara, Greece, and Bulgaria; on the north by the Black Sea; on the east by Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran; and on the south by Iraq, Syria, and the Mediterranean. Although Istanbul (formerly Constantinople) is the major city and was the capital of the Ottoman Empire, the first president—Mustafa Kemal Atatürk—chose Ankara, an interior Anatolian city, as the capital in 1923. Militarily Ankara was less exposed and more easily defended than Istanbul. The choice also symbolized Atatürk's policy of nationalism, because Ankara was more Turkish and less cosmopolitan than the old capital.

Turkey has 4,454 miles of coastline. The interior consists of mountains, hills, valleys, and a high central plateau. The western coastal plains are generally more densely populated and industrial than are the central and eastern regions, except for Ankara on the central Anatolian plateau. Because Asia Minor had been home to Lydians, Hittites, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Seljuks, and Ottomans over the centuries, it is dotted with historic monuments.

Physiographically, the country may be divided into five regions. The Black Sea region has a moderate climate and higher than average rainfall. It is dominated by the Pontic mountain range. The west is noted for agriculture, including grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and tobacco. In the more humid east, the mountains leave a narrow coastal plain rarely exceeding twenty miles wide. The Black Sea peoples settled and farmed the valleys and narrow alluvial fans of the area's rivers, developing a form of steep slope agriculture to grow vegetables and fruits. Tea, the major cash crop, did not become popular until the 1960s. Some villagers combined gardening with transhumant pastoralism, which involves grazing small herds of sheep, goats, and cattle on the lowlands in the winter and in the high Pontic pastures in the summer.

Until recently, the rugged topography limited agriculture, and alternative land-based industries were virtually absent. Thus, many western Black Sea men sought work outside the region in the navy and merchant marine or in major cities, later returning home to retire. While the men worked away, the women kept up the home, farmed the land, and cared for the livestock.

The central Anatolian plateau region is dotted with mountains and denuded of trees. It has a semi-arid climate with high temperatures in summer and low ones in winter. Villagers engage in animal husbandry and cultivate wheat, barley, and sugar beets. Areas unsuited for cultivation are used to graze large herds of sheep, cattle, and goats.

The Mediterranean coastal region is lined by the Taurus Mountains. It has a Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and mild, humid winters. The eastern part, around Mersin and Adana, is known for extensive cotton production by wealthy landowners. Mersin is an important seaport and oilrefining center. The western region is noted for citrus and banana groves. Seminomadic peoples traditionally utilized the Taurus Mountains to graze sheep, goats, cattle, and camels. Women among the Turkish Yürük pastoralists made woolen kilims, rugs, and saddlebags. Tourism is now a major industry.

The Aegean region also has a Mediterranean climate. It contains rich valleys and alluvial plains as well as rolling hills and mountains. A wide variety of crops are produced, including citrus fruits, olives, nuts, sunflowers, tobacco, sugar beets, grains, fruits, and vegetables. The area contains most of Turkey's prosperous small farmers and food-processing plants. Izmir is the region's major commercial and industrial center; it is the third largest city and second major port.

The Marmara–Istanbul region, a crossroads of Europe and Asia, is the most densely settled, commercial, industrial, and touristic region. It has a moderate climate, rich soil, and extensive coastlines. As a result of modern development, it has the highest percentage of the population engaged in nonagricultural pursuits of any region in the country. Istanbul, the largest and most cosmopolitan city, leads the country in commerce, shipping, fashion, literature, arts, and entertainment. Over the decades, it has attracted a steady stream of migrants from all parts of the country.

Demography. The annual population increase fell to 1.6 percent in 1998 after decades of annual growth over 2.5 percent. The 1998 population was estimated at 64,566,511, with 65 percent of the people living in urban areas and 35 percent in some thirty-five thousand villages. Turkey does not categorize its population by ethnicity, and the sizes of ethnic groups must be estimated. There are at least thirty-five non-Turkish ethnic groups, including other Turkic peoples who speak different Turkic languages, such as the Uygurs, Kirgiz, Kazaks, Uzbeks, Balkar, and Azerbaijanis. Those who speak non-Turkic languages include Kurds, Armenians, Greeks, Circassians, Georgians, Laz, Arabs, Rom (Gypsies), Ossetes, Albanians, and Chechens. The Kurds are the largest of these groups, probably numbering over ten million. The next largest may be the Arabs concentrated along the Syrian border at about one million and the Laz of the Eastern Black Sea coastal region, who may number about three hundred thousand.

Linguistic Affiliation. The Turks originated in inner Asia. Their language belongs to the Altaic family. The earliest evidence of Turkish writing dates to eighth-century C.E. runic inscriptions on steles along the Orkhon River near present-day Ulan Bator, Mongolia. The language was influenced by Persian and Arabic after the ninth century, when Turks began moving into the Middle East and converting to Islam. After the establishment of the Turkish Republic, many Arabic and Persian words were replaced with words derived from ancient Turkish. As part of Atatürk's Turkification program, all Muslim citizens were legally required to speak and write in Turkish. Until 1991, publications, radio broadcasts, and public speaking in many non-Turkish languages were legally prohibited. Today the vast majority of young people speak only Turkish. However, most Kurds raised in southeastern Turkey speak Kurdish as well as Turkish.

History and Ethnic Relations

Emergence of the Nation. Present-day Turkey was founded in 1923 as an offspring of the multiethnic and multilingual Ottoman Empire, which existed between the fourteenth and early twentieth centuries and embraced much of the Middle East along with parts of southeastern Europe and North Africa in the sixteenth century. In the nineteenth century, when the Balkans and the Trans-Caspian regions were separated from the empire, many non-Turkish Ottoman citizens fled or migrated to Anatolia and Turkish Thrace to resettle.

With the Ottoman Empire's demise in World War I, the heartland of the old empire—Istanbul and Asia Minor—was reconstituted as the Republic of Turkey under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (later called Mustafa Kemal Atatürk). To make Turkey a modern, Western-style, secular nation-state, Atatürk disestablished Islam as the state religion, adopted Western legal codes, and established a compulsory secular educational system in which all young Muslim citizens, regardless of ethnicity, were taught that they were ethnically Turkish and citizens of a Turkish nation-state. After centuries of intermarriage with Mediterranean and Balkan peoples and the assimilation of those peoples into the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish state, the vast majority of today's Turks physically resemble southern Europeans rather than central Asiatics.

National Identity. The government founded and supported historical and linguistic societies that researched and, if necessary, invented a glorious Turkish past that would instill pride in the country's citizens. The official policy of Turkish nationalistic indoctrination has been largely effective. Most citizens, regardless of their non-Turkish ancestry, self-identify as Turks both ethnically and nationally, with the exception of some Kurds.

Ethnic Relations. After the post-World War I Treaty of Laussane, only Christian Armenians, Orthodox Greeks, and Jews were allowed to maintain their religious and educational institutions. Since 1999, the only non-Turkish languages taught in public schools have been western European languages and Arabic.

About half the Kurds reside in southeastern Turkey, their traditional homeland. Most of those in other regions have become Turkified though education, work, military service, and intermarriage. Since the 1970s, a growing number of Kurds have rediscovered their non-Turkish roots, based in part on Kurdish, an Indo-European language related to Persian.

Although the use of Kurdish in public speech and print has been legal since 1991, prosecutors often arrest Kurdish speakers and confiscate Kurdish publications under the Anti-Terror Law, which prohibits the dissemination of separatist propaganda. Prosecutors also have used other parts of the criminal code to limit ethnic expression. As of 1999, Kurdish-language broadcasts remained illegal. The Sanliurfa (southeastern Turkey) branch of the Mesopotamian Cultural Center, a corporation established to promote the Kurdish language and culture, was banned in 1997 by the provincial governor. In 1997, the governor's office in Istanbul refused the Kurdish Culture and Research Foundation permission to offer Kurdish-language classes.

In June 2000, a Turkish court convicted Abdullah Ocalan, the leader of the PKK, of murder and sentenced him to death. Kurds in Turkey, Europe, and other countries demonstrated in support of him. Ocalan has appealed the sentence to the European Court of Human Rights. Should Turkey impose the death penalty on Ocalan, its relations with its Kurdish citizens will become severely strained.

In recent years, Georgians, Circassians, and Laz have been attempting to revive their non-Turkish languages and cultural traditions within the limits allowed by Turkish law. In the early 1990s, a group of Georgian Turks began publishing Çveneburi ,a cultural journal devoted to Georgian poetry, literature, and folklore. These peoples consider themselves Muslims and Turkish citizens with non-Turkish Ottoman ancestries.

The vast majority of citizens, however, share a common Turkish culture with some regional, urban–rural, social class, and ethnic variations. There has been a good deal of intermarriage, especially among Sunni Muslims with different ethnic backgrounds. The state accepts all citizens as Turks. There are no official legal, educational, or employment disabilities associated with ethnicity and no system of ethnic identity cards.

Turkey has expressed concern for the treatment of Turkic peoples in neighboring countries, such as Bulgaria, Iraq, and Iran. However, Turkey is concerned primarily with the rights of Turks in Europe. Turkey is an associate member of the European Union. Since the 1960s, millions of its citizens have immigrated to western European countries to work, and only a small percentage have received European citizenship. Consequently, Turkey has about three million citizens living in Europe.

For Ankara, this overseas workforce has been a mixed blessing. While many send back hard currency to their relatives, many are exposed to political and religious ideas that are prohibited in Turkey. For example, about 20 to 25 percent of Turkish citizens in Europe are Kurds; many were not aware of their ethnic roots until they were educated by Kurdish nationalists there. Kurdish nationalists have also won the sympathy of many Europeans. The forms of cultural suppression exercised by the Turkish government violate the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, a treaty that Ankara has ratified and is obligated to respect.

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space. Architecture and the use of space have been influenced by economic factors, political ideology, environment, tradition, and foreign ideas. Ottoman architecture with its Byzantine and Islamic elements represented a clear cultural expression of the imperial past. Leaders of the new republic wanted a different architecture that would proclaim their new vision of a Western, secular nation-state. One goal of the republic was to catch up with the material culture and technology of the West. Hence, they turned to western Europe to help create a new capital in Ankara.

Ankara represented a tabula rasa on which a new Turkish order could be constructed. In the early 1920s, it was an insignificant town of 20,000 people, with narrow winding streets and simple mud-brick houses. During the early years of the republic, Ankara was transformed with monumental government buildings symbolizing the ambitions and power of the new state.

Although some early building designs maintained a nostalgic association with the Ottoman past, modern architects and government officials regarded that style as inappropriate. Contemporary architectural styles, inspired by Europe, began to replace Ottoman revivalism in institutional building after 1927. In the late 1920s and early 1930s in part as a result of an economic crisis, the government favored drab forms of international architecture influenced by the Bauhaus school.

In the pre–World War II period, the monumental official architecture of the German and Italian regimes became dominant. Ankara's Grand National Assembly building (1938–1960) manifested the spirit of National Socialist architecture. In the area of housing, a "Republican Bourgeoisie" consisting of highly paid military and civilian officials played an important role in the acceptance of modern architecture. Western buildings with indoor plumbing and electricity fit their search for a contemporary lifestyle without ties to the past.

After World War II, the International Style became more common. Its site plans were typified by functional geometric elements, and its building facades employed grid systems. The Istanbul Hilton Hotel (1952) became an influential and highly copied example of this style.

In the 1960s, the Bauhaus school with its emphasis on mass production influenced the construction of middle-class urban housing in Ankara and some other cities. Turkey's first skyscraper, a commercial office building, was constructed in 1959 in Ankara. Since that time, modern skyscrapers and high-rise government, commercial, and apartment buildings have transformed most major cities. Since the 1950s, modern urban centers have been ringed by expanding squatter settlements ( gecekondus )of substandard housing constructed quickly by peasants from rural areas. Today between 50 and 60 percent of Turkey's urban population consists of gecekondu residents.

Housing styles in small towns and villages are determined by tradition, family structure, environment, local building materials, and income. There is considerable variety in external appearance by region.

Most homes are divided in a selamlîk (a public reception room) and a harem (private family quarters). In traditional households, male guests are confined to the selamlîk , where they converse with the male members of the household, while women stay in the harem . Many traditional homes also have an enclosed garden or courtyard where females can perform some of their domestic duties and chat with neighbors.

In small towns and villages, males dominate public space while females dominate the private space of the home. In the mosque, females pray in an area apart from and outside the view of males. It is not uncommon for movie theaters, restaurants, beaches, and public parks to have a "bachelors" section for males and a "family" section for families and single females. In public transportation conveyances, it is not considered proper for a male to take a seat next to an unrelated female. In recent years, many of these restrictions have been eased in major cities, but coffeehouses and some bars remain exclusively male domains.

Food and Economy

In the winter, many Turks eat a breakfast of bread with hot soup. In the warmer seasons, they commonly eat bread and jam, hard- or soft-boiled eggs, a white cheese made from sheep's milk, salty olives, and warm milk or hot tea with milk. A typical noon meal consists of vegetable and meat stew with a side dish of rice or bulgar pilaf and salad, with fruit for desert. Borek or dolma may substitute for the stew. Sweet deserts, such as baklava, are served on special occasions. The evening meal is usually lighter, consisting of leftovers from noon or a kebab with salad. Ordinarily, only water is drunk with the noon and evening meals.

Food preferences and preparations vary by region and ethnicity. For example, the Black Sea is noted for fish, especially anchovy, dishes, while the eastern region is noted for spicy foods. Circassians are famous for preparing chicken in a walnut sauce, while Georgian cuisine is typified by thick corn bread and corn soup. Lahmacun , or Armenian pizza, originated in the southeastern provinces once occupied by Armenians.

All cities have numerous restaurants and snack stands. Many specialize in a limited number of foods, such as kebabs, soups, meat wraps made with pide (a flat bread), pastries, and fish. Others offer a variety of meals, including stews, pilafs, vegetables, and deserts. Inexpensive restaurants cater to workingmen, who commonly eat only breakfast and the evening meal at home. Higher-class restaurants generally set aside a section for females and families. American fast-food chains have become popular in the large cities.

The major food taboo in Turkey is pork, which is forbidden to Muslims. Although the Koran also forbids alcoholic beverages, many Turks drink beer, wine, and liquors. Certain segments of the Muslim population regard other foods as taboo even though their religion does not prohibit them. For example, Yürüks, a formerly nomadic Turkish people, avoid all seafood with the exception of fish. Members of the Alevi sect of Islam do not eat rabbit because it menstruates. Turks in the northwestern province of Balikesir avoid snails, claiming incorrectly that the Koran forbids their consumption.

For the holy month of Ashure , which comes after the Feast of Ramadan, many households prepare a pudding called Ashure to share with guests, friends, and neighbors. According to tradition, Ashure must contain at least fifteen different ingredients, such as peas, beans, almonds, cereals, rice, raisins, rosewater, pomegranate seeds, orange peels, figs, and cinnamon. Throughout much of Turkey, wedding soup, a preparation of lamb meat with bone, egg, lemon juice, flour, butter, and red pepper, is served at wedding celebrations.

Turkish beverages include tea drunk throughout the day, thick coffee usually taken after a meal, ayran (buttermilk), boza (a fermented bulgur drink taken in the winter), and rakî (an aniseed-flavored brandy usually mixed with water). Carbonated drinks have become popular with young people, and beer gardens in major cities have become hangouts for men.

Basic Economy. Turkey is self-sufficient in food production. Fishers, farmers, and animal husbandry workers produce a wide variety of fish, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and meat for consumers. However, malnutrition affects some of the urban poor and small segments of the rural population in the southeastern region.

In 1996, agriculture contributed 15 percent to the gross national product and 43.1 percent of the labor force was engaged in agriculture. Turkey exports cereals, pulses, industrial crops, sugar, nuts, fresh and dried fruits, vegetables, olive oil, and livestock products. In the early 1990s agricultural products accounted for 15 percent of total exports. However, if one includes cotton and wool, agriculture's contribution to total exports is even greater.

Since 1984, Turkey has liberalized its policy on food imports. Daily products and luxury food items, especially from European Union countries, are available in most large cities.

Most farmers produce for both domestic consumption and sale. Very few are self-sufficient. The vast majority rely on a well-established network of local and regional markets as well as large wholesalers to sell their surplus product. They then buy food and manufactured items from the proceeds.

Land Tenure and Property. Between the 1920s and 1970, the government distributed more than three million hectares of mostly state land to landless peasants. Although no comprehensive property surveys have been conducted, it is believed that most farm families own some land. According to the data in a 1980 agricultural census, 78 percent of farms had five hectares or less and together accounted for 60 percent of all farmland. Twenty-three percent of farms were between five and twenty hectares and accounted for 18 percent of all farmland. Fewer than 4 percent exceeded a hundred hectares, but they amounted to 15 percent of the farmland.

Less than one-fifth of farmers lease or sharecrop the land they till. Sharecroppers generally receive half the crop, with the remainder going to landlords, who supply seed and fertilizer. Most villages have common pastures for the residents' herd animals. In the past, southeastern Anatolia had feudal landlords who owned entire villages.

Many large farms have been converted into modern agricultural enterprises that employ machinery, irrigation, and chemical fertilizers. Such farms concentrate on high-value fruits and industrial crops and employ land-poor farmers. Since the 1950s, the mechanization of agriculture has reduced the need for farm labor, causing many villagers to migrate to the cities.

Trade. Since the 1980s, trade has played an increasingly important role in the economy. Turkey's entrance into a customs union agreement with the European Union (EU) in 1995 facilitated trade with EU countries. In 1997, recorded exports amounted to $26 billion (U.S.), with unrecorded exports estimated at $5.8 billion. The major export commodities were textiles and apparel (37 percent), iron and steel products (10 percent), and foodstuffs (17 percent). The major export partners were Germany (20 percent), the United States (8 percent), Russia (8 percent), the United Kingdom (6 percent), and Italy (5 percent).

Imports were valued at $46.7 billion (U.S.) in 1997. Import commodities included machinery (26 percent), fuels (13 percent), raw materials (10 percent), and foodstuffs (4 percent). The primary import partners were Germany (16 percent), Italy (9 percent), the United States (9 percent), France (6 percent), and the United Kingdom (6 percent).

Division of Labor. Most jobs are assigned on the basis of age, skill, education, gender, and in some cases kinship. There are many small family-owned and -operated businesses in towns and cities. In those businesses, young people, especially sons, are trained from an early age to operate the enterprise. Until the 1960s, many young people, especially males, learned their skills in the traditional apprentice system. Today the Ministry of Education operates thousands of basic and advanced vocational and technical schools for males and females.

Turkey has numerous universities where students of both sexes study to become businesspersons, doctors, engineers, lawyers, teachers, accountants, bankers, and architects. Civil service jobs require applicants to meet educational requirements and pass a written examination.

Turkish law generally prohibits the employment of children under 15 years of age, except that those who are 13 and 14 may do light, part-time work if they are enrolled in school or vocational training. In practice, the children of poor families work to earn needed income. Aside from farm labor, underage boys work in tea gardens as waiters, auto repair shops, and small wood and metal craft industries. Underage girls generally work at home at handicrafts.

Social Stratification

Classes and Castes. The most important determinants of social status are wealth and education. The basic categories include the wealthy urban educated class, the urban middle class, the urban lower class, the large rural landowner class, and the general rural population. A university education is the minimum qualification for entry into the urban educated class, in which there are numerous substrata.

Distinctions can be drawn between the urban upper and urban middle classes. The urban upper class includes several groups with high status determined by education, political influence, and wealth. Wealthy businessmen are accorded very high status, as are successful physicians, cabinet ministers, and many members of the assembly, directors of important government departments, and other high-level officials. Since World War II, businessmen have challenged the old military–bureaucratic elite for power and social prestige. Members of the urban upper class are generally westernized; most speak at least one Western language, are well acquainted with European or American life and culture, and have close contact with the diplomatic and foreign business communities.

The urban middle class includes most civil servants, proprietors of medium-size businesses and industries, many persons in service occupations, some skilled workers, and university students. These groups usually are less westernized than the upper class and more oriented to Turkish culture. The urban middle class also includes virtually the entire upper strata of the provincial cities. There is considerable mobility within the urban educated class.

The urban lower class includes semiskilled and unskilled laborers, low-paid service workers, and the urban unemployed. The high rate of migration of young villagers to urban areas makes this the most rapidly growing class. Many migrants have difficulty finding jobs, and others work only seasonally. Many live in poverty in the shantytowns that ring the major cities. Urbanization continues as the rural population grows and urban industry offers better incomes.

Some 30 percent of the population are rural farmers, often referred to as peasants. Improved communications and transportation have brought them into closer contact with towns and cities. Educational efforts since 1923 succeeded in bringing the national literacy level up to 82.3 percent by 1995, although the rural literacy level is lower. Some eastern rural areas are still dominated by large landowners, traditional clan heads, and religious leaders. Young villagers who migrate to towns and cities cannot find their way into the middle class unless they receive further education.

Symbols of Social Stratification. Most men of all social classes have adopted Western styles of dress, including trousers, shirts, and jackets. Men and women in the upper and middle urban classes pay attention to Western fashions. They also live in high-priced apartments and try to possess Western luxury items, such as cars, electronic devices, cell phones, and computers. They have developed a taste for Western literature and music and attend musical events and plays. The upper class favors European-language high schools and universities; the middle class is more satisfied with standard Turkish educational institutions. Both classes prefer to speak an educated Istanbul style of standard Turkish.

Most members of the lower urban classes live in shantytowns. Only a small proportion have graduated from high school ( lise ). The women tend to wear traditional conservative clothing, including head scarves and long coats, even in the summer. They favor Turkish and Middle Eastern music. The peasant and rural classes are the least exposed to Western and urban influences in dress, styles, language, and music. They, like the lower urban class, tend to speak Turkish with regional accents and grammatical peculiarities. The women wear conservative peasant dress consisting of baggy pantaloons and head scarves.

Political Life

Government. The government operates under the 1982 constitution. All the constitutions (1924, 1961, and 1982) were written and adopted while military leaders were in control. The 1982 constitution states that "Turkey is a democratic, secular and social State . . . loyal to the nationalism of Atatürk" (Article 2). "The Turkish State, with its territory and nation, is an indivisible entity. Its language is Turkish" (Article 3).

The constitution enumerates a long list of civil and political rights but subordinates them to considerations of "national security," "national unity," and "public morality." It also allows the government to impose emergency rule or martial law. The constitution establishes a popularly elected single-chamber national assembly with full legislative powers, a prime minister and cabinet responsible to the national assembly, and a constitutional court with the power of judicial review. It provides for a president with extensive executive powers and legislative veto authority who is elected by the assembly for a seven-year term.

There is a wide array of political parties. It is illegal for parties to appeal to religion, advocate the establishment of a religious state, or claim to represent a class or ethnic group. In recent elections, no party has been able to win more than 22 percent of the vote, leading to coalition governments.

Turkey is divided administratively into eighty provinces ( iller ), which are subdivided into subprovinces ( ilçeler ), which in turn are divided into districts ( bucaklar ). A governor ( vali ) appointed by the minister of the interior heads each province and represents the state. Locally elected representative bodies at the village, city, and provincial levels also play governing roles.

Leadership and Political Officials. Most of Turkey's political leaders have been high-ranking military officers, university professors, or successful businessmen. Many provincial governors are former generals or career civil servants who graduated from Ankara University's public administration program. The military elite sees itself as the protector of the constitution and Atatürk's principles. It has formal influence over governmental matters through the National Security Council, which is composed of the prime minister; the chief of the general staff; the ministers of national defense, the interior, and foreign affairs; and the commanders of the armed forces and the gendarmerie. This body sets national security policy.

Military leaders have been especially concerned about threats to secularism and the unity of the state and nation. In 1997, the militarily dominated National Security Council presented the prime minister, Necmettin Erbakan, with twenty demands, including closing religious lodges, enforcing laws prohibiting religious dress in public, closing some state-supported religious schools, cooling relations with Iran, and curtailing the activities of religious organizations.

Citizens often petition elected officials for favors or aid. Unless they are personally acquainted with an official, they convey a petition through a friend or sponsor who knows an official, a member of his or her family, or one of his or her friends.

Turkish law prohibits communist and religious parties. The parties range from socialist (Democratic Left Party), to moderately conservative and free enterprise (Motherland Party), to right-wing ultranationalistic (Nationalist Action Party), to near-religious (Virtue Party).

Social Problems and Control. Internal security and law enforcement are handled primarily by the national police in urban areas and the gendarmerie in rural areas. However, in areas under a state of emergency or martial law, the gendarmerie functions under the military. The national police are armed and authoritarian in demeanor. They have been accused of treating arrested persons roughly to obtain information or confessions during incommunicado detention. The government has instituted human rights training for the police.

The gendarmerie maintains security outside municipal boundaries and guards land borders against illegal entry and smuggling. Recruits are supplied through military conscription. Gendarmes have been subject to the same criticisms as the national police.

Turkey abandoned Islamic law and adopted the Italian penal code in 1926. Serious crimes include premeditated homicide, theft, arson, armed robbery, embezzlement of state property, perjury, and rape. Political speech insulting the president, the military, and parliament has been criminalized. The antiterror law criminalizes written and oral propaganda, meetings, and demonstrations aimed at damaging the unity of the state.

The death penalty can be imposed for certain crimes against the state and premeditated murder, but there have been no executions since 1984. Conviction for a serious felony can disqualify one from holding public office, voting, and practicing certain professions.

Compared to other Middle Eastern countries, the incidence of ordinary crime is low. The most common felonies resulting in incarceration in 1991 were crimes against property (8,360), crimes against individuals (5,879), and crimes against "public decency and family order" (2,681). Every year an unknown number of people are incarcerated for illegal political activity and thought crimes, such as advocating an Islamic state or cultural rights for an ethnic minority.

Military Activity. The Turkish military plays political, cultural, and security roles. Military leaders created the republic in 1923, replaced civilian governments in 1960 and 1980, and forced a civilian government out of office in 1971. Because of universal male conscription, the military is a major national socialization agent for young men of different regions, classes, and ethnicities.

Since joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1952, Turkey has maintained a large military consisting of land forces, navy, air force, coast guard, and gendarmerie. In 1994, it had 503,800 officers and enlisted men on active duty. Defense is usually the largest category in the national budget; from 1981 to 1991, it averaged 20 percent of total government expenditures.

Social Welfare and Change Programs

In 1998, the government estimated that 81.3 percent of the population were covered by state social security and retirement services. Employers pay insurance premiums for work-related injuries, occupational diseases, and maternity leave; employers and employees pay premiums to cover illness, disability, retirement, and death benefits. The government also offers social security insurance to the self-employed and operates orphanages. Local associations or nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) associated with mosques and crafts also provide welfare to the needy.

Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

One of the most important NGOs is the Army Mutual Assistance Foundation (OYAK), created in 1962. It controls a huge investment fund of obligatory and voluntary contributions from military personnel and investment profits. It has invested substantially in the auto, truck, tractor, and tire industries; the petrochemical, cement, and food processing industries; and retail and service enterprises. Through OYAK, the Turkish military became partners with foreign and domestic investors and shares their economic interests. Because of OYAK's investments, the economic security of thousands of active and retired armed forces personnel became dependent on the profitability of large capitalistic enterprises. Consequently, military corporate interests expanded into the areas of labor law, trade unionism, trade and monetary policy, corporate taxation, tariffs, investment banking, and related matters.

Other major NGOs include the Turkish Trade Association, representing the interests of merchants, industrialists, and commodity brokers; the Turkish Confederation of Employers' Unions, representing employers; and the Confederation of Turkish Trade Unions, representing labor. In addition, NGOs exist for practically every interest group in crafts, sports, social issues, education, religion, and the arts.

Gender Roles and Statuses

Division of Labor by Gender. Turkish law guarantees equal pay for equal work and has opened practically all educational programs and occupations to women. Exceptions are the religious schools that train imams (Islamic prayer leaders) and the job of imam itself. In general, men dominate the high-status occupations in business, the military, government, the professions, and academia. According to traditional values, women should do domestic work and not work in the public arena or with unrelated men. However, women have begun to work more in public.

Lower-class women generally have worked as maids, house cleaners, women's tailors, seamstresses, child care givers, agricultural laborers, and nurses, but in the early 1990s, about 20 percent of factory employees and many store clerks were women. Middle-class women commonly are employed as teachers and bank tellers, while upper-class women work as doctors, lawyers, engineers, and university teachers. Only a small percentage of women are politicians.

Men work in all these fields but avoid the traditional nonagricultural occupations of lower-class women. Men monopolize the officer ranks in the military and the transportation occupations of pilot and taxi, truck, and bus driver. In urban areas, lower-class men work in crafts, manufacturing, and low-paid service industries. Middle-class men work as teachers, accountants, businessmen, and middle-level managers. Upper-class men work as university teachers, professionals, upper-level managers, businessmen, and entrepreneurs.

Marriage, Family, and Kinship

Marriage. Turks expect adults to marry and have children, and the vast majority do. Because men should not lower their wives' standard of living, they are not supposed to marry women of a higher economic class. People generally marry within their own religious sect and ethnic group, although interethnic marriages among Sunni Muslims are not uncommon. In traditional Turkish society, the selection of spouses and the marriage ceremony were controlled by kin groups. During the premarital process, the individuals to be married played minor roles. The rituals, especially the imam marriage ceremony, were essential for a morally and socially acceptable marriage.

In 1926, the revolutionary Turkish government abolished Islamic family law and adopted a slightly modified version of the family law in the Swiss civil code. The new Family Law requires and recognizes civil marriage ceremonies only. It requires the consent of mature individuals for a binding marriage contract and prescribes monogamy only. Even though the law prohibits parents from entering into engagement or marital agreements on behalf of their children, arranged marriages without the consent of the brides have been somewhat common. In a 1968 survey, 11.4 percent of women said their marriages had been arranged by their families without their consent, while 67 percent said they had had family-arranged marriages with their consent. The figures for the unconsented arranged marriages ranged from 7.7 percent for women living in Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir to 11.3 percent to 12.5 percent for women living in smaller cities, towns, and villages. An impressive 49.9 percent of the husbands surveyed said their fathers or other relatives had made the final decision about their marriages. This response category ranged from 59.1 percent for village men to 15.3 percent for men in Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir. Today the vast majority of marriages occur with the couple's consent, but families still play a role recommending and screening potential spouses, especially for their daughters.

Even though divorce is not considered an Islamic sin, it occurs infrequently. Divorcees, especially men with children, quickly remarry, usually to divorced women. The new code eliminated a husband's Islamic prerogative of verbal and unilateral divorce and prescribed a court proceeding. The law recognizes only six grounds for divorce: adultery; plot against life, grave assaults, and insults; crime or a dishonorable life; desertion; mental infirmity; and incompatibility. The evidentiary requirements are so substantial that establishing one of these grounds has proved difficult. A couple cannot divorce by mutual consent.

Domestic Unit, Inheritance, and Kin Groups. Traditionally, most Turks traced their descent and passed on property, especially homes and land, through the male line. Even though most households have always contained only one nuclear family, the ideal household, especially among the rural and urban wealthy, was patrilocal extended, in which a son and his bride lived in his parents' home after marriage. The basic kinship units are the family ( aile ) and the household ( hane ). Household members normally eat together and share income and expenses. The next larger unit is the patrilineage ( sulale ), consisting of relatives connected intergenerationally by a common male ancestor. While patrilineage is important to old, noble Ottoman families and tribal peoples, it is of little significance to most Turks.

The traditional Turkish household is characterized by male dominance, respect for elders, and female subservience. The father or oldest male is the head, an authority figure who demands respect and obedience. The mother is also respected, but her relationship with her children is warm and informal.

Although supreme authority ordinarily rests with the father, the household is usually mother-centered. The mother, being largely confined to the home, manages and directs its internal affairs. The division of labor has traditionally been clear-cut, with women having responsibility for the internal home, and men providing the income and representing the household to the outside world. Before the 1960s, even grocery shopping was a male duty.

In recent decades, much of this has changed. The new Family Law grants women equal rights to private property and inheritance. A larger percentage of women work outside the home, and educated women demand more equal rights.

Socialization

Women are very protective of their children. Breast-feeding for a year or more is common. The child commonly sleeps in a hammock or crib near the parents. Boys are socialized to be courageous, assertive, proud, and respectful of elders. When they undergo a painful circumcision ceremony between ages 9 and 12, they are told to be as brave as lions. Girls are socialized to be modest, compliant, supportive of males, virtuous, and skilled in domestic tasks. Fathers are authoritarian disciplinarians; mothers are generally loving and nurturing.

Every woman rejoices when giving birth to a son, because that event increases her status in the eyes of her husband, in-laws, and community. She usually pampers her son, who remains close to her until age 10 or 11, after which he spends most of his time with other males and identifies more closely with men. Mothers and daughters are especially close, as daughters usually spend much of their premarital lives close to their mothers, learning domestic skills: Generally, the father–daughter relationship is rather formal, with little public displaying of affection. Although a daughter or son may argue or joke with the mother, they are respectful and subdued in the father's presence.

During prepubescence, relations between brothers and sisters are free and easy. Later, their statuses change as the older sibling takes on some of the rights and duties of a parent. The older sister ( abla ) becomes like a second mother, loved for her warmth and affection. The older brother ( agabey ) assumes the helpful but authoritarian status of a minor father. In extended families, grandparents, especially grandmothers, provide a good deal of child care.

School attendance is compulsory to age 14. The first day of class constitutes an important rite of passage. The children are dressed in black smocks with white collars and taken to school with pomp and ceremony. Most families that can afford it, keep their children in school beyond age 14. Most would like to see their children, especially their sons, complete university, but this is rarely possible for poor families.

Formal etiquette is central to Turkish culture, governing most social interactions and the use of space. Turkish culture has an exact verbal formula for practically every occasion. Etiquette requires the pronouncement of the proper formulas for these occasions.

Strict etiquette governs intergenerational and heterosexual interactions. Unless they are close friends or relatives, older people are addressed formally. For example, older men should be addressed with the title "Bey" (Mister) and women with the title "Hanim" (Lady). Younger people are expected to be reserved in their presence. Adults of the opposite sex are expected not to act casually or show affection toward each other in public. Friends of the same sex may hold hands and greet each other with kisses on the cheek. Upon meeting, men shake hands, but a man does not shake a woman's hand unless she extends it to him.

People are not criticized for being late. Business meetings usually are preceded by tea and unrelated conversation. Consideration for companions is important. One does not drink, smoke, or eat something without first offering to share it with one's companions.

Homes are divided into guest and private areas, and it is improper to ask for a tour of the house. The soles of shoes are considered dirty, and shoes are removed when one enters a home or mosque.

Religious Beliefs. Islamic tradition, ideology, and ritual are very important. About 98 percent of Turkey's citizens are nominally Muslims, of whom about 80 to 85 percent are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and 15 to 20 percent are members of Shiite sects (mostly Alevi). Turkish Muslims recognize the standard Islamic creed and duties, but only the most religious fast or make a pilgrimage to Mecca. Four percent of Turks identify themselves as atheists, and 4 percent as agnostics.

For most Turks, Islam plays an important role in rites of passage: naming shortly after birth, circumcision for boys, marriage, and funerals. The state controls religious education and most religious personnel by supervising the schools that train Sunni imams and certifying imams as state employees who work in community mosques.

In recent decades, a revival of fundamental Islam has been supported by about 20 percent of the population. A small proportion of the population participates in Sufi orders and brotherhoods.

The most important events in the Turkey's Islamic calendar are Ramazan , the lunar month of fast; Kadir Gecesi (Night of Power), the twenty-seventh day of Ramazan , when Mohammad was appointed the messenger of Allah; Sheker Bayram a three-day national holiday at the end of Ramazan in which people exchange visits and candy; and Kurban Bayram (Feast of Sacrifice), a four-day national holiday held during the lunar month of Hajj (Pilgrimage) to commemorate Abraham's willingness to sacrifice Isaac. As many as 2.5 million sheep have been sacrificed in Turkey on this holiday; most of the meat is shared with neighbors and donated to the poor.

Medicine and Health Care. Modern Western medical services have expanded significantly over the past two decades. The Ministry of Health is authorized to provide medical care and preventive health services, train health personnel, establish and operate hospitals and clinics, inspect private health facilities, and regulate pharmacies. In 1995, Turkey had 12,500 health facilities and a doctor for every 1,200 persons. The incidence of measles, pertussis, typhoid fever, and diphtheria has declined markedly since the 1970s. Infant mortality declined from 120 per 1,000 in 1980 to 55 per 1,000 in 1992. In rural areas, midwives deliver most babies.

Most urban dwellers have access to public health facilities, but many rural citizens do not. In the countryside and among recent migrants to the cities, folk medicine is still practiced. Peasant women learn folk medicine involving herbs, spices, prayers, and rituals from their mothers and apply it to family members instead of or in addition to modern medicine. Traditionally, some men specialized in folk medicine as well.

Secular Celebrations

The major secular celebrations and official holidays begin with New Year's Day on 1 January, an adoption from the West. Many people exchange greetings cards, and some celebrate in a Western fashion. National Sovereignty Day on 23 April commemorates the first meeting of the Grand National Assembly. Because 23 April is also National Children's Day, much of the day is devoted to children's activities such as dances and music recitals. Youth and Sport Day, commemorating Atatürk's birth, is celebrated on 19 May. Victory Day, celebrating victorious battles during Turkey's War of Independence, is observed on 30 August. Republic Day, 29 October, commemorates Atatürk's proclamation of the republic in 1923. Both Victory Day and Republic Day are celebrated with patriotic parades, music, and speeches.

The Arts and Humanities

Support for the Arts. The Ministry of Culture has implemented a policy of promoting nonreligious Turkish and Western art. It provides a limited number of scholarships for the study of art and music in Europe, especially France. The ministry also supports the Academy of Fine Arts and art museums in the major cities. Most artists come from the middle and upper classes in major cities. Graphic artists rely primarily on major corporations and the upper class to buy their work. They sell through private exhibition and a limited number of art shops. Traditional craft artists who produce ceramics, rugs and kilims, brass and copper ornaments, and embroidery have a broader market for their work. Most sculptors rely largely on state commissions.

Literature. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, Turkish literature centered on the Ottoman court, which produced poetry and some prose. This literature represented a fusion of Persian, Arabic, and Turkish classical styles. Western influences were introduced in the 1860s by a group of intellectuals who attempted to combine Western cultural forms with a more simple form of the Turkish language. This westernizing trend continued throughout the nineteenth century and became more pronounced just before World War I. After 1923, the republic produced an impressive number of novelists, poets, singers, musicians, and artists. Novelists who gained international fame include Halide Edib, Resat Nuri Güntekin, and, more recently, Orhan Pamuk. Several important works dealt with village life, ranging from Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoglu's Yaban ( The Stranger ) in the 1930s to Mahmut Makal's A Village in Anatolia , and Yasar Kemal's Mehmet My Hawk , which won world recognition in 1961.

Orhan Veli generally is considered the father of modern Turkish poetry, which has been characterized by a rebellion against rigidly prescribed forms and a preoccupation with immediate perception. Some poets have experimented with obscurantist forms and ideas; many others have expressed concern for social democratic issues.

Graphic Arts. Western influence in the graphic arts began in the late Ottoman period with the founding of the Fine Arts Academy in Istanbul, which continues to be staffed by European and European-educated Turkish artists. In the republican periods, Turkish art has involved a mixture of Western and indigenous styles. Practically all artists of note have studied at the academy or in Europe. Some have imitated European forms, while others have searched for a Turkish style and portray Turkish themes such as village and urban scenes in a representational manner. Many sculptors receive state commissions to create monumental works depicting Atatürk and other patriotic themes.

Performance Arts. Foreign plays outnumber Turkish works in the theater, but theater attendance has grown in recent decades and many Turkish playwrights who combine Western techniques with Turkish social issues have had an opportunity to present their works.

Both Ankara and Istanbul have well-respected opera companies. The Presidential Symphony Orchestra gives concerts both in Ankara and on tour. Ankara and Istanbul have music conservatories that include schools of ballet. Several Turkish composers, of whom the best known is Adnan Saygun, have won acclaim in Europe and America for fusing Turkish folk themes with Western forms.

The Istanbul Music Conservatory has taken steps to preserve authentic folk music by recording it in all parts of the country. Annual folk arts festivals in Istanbul present a wide variety of Turkish music and dance.

The State of the Physical and Social Sciences

Most scientific research is carried out at a few universities in Ankara, Istanbul, and Izmir. The government funds two-thirds of it. The Technology Development Foundation of Turkey provides grants for industrial research and development (R&D) activities, mostly in electronics, telecommunications, and environmental technologies. The Ministry of Rural Affairs and the Ministry of Housing and Settlement provide funds for social scientific research.

Practically all Turkish leaders in the natural, social, and engineering sciences have received some education abroad, particularly in the United States. Turkey obtains much of its technology for the food-processing, metals, and textiles sectors from abroad. The Supreme Council for Science and Technology, the science and technology policy-making body, sets R&D targets for high-priority activities: information, advanced materials, biotechnology, space, and nuclear technology.

The number of scientific researchers was estimated at 8 per 10,000 members of the labor force in 1992. Almost three-quarters, or 30,172, of those researchers were in universities; basic science (10 percent), engineering (20 percent), health science (34 percent), agriculture (7 percent), social science and humanities (29 percent). Turkey's only school of social work and research is at Ankara's Hacettepe University.

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—P AUL J. M AGNARELLA

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Turkish Travel Blog

Turkish People, Culture, History, and Places inTurkey

All About Turkey – General Travel and Lifestyle Information

When learning general information about Turkey , get ready because this beautiful country surprises everyone with ancient traditions, friendly Turkish culture, historical sites, delicious foods, and stunning landscapes. Sitting between East and west every day, I consider myself lucky to lead this lifestyle in an incredibly diverse and exciting country. I have travelled around many destinations and seen places that portray the world’s diversity and why Turkey is unique.

General Information About Turkey

Interesting Facts About Turkey

• Tulips originated from Turkey and not Holland. With the Ottoman sultan’s approval, traders took them to Holland in the 16th Century. To see evidence of this, look at Islamic art made before then. Some original Turkish carpets also feature tulips in their regional patterns that portray folklore traditions.
• St Nicolas, otherwise known as Santa Claus, originated from Turkey. When he was around, Turkey’s Southern Coast was under Greek rule. Out of all facts about Turkey, this surprises the most.
• England’s patron Saint, St George, originated from Turkey. He was born in Cappadocia and later lived in Palestine. He was a Roman soldier however objected to the Romans persecution of Christians.
• Some historians say Noah’s ark landed on Mount Ararat in Turkey. Many archaeologists and scientists make their way to this mountain to discover remains.
• Istanbul, Turkey’s biggest city, sits on two continents. 3% is in Europe, and the rest in Asia. The 20-mile-long Bosporus divides the two parts.
• The oldest church, called St Peters, is in Antakya. Today the church is a museum; however, it still holds services with special permission.
• Turkey is a self-sufficient country. If trade with other countries ceased, citizens would have access to all food, fuel, and energy.
• In the late 1950s, a nun dreamt about the Virgin Mary’s last resting place. She directed archaeologists to a house in the Selcuk mountains. Archaeologists discovered a house just like the nun said they would. The late pope visited and verified the house as the Virgin Mary’s last resting place. Today monks and nuns hold Christian services at this well-known tourist attraction and place of worship. While there, drink water from the wishing well, and light a candle in the church.

Is Turkey a Safe Country?

To my surprise, despite Turkey’s record as a top ten-holiday destination, some foreigners are unsure about whether to visit. I met a gentleman in Turkey for the first time, and he was surprised at holidaymakers lying on beaches, drinking beer in beachside bars and youngsters who walked around freely wearing  clothing trends and flashing mobile phones.

Before visiting, he assumed Turkey was much like war-torn Syria and unsafe for foreigners to visit. This is incorrect. Annually 50 million tourists visit Turkey, and many foreign expats live here permanently. Regarding terrorism, firstly, no matter where you live, you are more likely to drown than be a victim of terrorism.

Secondly, Turkish authorities take terrorism seriously and actively crackdown on any cells planning an attack. Regarding crime, I have never experienced it. I live in an Aegean beachside coastal resort, and naturally, in larger towns, crime increases with larger populations. So, do what you would do at home, and do not accept drinks from strangers, only use licensed taxis, inform someone where you go, and be careful after dark. Finally, even though crime is relatively low in Turkey, do not make yourself a victim of opportunity crime.

What is the Lifestyle in Turkey?

Overall, foreigners enjoy friendly welcomes with Turks embracing strangers with warmth. Considering the Turkish lifestyle, several different cultures and lifestyles depend on Turks’ income, and where they live. City Turks have fast-paced lifestyles centred around urban living, while in the Asian North, locals typically farm the land. Additionally, over the last twenty years, the younger generation has openly embraced western trends and lifestyles more than they did before. Thanks to current exchange rates, foreign investors from Europe who live in Turkey have a good lifestyle. To truly understand the lifestyle in Turkey, visit for yourself.

What is Turkey’s Main Religion?

99% of the Turkish population identify as Sunni Muslim; however, remember three crucial factors. Firstly, Turkey is a secular country hence politics and religion are separate. Secondly, not every Turkish person is a practising Muslim. I have seen many Turks drink alcohol and occasionally eat pork. The call to prayer sounds five times a day, and most Turks do not attend every prayer session because they work. The holy day is Friday, so most try to attend then. Thirdly, as you travel around Turkey, you will notice that some areas are more conservative than others. For example, Konya and Kayseri are conventional places, whereas Aegean Izmir is western.

About Turkish National History

Turkey’s colourful history shows evidence of early civilisations everywhere. Empires that ruled for centuries include but are not exclusive to the Lycians, Romans, Greeks, and Selcuk Dynasty. All over Turkey but specifically on the Asia, South West coast are historical sites relating to these periods. One prominent empire to rule was the Ottomans , who ruled for approximately 900 years; however, by 1918, the Ottoman sultans sided with losing countries of the First World War and Allies shared their lands. This prompted the Turkish war of independence led by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. In 1923, the newly formed Turkish government declared independence and formed the Republic of Turkey. Immediately, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk changed the capital, formerly Istanbul, to Ankara in the centre of Turkey. (More information about Turkey’s history .)

About Turkish Culture, Lifestyle and Traditions

Some foreigners who have not visited Turkey before assume the country is third-world. But prominent places like Istanbul, Izmir and Ankara thrive for local and international businesses and European and Middle Eastern tourism. Turkish history also draws influences from Ottoman, Greek and western lifestyles. The Asia, Western and Southern coasts of Turkey and the Istanbul peninsula are mostly known for western trends, while the East features influences from Kurdish lifestyles. Towns in North Turkey boast natural beauty and green hills thanks to copious rainfall. Turkish lifestyle welcomes strangers. Emphasis is on family and friends, and striking up conversations or making friends with Turkish people is easy, no matter which destination you visit. (More information about Turkish lifestyles.)

Information About the Geography of Turkey

Turkey covers 72,454 square kilometres and comprises 81 provinces in Asia and Europe. Four seas border Turkey; the Marmara, Black, Aegean, and Mediterranean. Seven thousand two hundred kilometres of coastline features gorgeous beaches. Countries bordering Turkey include Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Georgia, Greece, Iran, Iraq 352 km, and Syria. There are seven official regions of Turkey, which are….

About the Aegean Coast: Aegean Turkey stretches from the North down the coastline to the boundaries of Marmaris. Also known as the west coast, attractive small resorts dotted along the coastline were previously fishing villages but transformed into popular tourist destinations. They specialise in independent travel, although travel agents sell cheap holiday packages due to mass tourism.

About the Mediterranean : Covering the southern coast, popular holiday destinations include Fethiye and Antalya. The South, Turkey’s most popular beach holiday destination and where many foreign expats live, is Turkey’s hottest geographical zone for temperatures.

About the Marmara region: Covering northwest Turkey, Marmara is home to Istanbul, Turkey’s most prominent metropolis. Additionally, in recent years Bursa and Yalova increased their popularity with independent and middle eastern travellers.

About the Black Sea : Covering the mountainous north coast, prominent places include Rize and Trabzon, and thanks to the significant rainfall, the black sea features beautiful green landscapes and mountain ranges like the Kackar.

About Central Anatolia: Sitting in the heart of Turkey, prominent destinations in central Anatolia are the capital Ankara, Cappadocia and cities of Kayseri and Konya, both conservative hubs and major business destinations.

About Southeast Anatolia: Covering southeast areas, prominent places within south-east Turkey include Mardin, Gaziantep, and Sanliurfa. This conservative region does little tourism simply because the more traditional lifestyle doesn’t feature beaches and night-time bars; however, do visit to explore Turkey’s different cultural side.

About the East: Bordered by Georgia, Iraq, Iran, Azerbaijan and Armenia, prominent places include Van, known for its delicious Turkish breakfast and home to Turkey’s largest lake. Once again, few people head east, but the area gives a great insight into Turkey, off the beaten track. More general information about Turkey and other destinations.

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Turkey is a large peninsula that bridges the continents of Europe and Asia.

Turkey is a large peninsula that bridges the continents of Europe and Asia. Turkey is surrounded on three sides by the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Aegean Sea. Istanbul, the largest city in Turkey, is built on land in the Bosporus seaway. The city is partly in Europe and partly in Asia. Turkey is larger than the state of Texas .

Turkey is one of the most earthquake prone areas on Earth and has suffered from 13 earthquakes in the past 70 years. The North Anatolian Fault extends hundreds of miles from the Sea of Marmara in the western part of the country to the Eastern Anatolian Highlands. The fault moves back and forth about 8 inches (20 centimeters) a year.

Turkey's highest mountain, Mount Ararat has two peaks, with Great Ararat reaching 16,945 feet (5,165 meters). The mountain is considered sacred by many people and is believed to be where Noah beached his ark after the great flood.

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PEOPLE & CULTURE

The Turkish people are from diverse backgrounds, a reminder of the many different groups that conquered Turkey over thousands of years. The majority of the population lives in cities, and children who want to go to high school must move to a city. The people are primarily Sunni Muslim. One fifth of the population is Kurdish.

Children who live in the European side of Istanbul may cross the Bosporus by ferry to visit grandparents in Asia. Turks are family oriented and are very hospitable people. They invite visitors to their homes and make sure they have something to eat and drink before they leave.

One of their favorite meals is kebab made from grilled lamb. Their diet includes lamb, eggplant, and yogurt. A sweet flavored candy with rose petals called Turkish delight, or lokum, is sold in many flavors and colors.

To find work, about two million Turks are currently guest workers in Germany and have formed their own communities there.

Soccer is the most popular sport in Turkey. There are three popular teams based in Istanbul. Turks excel at weightlifting and a form of wrestling called Turkish wrestling.

Turkey is a resting location for birds on their migratory journey between their summer and winter homes. They flock to Kus Golu, or Bird Lake in a protected national forest that is surrounded by reed marshes. The first national park in Turkey opened in 1958.

Today there are 39 parks where rare species and their habitats are protected. Several species are at risk, including the northern bald eagle which is critically endangered.

At one time, Turkey was home to jackals, lynx, wolves, and bears but those animal species are rare now. The Turkish horned viper snake has spikelike scales that poke upward near their eyes.

Once known as Cotton Castle, the white cliffs in Pamukkale in western Turkey are made of a calcium-rich mineral called travertine. The cliffs look like a sheet of ice covering a hillside from a distance. A spring flows from pool to pool. The cascade is 1.7 miles (2.7 kilometers) long.

The prime minister is considered the head of the government and is in charge of the country. The Grand National Assembly is a 550-member body that is elected by the people. The Assembly elects the president, a position that is largely ceremonial.

Turkey was a founding member of the United Nations, which was created after World War II. Turkey has been an associate member of the European Union since 1963, but it has not been accepted as a full member. Turkey is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) which is a defense alliance. Because of its location in the Middle East, Turkey is strategic in world affairs.

Kurds in southern Turkey started a guerrilla war in 1984 to create a Kurdish state. In 1995, Turkish troops invaded northern Iraq to attack Kurds.

Turkey is home to one of the earliest settlements in the world. Built 8,800 years ago, Catal Hoyuk was a labyrinth of 150 mud homes joined together. There were no streets in between, so people had to enter the homes through holes in the roof!

About 4,000 years ago, the Hittites created an empire in the central part of what is now called Turkey in Anatolia. They ruled for hundreds of years. The Trojan War took place when the Hittites were losing power. The ruins of the city of Troy are believed to be in the city of Hissarlik in Anatolia.

King Midas ruled western Turkey around 700 B.C. In 334 B.C., Alexander the Great took Anatolia under Macedonian Greek rule until Rome took over and Anatolia became part of Roman Asia Minor. In A.D. 330, Constantine became the Roman emperor and formed a new capital called Constantinople. After the fall of the Roman Empire it became part of the Byzantine Empire.

The city of Constantinople was conquered by the Ottomans in 1453 and Turkey became part of the Ottoman Empire. After World War I, the country was invaded by Greece , which led to the Turkish war of Independence in 1920, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. In 1923, the Turkish assembly declared Turkey a republic.

The city formally became Istanbul in 1923. Turkey became a secular country, meaning there is a separation between religion and government. Women gained the right to vote in 1934.

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The World Bank in Türkiye

Türkiye has quickly adopted measures to help contain the spread of COVID-19 and save lives, whilst providing economic support to affected firms and households. The economic outlook is more uncertain, than usual and will depend on how quickly this unprecedented crisis can be brought under control.

Country Context

Türkiye is the 19th largest economy in the world, with a GDP of roughly $906 billion. It is a member of the OECD and the G20, and an increasingly important donor of official development assistance (ODA).

Türkiye pursued ambitious reforms and enjoyed high growth rates between 2006 and 2017 that propelled the country to the higher reaches of upper-middle-income status and reduced poverty. The share of people below the $6.85 per day poverty line nearly halved to 9.8% between 2006 and 2020. 

However, productivity growth has slowed as reform momentum has waned over the past decade, and efforts have turned to supporting growth with credit booms and demand stimulus, intensifying internal and external vulnerabilities. High private sector debt, persistent current account deficits, high inflation, and high unemployment have been exacerbated by macro-financial instability since August 2018.

In an extension of the strong COVID-19 pandemic recovery, the economy grew at 5.6% in 2022. However, the economy has been losing momentum amidst a deteriorating external environment and heterodox monetary policies. Two devastating earthquakes struck on February 6, 2023: beyond the human tragedy, physical damage in 11 provinces accounting for 16.4% of Türkiye’s population and 9.4% of its economy. Direct losses are estimated at $34.2 billion, but the reconstruction needs could be double. The earthquakes added pressures to an increasingly fragile macro-financial situation. Pre-election spending and reconstruction efforts are expected to support growth, which is forecast at 3.2% in 2023 and 4.3% in 2024.

Last Updated: Oct 09, 2023

The partnership between Türkiye and the World Bank Group (WBG) is outlined in the Country Partnership Framework (CPF) , which was initially designed to cover the FY18–21 period but was updated and extended to include FY22–23 through the Performance and Learning Review (PLR) in 2020. The PLR confirmed that CPF objectives remain valid and ensured continued alignment with the government strategies including the 11th Development Plan (DP, 2019-2023) and the New Economic Program (launched in 2021). The World Bank Group program continues to maintain a long-term focus that maximizes opportunities to support Türkiye’s progression to high-income status.

There are 28 active IBRD operations amounting to $10.9 billion . The portfolio also includes one Global Environment Facility (GEF)-financed project and five trust –fund-supported projects, including almost $600 million in European Union trust funds through the Facility for Refugees in Türkiye.  Actual deliveries in the amount of $12.51 billion during the CPF period have surpassed the proposed IBRD financing envelope for the FY18–23 period at $7-10.5 billion.

The World Bank Group Program for FY23 supports the government’s goals on mobilizing climate financing. The climate response related lending pipeline in FY23 is rich and is focused on climate change adaptation or mitigation projects that are directly linked to the implementation of Türkiye’s Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDCs). As part of the Country Climate and Development Report (CCDR), discussions are underway to step up the ambition under a revised nationally determined contribution (NDC). The World Bank is providing assistance to this.

The World Bank Group Program has supported the government’s strategy to boost human capital, expand opportunities for vulnerable youth and women, and prepare and respond to pandemics.  The  portfolio has expanded support to firm-led job creation in vulnerable regions impacted by a high influx of refugees; mitigating learning loss through hybrid and online education; and boosting the government’s health system response to COVID.  The World Bank is in discussions with authorities regarding boosting investments in green human capital, skills and jobs, particularly for vulnerable youth and women.

As part of the EU’s response to the Syrian refugee crisis, the World Bank Group was entrusted with managing a total of $600 million of the EU funded Facility for Refugees in Türkiye (FRiT). In the first tranche agreed in 2016, three projects for a combined total of $205 million were targeted towards education, employment and entrepreneurship. The second tranche ($395 million) supported socio-economic and municipal services projects.  In addition, the trust fund portfolio has increased with projects funded by Clean Technology Fund (CTF), EU Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA) funds, and GEF funds.

Key Advisory Services and Analytics (ASA) Activities: The ASA portfolio is strategically consolidated around core and extended core ASAs including: Country Climate and Development Report, Programmatic Public Finance Review, Pandemic Preparedness and Response, Country Green Growth, Quality Learning and Emergency Response Roadmap, Understanding the Drivers of Regional Disparities in Türkiye and Sustainable, Efficient and Safe Transport for Türkiye. Also, a new Systematic Country Diagnostic (SCD) is expected to be finalized in October 2024, as a foundation of the new CPF that will be finalized in Q3 FY24.

Recent Economic Developments

Türkiye’s economy grew by 5.6% in 2022, from 11.4% the previous year, as exports, investment, and manufacturing activity lost momentum. However, private consumption remained robust, expanding 19.6% in 2022. Value-added growth was led by the services sector (up 9.7%) and industry (up 3.3%). The labor market, supported by strong economic growth, rebounded fully from the pandemic. The Turkish lira lost 30% of its value in 2022 despite an estimated $108 billion in indirect forex interventions by the central bank (CBRT).  

Macro-financial conditions have become increasingly challenging: CPI inflation reached a 24-year high, the heterodox regulatory policy restraints have started to slow credit growth and align lending rates with the reductions in the policy rate. The banking sector continues to have adequate forex liquidity buffers to cover short-term liabilities, however, there are concerns about the accessibility of those buffers in times of stress. Rising exposure of banks through incentivized holdings of government bonds also increases contagion risks.

Fiscal support includes increasing civil servants’ salaries and pensions; energy subsidies; personal income tax allowances; eliminating a retirement age requirement; and financing support for businesses. Rapid growth helped reduce debt-to-GDP levels, yet the government’s cost of borrowing remains high despite declining domestic bond yields, due to risk premia on government securities—a Eurobond issuance in January 2023 was at 9.8% interest rate with 10-year maturity.  

ECONOMIC OUTLOOK

Despite a drag on growth in 2023 due to earthquake-related production, export, and consumption disruptions, economic activity is expected to remain solid, supported by a 55% net minimum wage increase in January 2023 and expansionary fiscal policies ahead of the elections scheduled for May. Massive reconstruction efforts in the earthquake zone—with large multiplier effects—will boost growth in late-2023 and beyond. Pre-election spending and earthquake recovery will weaken fiscal balances. Additionally, the eight most-affected provinces were host to 30% of Türkiye’s poor in 2020 with poverty rates much higher than the national average, which could exacerbate inequality. Initial forecasts indicate a worsening of consumption-based poverty rate in 2023.  

The outlook is shrouded by considerable uncertainty and risk under the current macroeconomic policy mix. Post-election economic performance will depend on policy decisions to gradually phase out the heterodox regulatory web that distorts financial markets, and the adoption of macroeconomic policies to rebuild buffers and support investor confidence. Inflationary pressures could arise from fiscal expansion and earthquake-induced agricultural and logistics disruptions. External risks remain elevated given the high current account deficit and low net forex reserves; high external share of public debt slower than expected recovery in the EU; and tightening global liquidity. There is also a risk that investor confidence will falter, intensifying pressure on the Turkish lira, external balances, and corporate and bank balance sheets with the possibility that policy responses cause a real sector contraction.

Turkey: Commitments by Fiscal Year (in millions of dollars)*

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What We Know About the Earthquake in Turkey and Syria

As the death toll rises in the one of the deadliest quakes in decades, a global humanitarian aid effort faces deep challenges.

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By The New York Times

The 7.8-magnitude earthquake that struck southern Turkey and northern Syria in early February killed tens of thousands of people, flattened wide areas of cities and sent the region, which was already grappling with a refugee crisis and over a decade of war , into a monumental recovery effort.

As of Feb. 24, the death toll in Syria and Turkey had surpassed 49,000. In Turkey, the authorities said that more than 43,000 people had died; in Syria, the death toll crossed 5,500, according to figures from the United Nations.

Thousands of buildings were destroyed or rendered unstable , leaving hundreds of thousands of people without shelter in rain, snow and temperatures that often dip below freezing. Millions are in need of aid, according to relief agencies; in Syria alone, the United Nations said that as many as 5.3 million might have lost their homes.

In the bitter cold, rescue workers pulled thousands of survivors from the rubble, but experts say that the chances of rescuing more decline sharply a few days after a quake. Even after that period, there have been some miraculous rescues . In recent days, desperation has increasingly set in as the rescue missions have turned to recovery.

The situation for survivors in both Syria and Turkey is dire, with people reluctant to return to their homes and using bonfires of wreckage to stay warm , huddling in cars and suffering frequent power outages and shortages of fuel. They are also short on food and medical supplies.

Turkey has imposed a three-month state of emergency in 10 provinces, and the national emergency agency has distributed a huge quantity of tents and mobilized thousands of vehicles, including excavators, cranes and tow trucks, with the help of more than 230,000 relief workers. Dozens of countries have sent teams and supplies, and a makeshift health care system has sprung up.

The quake zone in Turkey stretches across more than 200 miles, from the Mediterranean in the south across mountains and to the east-central highlands and into northwestern Syria. Snow-covered mountain passes, buckled highways and buildings that collapsed over roads have all delayed the arrival of rescue teams and aid.

Getting help to Syria has been complicated by the country’s civil war, the division of territory in its northwest and the acrimonious relations between President Bashar al-Assad and many Western nations.

The United Nations’ secretary general, António Guterres, has announced the launch of a $397 million humanitarian appeal for Syria over three months.

The Syrian border

In the immediate aftermath of the earthquake, the only United Nations-approved crossing to bring international aid into northwestern Syria was, for a time, not functioning because of damage in the area , according to U.N. officials.

Some food, clothes, blankets and other supplies have arrived — received by exhausted and frustrated rescuers and doctors who say it is still not nearly enough, especially in a region where many people were displaced by war and struggling to survive before the earthquake.

The United Nations’ top aid official said on Feb. 12 that aid efforts so far had “failed the people of northwest Syria.”

“They rightly feel abandoned,” the official, Martin Griffiths, wrote on Twitter from the Turkey-Syria border.

Rescue workers in northwestern Syria say that without more help from the outside world, there was little they could do. “We felt helpless, just helpless,” said Ali Obeid, 28, a member of the White Helmets civil defense group that operates in parts of the opposition-held northwest.

Much of the international aid to Syria from the United Nations and other agencies flows through the capital, Damascus, allowing the government of Mr. al-Assad to limit what goes to opposition-held areas. United Nations agencies must get permission to then deliver some of the aid across front lines, to opposition-held areas, requests that are often denied.

On Feb. 13, Mr. al-Assad agreed to the opening of two additional border crossings from Turkey into opposition-held territory in northwest Syria to allow the United Nations to deliver humanitarian relief.

The decision, which would let aid flow for three months, was the first time that Mr. al-Assad had cooperated in opening opposition-held territory to such assistance since Syria’s civil war began in 2011.

The Syrian government has blamed U.S. sanctions for deepening the humanitarian disaster the country has suffered since the earthquake. Those sanctions do not target humanitarian aid, and the State Department has rejected calls to lift them , saying that aid efforts were not impeded by the policy.

The earthquake

The 7.8-magnitude temblor, striking in the early hours of Feb. 6, was Turkey’s deadliest earthquake since 1939 , when more than 30,000 people were killed, and among the deadliest worldwide in decades.

A powerful aftershock of magnitude 7.5 followed, and experts warned that there could be more — posing potential risks to the structural integrity of unstable buildings in the earthquake zone.

Turkey’s two main fault zones, the East Anatolian and the North Anatolian, make it one of the most seismically active regions in the world, and more than 70 quakes of magnitude 6.5 or higher have been recorded in the region since 1900.

The epicenter of the earthquake was near the Turkish city of Gaziantep, where around half a million Syrian refugees were living, and much of the city was left in ruins. Much of Antakya, the capital of Turkey’s Hatay Province — known as Antioch to the people of ancient Greece and Rome — was destroyed, with whole neighborhoods in ruins , including the oldest part of the city. Rebuilding cities, where possible, will take years , at least a decade, experts say.

Reporting was contributed by Vivian Yee , Ben Hubbard , Cora Engelbrecht , Matina Stevis-Gridneff , Gulsin Harman , Safak Timur , Jin Yu Young , Raja Abdulrahim , Natasha Frost , Mike Ives , Hwaida Saad , Henry Fountain , Alan Yuhas , Farnaz Fassihi and Farah Mohamed .

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Essay on Turkey

Last updated Saturday , 16-03-2024 on 10:37 am

Essay on Turkey, with important information  for anyone who wants to write a topic or article or essay on Turkey in English will find here what he is looking for .Turkey is a country of diverse tourist attractions that attract tourists from all over the world .

Turkey is one of the most beautiful tourist countries in the world. Anyone who wants to know this fascinating country will find information here about Turkey and anyone who wants to write an essay on Turkey in English will find here everything that he wants.

Turkey is known as Asia Minor, and the capital of the country is Ankara, with an area of ​​783.602 square kilometers. The meaning of Turkey’s name refers to nationalism, and the ruling regime is a central parliamentary constitutional republic.

The legislature is the responsibility of the parliament. Turkey has an ancient cultural heritage.

Turkey is a country that is active in natural disasters, especially earthquakes and floods.

Turkey is located in south-west Asia, which is located between Asia and the continent of Europe.

It is the link between the two continents. Turkey has four seas:

The Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Black Sea to the north, the Sea of ​​Marmara in the center and the Aegean Sea to the west.

Turkey is a diverse country with many borders.

Turkey has eight countries: Greece, Bulgaria to the west, Syria to Iraq from the south, Iran to Armenia to the east, Azerbaijan to Georgia to the north.

Turkey has many different aspects of the surface, namely:

Coastal areas.

The mountains, most notably the Ararat mountain at a height of 5137 meters.

Water Straits, the most important of which is the Bosphorus and Dardanelles.

Islands, most notably the island of Amroz. Forestry.

The population of Turkey is 70,586,256, according to 2007 statistics.

The population speaks Turkish, which is written in Latin, and the minority speak Kurdish, Circassian and Arabic languages.

Most of the population also condemns the Islamic religion.

Turkey has a large and diversified economy.

Industry has the largest share in building the economy.

It is famous for the fine textile industry, leather, food and beverage, especially sweets.

It also manufactures chemicals, automobiles and metal industries.

Turkey has a rich mineral wealth, Mainly in charcoal, coal, coal, iron, zinc, silver, copper and lead.

Agriculture has a significant share of it.

It is famous for the cultivation and export of cotton, olives, fruit, grapes, tea, citrus, barley and hazelnuts.

Economy of the Lad, since Turkey since antiquity has been the scene of ancient civilizations,it is  very rich in antiquities, especially the magnificent Ottoman ruins.

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10 of the best places to visit in Türkiye

Dec 14, 2023 • 6 min read

Plan your visit to Türkiye with these top places to see © rudi_suardi / Getty Images

The eclectic city of Istanbul, the fantastical rock forms of Cappadocia, the ancient ruins of Ephesus, and the glimmering Mediterranean and Aegean coastlines are Türkiye ’s biggest draws, but each region of the country has something distinct to offer.

The diversity of landscapes, heritage and culinary culture will surprise those who have never ventured beyond holiday resorts and the beach. Even though it’s easy to get around Türkiye , the country has too much to see and do to tackle it all on one trip. Because most domestic flights route through Istanbul, spend at least a few days in this dynamic global metropolis before heading out to one of our other top places to visit in Türkiye.

1. Istanbul

Best for ancient sites and modern neighborhoods

One of the world’s greatest cities, Istanbul should be on every traveler’s must-visit list. Highlight sights like the grand Byzantine basilica Aya Sofya , often called Hagia Sophia in English, and the Ottoman sultans’ lavish Topkapı Palace attest to the city’s centuries-long history as the capital of powerful empires.

But set aside some time to experience Istanbul as it is today, too. Go cafe- or bar-hopping in the hip Kadıköy neighborhood, wander the backstreets of more conservative Fatih or peruse contemporary art in Beyoğlu . Don’t forget the simple pleasure of drinking çay (tea) on the ferry while taking in spectacular views of the city.

Planning tip:  You could easily spend your entire vacation in Istanbul, but if you have the time, it's worth venturing further afield in search of other Turkish delights.

2. Cappadocia

Best for its unique landscape

Cappadocia is a geological wonderland in the center of Türkiye. The history of early Christians in Anatolia comes alive at the Göreme Open-Air Museum and the other cave churches and underground cities scattered around the valley. Romance blossoms in the area’s cozy cave hotels and restaurants, not to mention sunrise balloon rides complete with a champagne toast. Adventure awaits amid the green valleys and undulating rocks for hikers, mountain bikers and trail runners .

3. Turquoise Coast

Best for history lovers and beaches

Yes, Türkiye's  Mediterranean coastline between Fethiye and Antalya is full of beautiful places for sun, sea and sand vacations , but it’s also dappled with evidence of the ancient civilizations that once populated the area. The seaside ruins of Patara (which boasts one of Türkiye's best beaches too) and Phaselis are particularly picturesque, and the rock tombs of Myra are especially impressive. The Antalya Museum offers good insights into the region’s history. Explore by sea on a gület cruise, on foot along the Lycian Way hiking path or by driving the scenic (but winding!) coastal roads.

4. Eastern Black Sea and Kaçkar Mountains

Best for rural traditions

The rough, cold waters of the Black Sea aren’t particularly inviting, but turn your gaze inland, where lush green valleys spill down to the coast from high peaks, to see the region’s appeal. The lower elevations are home to most of Türkiye's tea and hazelnut production, while the high plateaus ( yaylalar ) like Pokut , that were once used as summer pastures for livestock, are becoming popular with tourists seeking out scenic views and a taste of traditional Black Sea culture and cuisine. Further above, the Kaçkar Mountains offer spectacular trekking in summer for experienced hikers.

Planning tip:  Trabzon, home to the cliff-side Sumela Monastery , is the area’s main hub for air travel.

5. Southeastern Anatolia

Best for culture and food

The often-overlooked southeastern Anatolia region is one of Türkiye's cultural – and culinary – stars. The cities of Gaziantep and Antakya (Hatay) are famed for their food, and both also boast museums with incredible collections of Roman mosaics. Mardin ’s picturesque, well-preserved old town also makes a great base for exploring the monasteries and Roman ruins in the surrounding area. The world’s oldest religious site, Göbeklitepe , lies just outside of Şanlıurfa, which has its own fine archaeology museum and bazaar .

6. Datça and Bozburun peninsulas

Best for relaxation

Chilling out and getting back to nature is the order of the day on the remote  Datça and Bozburun peninsulas in the south Aegean. In place of the boisterous nightlife of nearby Bodrum and Marmaris, you’ll find miles of dramatic rocky coastline, scenic rural villages, and small, quiet beach resorts and seaside towns.

Planning tip:  The Carian Trail long-distance hiking path encircles both peninsulas. Check before setting out as some sections of the route were inaccessible following wildfire damage in the summer of 2021.

7. Türkiye's far east

Best for rugged beauty

The vast landscapes of Türkiye's far east have a remote ruggedness unmatched elsewhere in the country. Perhaps best known to travelers as the terminus of the Doğu Ekpresi (Eastern Express) , a popular and scenic overnight train trip from Ankara , the border city of Kars retains striking architecture from its years as a Russian outpost in the 1800s. Nearby are the extensive and evocative UNESCO-listed ruins of Ani , an ancient Armenian capital.

A three-hour drive south will take you to the remote İshak Paşa Palace , passing by the fabled Mt Ararat (Ağrı Dağı) en route. Continue on to Van , where you can fuel up on one of the city’s famously elaborate breakfast spreads before visiting the fine museum in town and taking a day excursion to Akdamar Kilisesi , a masterfully decorated Armenian church and monastery complex on a small island in Lake Van.

8. Gallipoli and the North Aegean

Best for WWI history and ancient Troy

Cemeteries devoted to the tens of thousands of soldiers who died in bloody battles on the Gallipoli Peninsula during WWI are scattered around bucolic rolling hills, all the more poignant amidst such serenely beautiful landscapes.

The area is also the gateway to Türkiye's North Aegean coast, a more relaxed alternative to the Mediterranean where you can take a leisurely tour of pleasant seaside towns like Ayvalık and Foça, the island wineries of Bozcaada, the ancient city of Troy (with its standout museum ) and the spectacularly sited hilltop acropolis of Bergama .

9. Safranbolu

Best for Ottoman atmosphere

Named for the saffron that was grown and traded here for centuries, Safranbolu is today popular with visitors who come to soak in its old Ottoman atmosphere. Many of the town’s historic wood-framed mansions have been restored and converted into picture-perfect boutique hotels, cafes and restaurants.

Planning tip:  If it all starts to seem a little too cutesy, the canyons, waterfalls and woods of the nearby Yenice Forest are a natural tonic.

10. Pamukkale

Best for its ancient spa

The bright-white terraces of Pamukkale are surely one of the most photographed sites in Türkiye, incongruously gleaming above the rural town like freshly fallen snow. The warm mineral water that flows through them was the basis for the ancient spa city of Hierapolis , whose extensive remains sprawl out along the hilltop next to the famous travertines.

Planning tip:  Pamukkale also makes a good base for visiting other nearby ancient sites like Laodicea , Tripolis and – most notably – the gorgeous ruins of Afrodisias with its impressive collection of Roman marble sculptures.

This article was first published September 2021 and updated December 2023

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Turkey and its Politics Essay

Secularism is a principle of detaching government processes from religion. Turkey was established after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Turkey is an Islam-dominated state that has been fighting Islamic control in state affairs for a very long time.

The republican elites who brought in modernization in Turkey put the principle of secularism in place (Kucukcan, 475). The form of secularism adopted in Turkey was borrowed from France. The form of secularism adopted in Turkey is similar to the one practiced in the west. However, there are some alterations done that have made it functional in an Islam dominated society.

Secularism in the west completely separated the church from state functions. It was put in place in the fight against the supremacy of the clergy. Religion in the west is not involved in the day-to-day state functions. Religion exists as a separate entity and the government regulates its functions.

In Turkeys system of secularism, religious affairs are still integrated into state functions (Navaro-Yashin, 7). Islamic leaders are involved in government administrative units. Imams are civil servants and therefore are salaried government employees. This indicates that Islam is considered a state religion. Turkish reformers argued that it was impossible to completely separate the state from religion.

Turkey’s foundations are built on Islamic religion. The founder fathers of this nation were all Muslims. Therefore, most of its citizens are of Muslim origin and observe Islam religious practices to the later. To allow for smooth running of the government some elements of religion had to be embraced.

The government funds Islam as religion making it very important aspect of Turkey as a state. The principle of complete separation of religion and state is partially implemented in Turkey.

Turkey does not have complete religions freedom. It has several religious practices that are practiced by its citizens. However, Islam is part of the school curriculum. Every school-going child has to learn the fundamental principles of Islam.

This means all turkey citizens must be educated on Islamic religion; this limits an individual’s freedom to worship (Kucukcan, 504). The westerners’ principle of secularism is completely against this. Westerners forbid spiritual teachings in state schools. In western countries, religious affairs are conducted by communities and private associations.

Any form of religious education is offered by such organizations. State resources are not utilized in such activities. This could not be realized in Turkey due to the immaturity level of its citizens.

Most of the citizens in Turkey still believe that separation of religion from the state is turning away from God. What made it possible to separate the church from the state in the west was majorly the biblical teachings that encourage separation of the two entities.

It is undisputable that there are some differences between secularism in the west and Turkey. This is due to the difference in the major religions practiced by the two groups. The most dominant religion in the west is Christianity and it embraces most of the aspects of secularism. Most people in Turkey are Muslims.

They do not share the same ideologies with people from the west. However, the similarities of secularism in the west and Turkey cannot be neglected. Form of government in turkey is similar to most nations in the west. The constitution of Turkey is independent of the Islamic laws.

The constitution does not exhibit religious biasness. Most of the states functioning units were borrowed from the west. Since most of state functions are independent of religious manipulations, Turkey’s secularism is similar to secularism in the west.

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Home > 18 Legitimate Reasons Why You Should Study In Turkey

18 Legitimate Reasons Why You Should Study In Turkey

Written by our local expert SJ

Sarah-Jane has lived in Croatia for 10+ years. SJ, as she is known, has been traveling the Balkans & beyond since 2000. She now shares her passion for traveling with her husband & kids.

Here are 18 legitimate reasons why you should study in Turkey. Choose Türkiye for your studies, and choose life-changing experiences as written by Pearl Holland from Jharaphula

Skip Ahead To My Advice Here!

Reasons Why You Should Study In Turkey

Ever heard of the phrase: “Climb your own ladder”? It says you should rise through your career, not by taking the easy road but by working your way up from the bottom. Taking a degree in Türkiye gives you that opportunity. Good education is not for sale, and it is for those who are willing to put in effort and determination. So, if you are one of those who want to build their ladder to success, have a look at the positive impacts of traveling on students with these 18 fantastic reasons to study in Turkey.

World-Class Education System

Türkiye has a well-established and comprehensive higher education system. Across more than 180 universities, have 600,000+ international students in Turkey (as of the last academic year). Turkish universities offer more than 20,000 English-taught degree programs.

Many universities in Türkiye are ranked among the best in the world, and many scholarships are available for international students wishing to study in Turkey. There is an essay writing service for students who study English abroad and need professional help with academic writing.

Multicultural Environment

Türkiye is a multicultural and multi-ethnic country, which makes it an ideal destination for international students seeking an enriching experience abroad. Turkish people are friendly and welcoming towards foreigners, meaning you will feel at home quickly in this beautiful country. The fact that many students from all over the world choose to study at Turkish universities also means that you can easily meet new friends from all corners of the globe during your time abroad.

High Quality Of Life

The cost of living in Turkey is relatively low compared to other European countries, so you can make your money go further while enjoying a high quality of life while studying abroad. If you want to take advantage of all that Türkiye offers but don’t want to break the bank, studying in Turkey is a great choice!

Research And Innovation

Türkiye is at the forefront of research and innovation. The country was ranked 7th in scientific output among OECD countries, with a record number of scientists, engineers, and technicians per capita. In addition to ranking first in Europe for producing the most science, technology, and engineering graduates per year, Turkey has the highest number of newly-registered patent applications in the European Union. This means there are many opportunities for innovative research projects, which can be worked on during an undergraduate or postgraduate degree.

Brands We Use And Trust

Study at a top-ranked türkiye university – university in turkey .

Many top-ranked Turkish universities offer high-quality education in an international environment with affordable tuition fees and living costs . These include Istanbul Technical University (ITU), Bogazici University, Sabanci University, Middle East Technical University (METU), Bilkent University, and Yildiz Technical University (YTU).

English As A Medium Of Instruction

English language proficiency is fundamental to studying abroad, as only 32% of students who cannot speak English are satisfied with their academic experience compared to 83% of students who are proficient in English (2). Many courses study in Turkey in English at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels. This means it is an excellent destination for international students who may not be proficient in Turkish or want to learn it.

Students can find courses in Türkiye taught in English across all disciplines, including engineering, sciences, humanities, art and design, and business. International universities offer many exchange programs that allow students to study at a Turkish university for 1-2 semesters.

Transportation Is Convenient And Cheap

Whether you are a student or not, Turkey has a very convenient transportation system. It is easy to get around the cities by public transportation. Buses, subways, taxis,s, and trains are available in all major cities of Türkiye. Its biggest city Istanbul has an underground train system similar to London and Paris. Ankara, the capital of Turkey , also offers a subway system currently under development and will be completed soon. Besides, there are plenty of buses in both cities to take you anywhere you want.

Ielts Or Toefl Exams Are Not Required For The Admission Process

Unlike the US or UK, most of the universities in Türkiye do not require language exam results like IELTS or TOEFL from their international students before accepting their applications. However, it is recommended that you should have at least intermediate English knowledge.

Scholarship Opportunities Are Available For International Students

The Turkish Government offers scholarships to international students from all over the world who wish to study in Turkey at various levels of education, ranging from short-term certificate programs to Ph.D.s. The Turkish Government provides scholarships for developing countries to study undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral degrees and one-year Turkish language courses.

Living Expenses Are Relatively Low

Living in Türkiye is very cheap compared to other European countries and the United States. The cost of living is one of the most important factors when choosing a study abroad destination, and Turkey can be a perfect option if you want to save money .

Tuition fees are less than half of those in the US, Canada, and the UK. Accommodation costs are around $300-$500 per month, while food is relatively cheap. In addition, students get discounts on almost everything from public transport to cinema tickets. All these living costs are considerably more affordable when compared with other Western countries.

You Can Learn A New Language

Even though Turkey is a country with high linguistic diversity, it is necessary to learn the official language if you want to make friends or find work here (if your visa allows you to work). Turkish can be challenging to learn but totally doable if you put in the time and effort. However, learning Turkish is a lot easier than learning most other major languages, such as English or French, because it uses the Latin alphabet rather than the Cyrillic alphabet, and there are no irregular verbs like in French or Spanish.

You Will Enjoy The Weather

The weather in Türkiye is only scorching during the summer months, and there are four seasons during the year, so you won’t feel bored with the weather! There is always something new to see, whether it’s snowing or sunny outside.

You Can Taste The World At Your Doorstep

Turkey is a bridge between the east and the west. The culture and traditions of Türkiye reflect this. The country has a rich heritage to be proud of, but it also has its foot in the door of the future. Istanbul is one city that reflects this perfectly ! This is why studying in Turkey; you get the best of both worlds.

You Can See History Everywhere

The Ottoman Empire was established in 1299 and lasted more than 600 years. You can see its heritage everywhere, especially when you visit historical places such as Istanbul, Izmir , or Bursa, which were the capital cities many times during this period.

Turkish People Are Welcoming And Friendly

Turkish people are very friendly and kind. You will never feel alone or homesick because they treat you like family members from day one. If you don’t know someone, it’s easy for you to make new friends as many clubs, organizations, and events occur at universities – where international students often gather together for social or sports events.

There Are So Many Places To See And Visit

Türkiye is a beautiful country that attracts many tourists, not just because of its weather or the food . It’s also because it has some of the most beautiful places you’d probably ever see. Most of these places are UNESCO World Heritage Sites , such as Pamukkale , known for its white terraces formed by hot springs, Cappadocia, known for its rock-hewn houses and underground cities; and Ephesus, which is one of the most important archaeological sites in the world.

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Study In Turkey For Free

What? Is there free study in Türkiye? Yes. International students who wish to study at public universities in Turkey do not have to pay tuition fees! However, some costs must be paid every semester, including registration and health insurance fees. The tuition fees for private universities are higher, but they still remain affordable compared to other countries such as the UK and the US.

The Country Is Safe To Live In

The crime rate in Turkey is relatively low compared to other countries . This means that it is pretty safe for students to study in Turkey.

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Comments (10)

Awsome man you have just created a very nice content. keep the good work up

Thank you for this valuable info.

Thank you so much for sharing all this wonderful info. You always have good humor in your posts. So much fun and easy to read!

Great blog! Turkey is on one of my best countries lists. It is a clean, peaceful country and many intellectuals come from there. You not only can get higher education but also enjoy living there.

All what is said on Turkish universities is absolutely true. My cousin is currently studying there. Their numerous universities give employable high quality education as found in top universities worldwide. Most importantly life is generally relatively cheap. I am even more appreciative with the security set up existing there. You’re absolutely safe when you’re there.

That’s great! Thank you for letting me know.

Thanks for this info! I’ll take a deeper look. Thanks for sharing, friends. -Lucas

Very informative and motivating article on University education in Turkey. I really enjoyed reading it. Thanks!

tnxs for this beautiful info.

This blog post highlighting the reasons why studying in Turkey is a great choice is spot on! The article concisely captures the essence of Turkey’s appeal as a study abroad destination, from its rich cultural heritage to its renowned educational institutions. The information provided is helpful and persuasive for students considering Turkey for their academic pursuits.

Thank you for sharing this insightful article, and I hope many students will benefit from the valuable information it provides!

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