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The Disordered Mind: An Introduction to Philosophy of Mind and Mental Illness

George Graham, The Disordered Mind: An Introduction to Philosophy of Mind and Mental Illness , Routledge, 2009, 288 pp., $37.95 (pbk), ISBN 9780415774727.

Reviewed by Dominic Murphy, University of Sydney, and Gemma Smart, University of Sydney

George Graham has a longstanding reputation as a distinguished philosopher of psychiatry, and The Disordered Mind shows why. Its scope is broad and its presentation is clear and precise. It is a very impressive statement of a widespread and important philosophical perspective on mental illness, which everyone studying the philosophy of psychiatry will want to read. However, we are unsympathetic to that perspective. Despite the many merits of Graham’s book, we doubt that his approach, however well articulated, will prove fruitful in the end if we seek a deeper understanding and explanation of psychopathology. However, it is certainly valuable to have this perspective presented with the flair and clarity shown here. The book successfully shows how topics in the philosophy of mind can illuminate discussions of mental disorder. It is clear enough, and vividly enough written, to be assigned fruitfully to undergraduates, but it also makes enough contributions to the central debates in the field to be important for specialists.

We will mostly discuss Graham’s presentation of the big picture. This takes up the first two-thirds of the book. There are discussions of several diagnoses along the way, but most of the psychiatric details come in the last three chapters. These apply the overall framework to addiction, psychotic phenomena like delusion and thought insertion, and some other topics including dissociation, which all lead into a final discussion of whether psychopathology makes a difference to the metaphysics of the self.

One way to think about philosophy of psychiatry is as a branch of the philosophy of science, looking at the conceptual basis, theory building, and explanatory models of psychiatry and the allied sciences of the unsound mind. That is not Graham’s approach. He is advocating a specifically philosophical take on psychopathology, in which philosophical accounts of how the mind works are central. An account of mental illness that treats it as a neurological problem, Graham thinks, is anti-realist (p.10). A realist about mental illness sees it as a problem with minds, rather than brains or biology, and our best accounts of how the mind works are philosophical rather than scientific.

Graham’s basic idea is that mental illnesses are “capacity-tethered rationality impairments” (p.137). This means that in mental disorder fundamental human mental faculties are, as he says, “gummed-up” through a mixture of intentional causes and brute ones; conspiracies of mental and non-mental states interfere with the normal operation of our basic human psychology. How do we know what that psychology is? Not through scientific inquiry, but by reflecting on the ends or purposes that all human beings share — it is the psychology that you need to live a decent life (p. 139). Graham puts philosophical psychopathology squarely in the philosophy of mind, and embeds philosophy of mind within a broader moral psychology. The aspects of the mind we care about are the ones that help us flourish. It is deliberation on the ends of life, not the science of the mind, which tells us what is psychologically important. So Graham’s list of basic psychological faculties does not include working memory or perception or language comprehension, but things like (pp. 147-150) emotional commitment, the ability to act in the world, to form goals and shape our behaviour to fit them, make choices, and so on.

What makes these capacities mental (and therefore distinguishes them from the wider set of human capacities necessary for wellbeing) is that their exercise involves states that are conscious or that possess intentionality (ch. 2). Mental disorders come about when these capacities get “gummed up” in such a way that one is harmed — because one lacks a capacity necessary for flourishing — against one’s will, and in a way that usually requires treatment by others (ch. 3). We think this is too vague, however. Lots of things inhibit our ability to flourish and are beyond our unaided powers to mitigate, but are not diseases — physical ugliness and illiteracy are examples. We need to know about the specific forms of being worse off that illnesses involve. Suppose I am very inattentive, and I often forget things or miss deadlines, and my life goes worse than it might as a result. Am I mentally disordered with a gummed up mind, or just absentminded?

The overall framework is defended in chapter four against various sorts of scepticism. Metaphysical sceptics think that a distinctively mental account of mental illness, as opposed to a reductive, physical account, is untenably dualistic. Moral sceptics are Szaszians, who think that diagnosing someone with a mental illness is just the imposition of an arbitrary value judgement. Graham defends a nonreductive physicalism against the metaphysical sceptic. Against the moral sceptic, he argues that mental illness and somatic illness are on a par. It is not that medicine is value-neutral while psychiatry is normative, but that both are normative. Since medicine in general is “evaluative or normative through and through” (p. 93) it is not distinguishable from psychiatry, as Thomas Szasz argued, on the grounds that proper science is not normative.

The presence of evaluative assumptions in medicine is clear enough. However, many theorists have argued that to call something a disease involves both a judgment that some organ system is dysfunctional and a judgment that the consequences are bad for the sufferer, and that judgments of the first kind are not normative — or at least, that norms governing natural function of physical systems are of a different kind than the moral or political norms involved in judgments that a dysfunction is harmful for its owner. This might not be correct, but Graham doesn’t really talk about it. If the outcome of a physical process is bad for you in distinctive ways, then it is a disease, he thinks, regardless of the status of the system. Furthermore, as we have seen, Graham goes on to argue that the picture of human nature relevant to psychiatry is an explicitly philosophical one, based on a conception of human flourishing. The moral skeptic can argue in return that there is still a big difference in this picture between psychiatry and somatic medicine. The latter rests on well-established scientific findings whereas psychiatry is based on a philosophical account of the capacities needed for human flourishing. Graham’s view is that the human capacities he picks out are those that we would choose behind a veil of ignorance. They are the ones that we are bound to need no matter what life we decide to pursue.

But this is contestable. Suppose I decide that a human life would go a lot more smoothly, with much less suffering, if I just did not care for others at all, or that on balance I might be much more successful if I had the kind of psychology that subordinated everything to work. Certainly, if you have decided that caring for others is a component of the good life — or if you are just stuck with caring for others, because that’s how human beings are – then interference with the capacity for care will be harmful and stressing. But there are lots of respectable philosophical antecedents for the idea that the less engaged you are with the world, the better. Graham assumes that nobody would choose to be a successful, prudent sociopath, but if material gain and worldly power are at the centre of your ambitions, then why not? At the heart of the book is a moral vision of the best life for a human being — an objective theory of well-being. Mental disorders are the psychological impairments to attaining that good life.

The last component of Graham’s big picture is a theory of the connection between rationality and intentionality. The thesis of rationality in intentionality (p. 120), which Graham finds in Daniel Dennett, Donald Davidson and John Searle, holds that intentional states are by nature rational — that is, they are interpretable and interrelated according to rational constraints. For something to count as an intentional state it needs to be related to other intentional states in the right way. (However, we think that to do some of the philosophical work he expects from his theory of how the mind works Graham also needs a theory of rational warrant that evaluates how contents get in to the mind, and not just an account of transitions among states of mind.)

In mental disorders, Graham thinks, the rational relationships between contents are disrupted by mechanical processes. The rational works are gummed up by mechanical processes. But the details of this story are hard to see. At times Graham talks as though rational and mechanical processes are both causes of mental illnesses, and at other times he talks as though the abnormal rational processes constitute the symptoms of mental illness. These let us comprehend the experience of the disorder, but their upstream causes are mechanical. We take it that Graham thinks the former — that it is a necessary condition of mental disorders that they have a brute cause. For example, he says that wishful thinking doesn’t count, even though it is irrational, because the causes of wishful thinking are intentional states like desires, and not mechanical processes (p. 131). On the other hand, we are less clear whether he thinks that intentional causes are necessarily in the mix too. He does say (p. 127) that in mental disorder the proximate causes cannot be fully comprehended in mechanical terms. But if mental illness has to have a mix of mechanical and intentional causes then some paradigmatic conditions look as though they might be left out of the picture. It is unclear, for example, whether mood disorders always have intentional causes. They may always involve disturbances of thought among their symptoms, but it is unclear that mood disorders are always conditions one thinks one’s way into, as opposed to being pushed into by brute chemical causes.

The same seems true of many psychotic states — they may preserve some rational capacities but often seem to have mechanical causes. Graham deals with worries like this in the case of delusion by arguing (pp. 202-3, 211) that what matters is the role that the delusion plays in the mental life of the subject. The explanation of why the delusion gets into the mind in the first place is beside the point. But if we want a full theory of delusion, why should it be beside the point? Graham argues that deluded individuals are rationally gummed up because of the role that the delusion plays in their subsequent mental life, and these consequences are the key to understanding the delusional experience. This is true, but there might be more to a theory of delusion than understanding the delusional experience, despite the theoretical and human importance of the latter. It may be that our confusion here stems from a distinction between causes and symptoms that Graham may not recognize, so that symptoms count as sustaining causes of the disorder. We think he could be clearer about this, but even so it seems that a full account of states like delusion would pay attention to mechanical processes that Graham’s account omits.

This brings up an important perplexity that we have about the aim of the overall project. The Disordered Mind offers you a philosophical package deal, put together with impressive thoroughness and consistency. The overall impression is of an ambitious, cohesive theory. But although the book often talks of the sources or causes of mental illness, it seems to us that its real value lies in using philosophical tools to illuminate the world of the mentally disordered and the experience and significance of their various fates. This is an important task and Graham does it very well, but it makes a difference to the book’s place in the overall context of philosophy of psychiatry.

Our main reservation, as may be already evident, has to do with the appeal and prospects of the overall package deal that Graham offers, and its relationship to more reductive or scientistic pictures of psychiatry. There is a tendency to oppose the realism about the mental here to a more brain-based approach without ever really spelling out what a brain-based approach looks like. As things stand the conception of brain-based psychopathology that is argued against is too reductive, especially since Nancy Andreasen features as a foil (pp. 28-9), and she thinks psychiatry is a form of cognitive neuroscience. In particular, we would like to know why one does not get realism about the mental as part of a brain-based approach if you take the mental as a matter of information processing systems, as in the standard pictures of cognitive neuroscience that are making increasing inroads in psychiatry. The medical model stipulates that mental disorder depends on malfunctions in physical systems. There is nothing in it to make us conclude that those systems cannot be information-processing ones and hence both causal-mechanical and intentional. Hence, it is entirely within the logic of the medical model that one could have a subpersonal dysfunction in the absence of anatomical or physiological deficits. The cognitive picture retains a role for psychology (though not folk psychology) but one that is integrated with science much more fully than Graham’s picture. Graham seems to think, on the other hand, that there is a sharp distinction between intentional states and mechanical ones. We worry that this leads to a narrowly philosophical agenda that robs his approach of explanatory power.

We can see this in Graham’s discussion of addiction, which sidesteps debates on mental versus neurological explanation to understand addiction as a pattern of behaviour that contravenes attempts to take responsibility for the self (p. 172-3). Graham singles out two ‘constituents or elements’ as instrumental in one’s responsibility for self: evaluative self-reflection and behavioural self-control (p. 163). In this picture, addicts may have some breakdown in behavioural self-control (or impulse control). Graham examines the similarities between compulsion and addiction but doubts the explanatory status that other writers have given to craving. “Attribution of insatiability is not in general a veridical way in which to picture the impulse or motivation behind either a general addictive pattern or the particular stage of relapse, although it does depict certain individual cases” (p. 166). Rather, Graham focuses on the relapsing stage of the typical “clinical coalface case of addiction” (p. 160). Relapse is important to him because it highlights the addict’s lack of self responsibility, “It is difficult to explain how something that is negatively evaluated or believed by the agent to be harmful retains a grip on behaviour” (p. 164). Relapse is an instance of being in some important way unable to take responsibility for self.

Graham describes self-responsible persons as historical beings, operating within a framework of past and future “projects, aspirations and goals” (p. 170), and it is from this definition that he forms his idea of selfhood. Significantly he asserts that, “Self-responsible people care about the future” (p. 170). Addicts are neither completely rational nor entirely irrational, but they may have some breakdown in their ability to self-reflect, to see themselves as a historically continuous being. The impulse to consume may be “life-defining for an addict” (p. 171). Like Ross et al. (2008), Graham argues that neurological models, specifically non-human models, cannot adequately explain this particular form of break-down. Addicts ought to know the risks of using, so why do they relapse? But whereas Ross et al. try to integrate brain science and behavioural economics to explain this, Graham looks to metaphysics: “It requires also a metaphysical assumption about persons” (p. 184). The idea of persons as bearers of histories and biographies is widespread in the literature on narrative selfhood but we do not find it particularly illuminating. And it raises normative questions which Graham does not specifically address: How engaged in our history and future should persons be? Is it enough to care about the medium term or must I have clear projects for every stage of my future life? and what if addicts do care about the future but find themselves unable to prevent a relapse? Graham does say that addicts suffer from a “deficit of rational resolve” (p. 184). This is uncomfortably close to just saying that it’s all their fault for being so weak-willed, but in any case it doesn’t explain anything, even though it might characterise aspects of the addictive experience helpfully. Furthermore, it just isn’t clear that there are any explanatory resources here within folk psychological categories, even ones articulated with great philosophical ingenuity.

From our philosophical perspective, this points to the biggest failing of the package deal that Graham offers. Its explanatory powers are only as great as those of philosophy of mind, understood in a traditional sense as the philosophical elaboration of our understanding of our mental life. Philosophers of a less naturalistic bent will doubtless disagree, and prefer the agenda that Graham sets. We think this is unlikely to do much to tell us about the causes of mental disorder or provide a way to integrate psychiatry and the other sciences of the mind. We think of the book not as offering a causal-explanatory account of mental disorder, but as a philosophical contribution to descriptive psychopathology. Even for philosophers of our persuasion the book can be read as an important contribution to philosophical understanding of the human experience of mental illness.

References:

Ross D., Sharp C., Vuchinich, R.E, and Spurrett, D., Midbrain Mutiny: The Picoeconomics and Neuroeconomics of Disordered Gambling: Economic Theory and Cognitive Science , MIT Press, 2008.

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• What Is a Thesis? | Ultimate Guide & Examples

What Is a Thesis? | Ultimate Guide & Examples

Published on September 14, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on November 21, 2023.

A thesis is a type of research paper based on your original research. It is usually submitted as the final step of a master’s program or a capstone to a bachelor’s degree.

Writing a thesis can be a daunting experience. Other than a dissertation , it is one of the longest pieces of writing students typically complete. It relies on your ability to conduct research from start to finish: choosing a relevant topic , crafting a proposal , designing your research , collecting data , developing a robust analysis, drawing strong conclusions , and writing concisely .

Thesis template

You can also download our full thesis template in the format of your choice below. Our template includes a ready-made table of contents , as well as guidance for what each chapter should include. It’s easy to make it your own, and can help you get started.

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Table of contents

Thesis vs. thesis statement, how to structure a thesis, acknowledgements or preface, list of figures and tables, list of abbreviations, introduction, literature review, methodology, reference list, proofreading and editing, defending your thesis, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about theses.

You may have heard the word thesis as a standalone term or as a component of academic writing called a thesis statement . Keep in mind that these are two very different things.

• A thesis statement is a very common component of an essay, particularly in the humanities. It usually comprises 1 or 2 sentences in the introduction of your essay , and should clearly and concisely summarize the central points of your academic essay .
• A thesis is a long-form piece of academic writing, often taking more than a full semester to complete. It is generally a degree requirement for Master’s programs, and is also sometimes required to complete a bachelor’s degree in liberal arts colleges.
• In the US, a dissertation is generally written as a final step toward obtaining a PhD.
• In other countries (particularly the UK), a dissertation is generally written at the bachelor’s or master’s level.

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The final structure of your thesis depends on a variety of components, such as:

• Your discipline
• Your theoretical approach

Humanities theses are often structured more like a longer-form essay . Just like in an essay, you build an argument to support a central thesis.

In both hard and social sciences, theses typically include an introduction , literature review , methodology section ,  results section , discussion section , and conclusion section . These are each presented in their own dedicated section or chapter. In some cases, you might want to add an appendix .

Thesis examples

We’ve compiled a short list of thesis examples to help you get started.

• Example thesis #1:   “Abolition, Africans, and Abstraction: the Influence of the ‘Noble Savage’ on British and French Antislavery Thought, 1787-1807” by Suchait Kahlon.
• Example thesis #2: “’A Starving Man Helping Another Starving Man’: UNRRA, India, and the Genesis of Global Relief, 1943-1947″ by Julian Saint Reiman.

The very first page of your thesis contains all necessary identifying information, including:

• Your full title
• Your full name
• Your department
• Your institution and degree program
• Your submission date.

Sometimes the title page also includes your student ID, the name of your supervisor, or the university’s logo. Check out your university’s guidelines if you’re not sure.

Read more about title pages

The acknowledgements section is usually optional. Its main point is to allow you to thank everyone who helped you in your thesis journey, such as supervisors, friends, or family. You can also choose to write a preface , but it’s typically one or the other, not both.

Read more about acknowledgements Read more about prefaces

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• Academic style
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An abstract is a short summary of your thesis. Usually a maximum of 300 words long, it’s should include brief descriptions of your research objectives , methods, results, and conclusions. Though it may seem short, it introduces your work to your audience, serving as a first impression of your thesis.

Read more about abstracts

A table of contents lists all of your sections, plus their corresponding page numbers and subheadings if you have them. This helps your reader seamlessly navigate your document.

Your table of contents should include all the major parts of your thesis. In particular, don’t forget the the appendices. If you used heading styles, it’s easy to generate an automatic table Microsoft Word.

Read more about tables of contents

While not mandatory, if you used a lot of tables and/or figures, it’s nice to include a list of them to help guide your reader. It’s also easy to generate one of these in Word: just use the “Insert Caption” feature.

Read more about lists of figures and tables

If you have used a lot of industry- or field-specific abbreviations in your thesis, you should include them in an alphabetized list of abbreviations . This way, your readers can easily look up any meanings they aren’t familiar with.

Read more about lists of abbreviations

Relatedly, if you find yourself using a lot of very specialized or field-specific terms that may not be familiar to your reader, consider including a glossary . Alphabetize the terms you want to include with a brief definition.

Read more about glossaries

An introduction sets up the topic, purpose, and relevance of your thesis, as well as expectations for your reader. This should:

• Ground your research topic , sharing any background information your reader may need
• Define the scope of your work
• Introduce any existing research on your topic, situating your work within a broader problem or debate
• State your research question(s)
• Outline (briefly) how the remainder of your work will proceed

In other words, your introduction should clearly and concisely show your reader the “what, why, and how” of your research.

Read more about introductions

A literature review helps you gain a robust understanding of any extant academic work on your topic, encompassing:

• Selecting relevant sources
• Determining the credibility of your sources
• Critically evaluating each of your sources
• Drawing connections between sources, including any themes, patterns, conflicts, or gaps

A literature review is not merely a summary of existing work. Rather, your literature review should ultimately lead to a clear justification for your own research, perhaps via:

• Addressing a gap in the literature
• Building on existing knowledge to draw new conclusions
• Exploring a new theoretical or methodological approach
• Introducing a new solution to an unresolved problem
• Definitively advocating for one side of a theoretical debate

Read more about literature reviews

Theoretical framework

Your literature review can often form the basis for your theoretical framework, but these are not the same thing. A theoretical framework defines and analyzes the concepts and theories that your research hinges on.

Read more about theoretical frameworks

Your methodology chapter shows your reader how you conducted your research. It should be written clearly and methodically, easily allowing your reader to critically assess the credibility of your argument. Furthermore, your methods section should convince your reader that your method was the best way to answer your research question.

A methodology section should generally include:

• Your overall approach ( quantitative vs. qualitative )
• Your research methods (e.g., a longitudinal study )
• Your data collection methods (e.g., interviews or a controlled experiment
• Any tools or materials you used (e.g., computer software)
• The data analysis methods you chose (e.g., statistical analysis , discourse analysis )
• A strong, but not defensive justification of your methods

Read more about methodology sections

Your results section should highlight what your methodology discovered. These two sections work in tandem, but shouldn’t repeat each other. While your results section can include hypotheses or themes, don’t include any speculation or new arguments here.

Your results section should:

• State each (relevant) result with any (relevant) descriptive statistics (e.g., mean , standard deviation ) and inferential statistics (e.g., test statistics , p values )
• Explain how each result relates to the research question
• Determine whether the hypothesis was supported

Additional data (like raw numbers or interview transcripts ) can be included as an appendix . You can include tables and figures, but only if they help the reader better understand your results.

Read more about results sections

Your discussion section is where you can interpret your results in detail. Did they meet your expectations? How well do they fit within the framework that you built? You can refer back to any relevant source material to situate your results within your field, but leave most of that analysis in your literature review.

For any unexpected results, offer explanations or alternative interpretations of your data.

Read more about discussion sections

Your thesis conclusion should concisely answer your main research question. It should leave your reader with an ultra-clear understanding of your central argument, and emphasize what your research specifically has contributed to your field.

Why does your research matter? What recommendations for future research do you have? Lastly, wrap up your work with any concluding remarks.

Read more about conclusions

In order to avoid plagiarism , don’t forget to include a full reference list at the end of your thesis, citing the sources that you used. Choose one citation style and follow it consistently throughout your thesis, taking note of the formatting requirements of each style.

Which style you choose is often set by your department or your field, but common styles include MLA , Chicago , and APA.

Create APA citations Create MLA citations

In order to stay clear and concise, your thesis should include the most essential information needed to answer your research question. However, chances are you have many contributing documents, like interview transcripts or survey questions . These can be added as appendices , to save space in the main body.

Read more about appendices

Once you’re done writing, the next part of your editing process begins. Leave plenty of time for proofreading and editing prior to submission. Nothing looks worse than grammar mistakes or sloppy spelling errors!

Consider using a professional thesis editing service or grammar checker to make sure your final project is perfect.

Once you’ve submitted your final product, it’s common practice to have a thesis defense, an oral component of your finished work. This is scheduled by your advisor or committee, and usually entails a presentation and Q&A session.

After your defense , your committee will meet to determine if you deserve any departmental honors or accolades. However, keep in mind that defenses are usually just a formality. If there are any serious issues with your work, these should be resolved with your advisor way before a defense.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or research bias, make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

Research bias

• Survivorship bias
• Self-serving bias
• Availability heuristic
• Halo effect
• Hindsight bias
• Deep learning
• Generative AI
• Machine learning
• Reinforcement learning
• Supervised vs. unsupervised learning

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The conclusion of your thesis or dissertation shouldn’t take up more than 5–7% of your overall word count.

If you only used a few abbreviations in your thesis or dissertation , you don’t necessarily need to include a list of abbreviations .

If your abbreviations are numerous, or if you think they won’t be known to your audience, it’s never a bad idea to add one. They can also improve readability, minimizing confusion about abbreviations unfamiliar to your reader.

When you mention different chapters within your text, it’s considered best to use Roman numerals for most citation styles. However, the most important thing here is to remain consistent whenever using numbers in your dissertation .

A thesis or dissertation outline is one of the most critical first steps in your writing process. It helps you to lay out and organize your ideas and can provide you with a roadmap for deciding what kind of research you’d like to undertake.

Generally, an outline contains information on the different sections included in your thesis or dissertation , such as:

• Your anticipated title
• Your abstract
• Your chapters (sometimes subdivided into further topics like literature review , research methods , avenues for future research, etc.)

A thesis is typically written by students finishing up a bachelor’s or Master’s degree. Some educational institutions, particularly in the liberal arts, have mandatory theses, but they are often not mandatory to graduate from bachelor’s degrees. It is more common for a thesis to be a graduation requirement from a Master’s degree.

Even if not mandatory, you may want to consider writing a thesis if you:

• Plan to attend graduate school soon
• Have a particular topic you’d like to study more in-depth
• Are considering a career in research
• Would like a capstone experience to tie up your academic experience

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While Sandel argues that pursuing perfection through genetic engineering would decrease our sense of humility, he claims that the sense of solidarity we would lose is also important.

This thesis summarizes several points in Sandel’s argument, but it does not make a claim about how we should understand his argument. A reader who read Sandel’s argument would not also need to read an essay based on this descriptive thesis.  

Broad thesis (arguable, but difficult to support with evidence) 

Michael Sandel’s arguments about genetic engineering do not take into consideration all the relevant issues.

This is an arguable claim because it would be possible to argue against it by saying that Michael Sandel’s arguments do take all of the relevant issues into consideration. But the claim is too broad. Because the thesis does not specify which “issues” it is focused on—or why it matters if they are considered—readers won’t know what the rest of the essay will argue, and the writer won’t know what to focus on. If there is a particular issue that Sandel does not address, then a more specific version of the thesis would include that issue—hand an explanation of why it is important.  

Arguable thesis with analytical claim 

While Sandel argues persuasively that our instinct to “remake” (54) ourselves into something ever more perfect is a problem, his belief that we can always draw a line between what is medically necessary and what makes us simply “better than well” (51) is less convincing.

This is an arguable analytical claim. To argue for this claim, the essay writer will need to show how evidence from the article itself points to this interpretation. It’s also a reasonable scope for a thesis because it can be supported with evidence available in the text and is neither too broad nor too narrow.  

Arguable thesis with normative claim 

Given Sandel’s argument against genetic enhancement, we should not allow parents to decide on using Human Growth Hormone for their children.

This thesis tells us what we should do about a particular issue discussed in Sandel’s article, but it does not tell us how we should understand Sandel’s argument.  

Questions to ask about your thesis 

• Is the thesis truly arguable? Does it speak to a genuine dilemma in the source, or would most readers automatically agree with it?  
• Is the thesis too obvious? Again, would most or all readers agree with it without needing to see your argument?  
• Is the thesis complex enough to require a whole essay's worth of argument?  
• Is the thesis supportable with evidence from the text rather than with generalizations or outside research?  
• Would anyone want to read a paper in which this thesis was developed? That is, can you explain what this paper is adding to our understanding of a problem, question, or topic?
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The "Black Table" Is Still There - By Lawrence Otis Graham

Lawrence Otis Graham born in 1962 was lucky enough to be one of the few African-American families living in an upper-middle-class community in Westchester County near New York City. In the essay,  The "Black Table" Is Still There  Graham casts light on the causes of why the blacks are segregated in American society despite the attempt of the United States government since the 1950s to integrate all public schools there. Graham - a graduate of Princeton University and Harward Law School - works as an attorney in Manhattan and teaches at Fordham University.  The Supreme Court in 1954 found segregation of public schools an unconstitutional act.  Once again in 1971, the Supreme Court upheld the court order to achieve integration. After fourteen years, Graham returns to his old junior high school and he still finds that which he had not expected: he was very disappointed to see the "black table" was still there in the school cafeteria even after years of changes among races. He was expecting a kind of change but what he discovered was nothing close to his expectation.

In his essay, he discusses his concept of racism and how it developed from the time he was 13 to the time he was 27. He presents his experience as a black in an integrated school. Through him, one can understand the segregation of people and some of the reasons why colour differences continue to be a primary factor in why people segregate themselves. When he came to his junior high school for a class reunion after fourteen years, his concept changes: before he used to blame the blacks and as he returns to his old school he blames society.

When he was in his junior high school, he never sat with the black kids: he used to sit with the white ones. He was perhaps afraid of losing his white friends if he sat at the black table. Being at the black table, he thought that he would be making a racist, anti-white statement and would not support integration. From his position, he thought that it was his heroic action to be integrated with white ones. He used to be angry with black ones because, according to him, the black kids themselves were the reason why other kids did not mix more. And their self-segregation was the cause of white bigotry. Although he faced two incidents of blatantly racist (anti-black) behaviour: one in which his best friend, who was white, once told him that he should not come to his bar mitzvah because he would be the only black and would make (white) people feel uncomfortable; and the other incident is his mere presence, when he was only ten, in a private country club pool terrified white parents and they pulled their kids from the pool in terror, he was still somehow managed to blame only the black kids for being the barrier to integration.

Despite being an integrating black person, he says being a person of colour sitting with the white kids attracted its own scrutiny and disrespect from his own race. Due to this, he was being called "Oreo" and "white boy" by his own people (black kids). The investigation was not simply from the black ones, it was additionally from the white classmates, too, who inquired as to why he did not sit with the blacks, or for what reason all those black kids sit with each other.

Now after 27 years, he realizes how wrong he was then to think so. There were some other tables, too: two tables of athletes, an Italian table, a Jewish girls' table, a Jewish boys' table, a table of middle-class Irish kids and a table of kids who were into heavy metal music and smoking pot. His questions "Weren't these tables just as segregationist as the black table?" indicates that the black kids were not the only barrier to integration, rather it is the nature that people have and this is to be realized by all. From this, it is also clear that segregation goes beyond racial divides: people are social creatures; they create race and group barriers and segregate themselves into different groups that suit them best instead of trying multiethnic integration.

Comprehension

1. What exactly is the "black table"?

As in the essay, the "black table" means a lunch table in Graham's junior high school cafeteria where only black kids sit being segregated from the white kids.

2. In paragraph 1, Graham says that on a recent visit to his old junior high school he "came upon something that [he] never expected to see again." Why do you think the sight of the all-black lunch table was such a surprise to him?

The US government's attempt to encourage the integration of public schools since the 1950s, the Supreme Court's verdict relating segregation as an unconstitutional act and implementation of integration in public school systems according to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, a step toward integration between people of different races was a newer concept while he was in his junior high school. The scenario of self-segregation that he witnessed was upsetting him a lot. He was disappointed and very unsure whether he would ever integrate with others and sit at the "black table". He assumed that with the gap of time, the type of integration that the school was encouraging would one day become normal and there would not be any segregated (black) table(s), but when he returned to his old school after a long period of time, he was surprised to see the "black table" there. It means the things had stayed the same and it was, of course, not his expectation.

3. In Graham's junior high school, what factors determined where students sat?

In Graham's junior high school, students usually segregated themselves from others. They usually sat with them with whom they had something common; for instance, there were two tables of athletes, an Italian table, a Jewish girls' table, a Jewish boys' table, a table of middle-class Irish kids and a table of kids who were into heavy metal music and smoking pot.

4. Why didn't Graham sit at the "black table" when he was in junior high school?

Graham feared losing his white friends because he thought he would most probably be understood by his white friends that he was supporting anti-white sentiment if he sat at the "black table".

5. When he was a junior high school student, whom did Graham blame for the existence of the exclusively black lunch table? Whom or what does he now see as the cause of the table's existence?

When he was a junior high school student, he had a lot of dissatisfaction with those students who were sitting at the black table, and he, therefore, blamed them for the existence of the "black table". Now, he does not blame anybody. Instead of blaming anyone else, he understands that mandated integration is just superficial and despite the mandated integration, groups will tend to isolate themselves.

Purpose and Audience

1. What is Graham's thesis?

Graham's thesis is that despite mandated integration, groups will still segregate themselves based on their culture, interest or background.

2. Rather than introducing outside supporting information - such as statistics, interviews with educators, or sociological studies - Graham relies on his own opinions and on anecdotal evidence to support his thesis. Do you think this is enough? Explain your reasoning.

Despite the fact that Graham is making an expansive statement about self-segregation, this essay is to a great extent about his personal experience and how he has changed over the period of time. He is thinking about his own mentalities on how he should explore different spaces as a black person have developed. He looks back on how he used to feel a kind of frustration and hatred toward the black students who were involved in self-segregation and discusses the elements that have provoked him to distinctively see things. Since the article is so centred around personal reflection, it does not need any additional support.

3. Why does Graham give background information about himself in this essay - for example, in paragraphs 2 and 12? How does this information affect your reaction to him as a person? Your reaction to his essay? Do you think he needs to supply additional information about himself or about his junior high school? If so, what kind of information would be helpful?

The background information provided by graham offers a useful perspective on several levels. first, information about the types of activities Graham was involved in during his youth indicates that he had a relatively privileged upbringing for an African American boy of his generation. He mentions that he was often "the first and only black man" in many of the activities he participated in. This helps to explain why he may have been reluctant to join the "black table" and resented those who did. Graham had integrated into non-black spaces for most of his life; so, it seemed more natural for him to continue this in the cafeteria; he found it difficult why the other children could not do the same.

The information in paragraph 12 shows that despite his frequent participation in "integrated" spaces, he still faced prejudiced, even if he did not realize it. This information shows the difference a perspective makes when looking at the types of self-segregation Graham discusses.

4. Do you think Graham's primary purpose here is to criticize a system he despises, to change his audience's views about segregated lunch tables, or to justify his own behaviour? Explain your conclusion.

I don't think Graham's primary purpose here is to criticize a system he condemns. Rather it seems that he has tried to change his audience's views about segregated lunch tables. Through his article, he has drawn the attention of the readers to all tables along with the black table. He notices that black tables need more scrutiny than other similar tables like an Italian table, a Jewish girls' table, a Jewish boys' table, etc. and he thinks this is unfair. By pointing out how widespread self-segregation is among different groups, as well as how constant the phenomenon has remained over time, he seems to convince his readers to understand that it is not exclusively for black students.

5. In paragraph 5, Graham tells readers that he usually entered the cafeteria with a white friend; in paragraph 12, he reveals that his best friend was white. Why do you suppose he wants his audience to know these facts?

These facts are important for the readers to understand the context of this story. It is clear that there were primarily white kids in his friend circle, and his closeness to white friends brings a kind of dilemma before him and forces him not to sit at the black table with the kids of his own race. It superficially sounds very obvious and unquestioned that he sits with white friends but on the other hand, his decision was questioned both by his black and white classmates. To his black classmates, his decision was a form of betrayal whereas his white classmates wondered why he was not sitting with other black kids. Graham himself felt that if he did not choose to sit at the black, he would upset his white friends.

Style and Structure

1. Throughout his essay, Graham asks rhetorical   questions . Identify as many of these questions as you can. Are they necessary? Provocative? Distracting? Explain.

Actually paragraphs 3 and 7 are full of rhetorical questions. Along with these two, paragraph 10 has two others: "Is that what the all-black table means?" and "Is it a rejection of white people?". Similarly, paragraphs 13 and 14 contain two more rhetorical questions. They are: "What was I thinking?" and "Weren't these tables just as segregationists as the black table?" respectively.

As this essay is entirely based on Graham's own experience, rhetorical questions are justifiable for this essay. The purpose of making these rhetorical questions seems to show the types of questions he was struggling with himself during his stay in junior high school and he still struggles with many of them. These questions are helpful for the readers to understand what Graham was going through, and these rhetorical questions also stir up the readers to think about these questions themselves.

2. In paragraph 16, Graham quotes his long-ago classmates. What do these quotations reveal? Should he have included more of them?

If we look at paragraph 1, Graham says that the "black table" was "a source of fear and dread" for him during his stay in junior high school. His quotes in paragraph 16 help the readers to understand where this fear and dread came from. It does not matter where Graham sat, he felt that he couldn't win; he was criticized either way. If he sat at the black table, he felt like he would be avoiding his white friends, who didn't understand "why all those black kids sit together". On the other hand, not sitting at the black table resulted in scrutiny from his black classmates and more questions from white students.

These quotations reveal that Graham's anxiety about these segregated tables was not simply internal conflict. His choices were being analysed by his peers. Including more quotations would have helped to make it clearer; however, the essay works just fine as it is.

3. Is Graham's focus on finding causes, describing effects, or both? Explain.

This essay is primarily about causes. Of course, he first describes the causes that stop him from sitting at the black table. Because of causes, he chose to sit with his white classmates and often feared that he might lose them if he sat at the black table. Moreover, he assumed that the black students' self-segregation was promoting anti-white sentiment around. On the other hand, he also talks about possible causes for the existence of the black tables there. He also recalls how he once blamed the black students for the segregation but later he says it is people's tendency to self-segregate themselves on the basis of their common interests and others.

4. This essay uses first-person pronouns and contractions. Do you think Graham would have more credibility if he used a less personal and more formal style?

No, I don't think so because this essay is a very personal one in which Graham shares his own insights and experiences that he had to strongly support his thesis. Therefore, his informal style of using first-person pronouns best fits to the content of this essay.

Vocabulary Projects

1. Define each of the following words as it is used in this selection.

     scenario (2)      : a sequence of events

     espousing (8)     : supporting, embracing

     incensed (12)     : angered, outraged

     blatantly (13)     : obviously, clearly

     scrutiny (15)     : critical examination

     inroads (17)     : advances

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Home » Thesis – Structure, Example and Writing Guide

Thesis – Structure, Example and Writing Guide

Table of contents.

Definition:

Thesis is a scholarly document that presents a student’s original research and findings on a particular topic or question. It is usually written as a requirement for a graduate degree program and is intended to demonstrate the student’s mastery of the subject matter and their ability to conduct independent research.

History of Thesis

The concept of a thesis can be traced back to ancient Greece, where it was used as a way for students to demonstrate their knowledge of a particular subject. However, the modern form of the thesis as a scholarly document used to earn a degree is a relatively recent development.

The origin of the modern thesis can be traced back to medieval universities in Europe. During this time, students were required to present a “disputation” in which they would defend a particular thesis in front of their peers and faculty members. These disputations served as a way to demonstrate the student’s mastery of the subject matter and were often the final requirement for earning a degree.

In the 17th century, the concept of the thesis was formalized further with the creation of the modern research university. Students were now required to complete a research project and present their findings in a written document, which would serve as the basis for their degree.

The modern thesis as we know it today has evolved over time, with different disciplines and institutions adopting their own standards and formats. However, the basic elements of a thesis – original research, a clear research question, a thorough review of the literature, and a well-argued conclusion – remain the same.

Structure of Thesis

The structure of a thesis may vary slightly depending on the specific requirements of the institution, department, or field of study, but generally, it follows a specific format.

Here’s a breakdown of the structure of a thesis:

This is the first page of the thesis that includes the title of the thesis, the name of the author, the name of the institution, the department, the date, and any other relevant information required by the institution.

This is a brief summary of the thesis that provides an overview of the research question, methodology, findings, and conclusions.

This page provides a list of all the chapters and sections in the thesis and their page numbers.

Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of the research question, the context of the research, and the purpose of the study. The introduction should also outline the methodology and the scope of the research.

Literature Review

This chapter provides a critical analysis of the relevant literature on the research topic. It should demonstrate the gap in the existing knowledge and justify the need for the research.

Methodology

This chapter provides a detailed description of the research methods used to gather and analyze data. It should explain the research design, the sampling method, data collection techniques, and data analysis procedures.

This chapter presents the findings of the research. It should include tables, graphs, and charts to illustrate the results.

This chapter interprets the results and relates them to the research question. It should explain the significance of the findings and their implications for the research topic.

This chapter summarizes the key findings and the main conclusions of the research. It should also provide recommendations for future research.

This section provides a list of all the sources cited in the thesis. The citation style may vary depending on the requirements of the institution or the field of study.

This section includes any additional material that supports the research, such as raw data, survey questionnaires, or other relevant documents.

How to write Thesis

Here are some steps to help you write a thesis:

• Choose a Topic: The first step in writing a thesis is to choose a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. You should also consider the scope of the topic and the availability of resources for research.
• Develop a Research Question: Once you have chosen a topic, you need to develop a research question that you will answer in your thesis. The research question should be specific, clear, and feasible.
• Conduct a Literature Review: Before you start your research, you need to conduct a literature review to identify the existing knowledge and gaps in the field. This will help you refine your research question and develop a research methodology.
• Develop a Research Methodology: Once you have refined your research question, you need to develop a research methodology that includes the research design, data collection methods, and data analysis procedures.
• Collect and Analyze Data: After developing your research methodology, you need to collect and analyze data. This may involve conducting surveys, interviews, experiments, or analyzing existing data.
• Write the Thesis: Once you have analyzed the data, you need to write the thesis. The thesis should follow a specific structure that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion, and references.
• Edit and Proofread: After completing the thesis, you need to edit and proofread it carefully. You should also have someone else review it to ensure that it is clear, concise, and free of errors.
• Submit the Thesis: Finally, you need to submit the thesis to your academic advisor or committee for review and evaluation.

Example of Thesis

Example of Thesis template for Students:

Title of Thesis

Table of Contents:

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Chapter 3: Research Methodology

Chapter 4: Results

Chapter 5: Discussion

Chapter 6: Conclusion

References:

Appendices:

Note: That’s just a basic template, but it should give you an idea of the structure and content that a typical thesis might include. Be sure to consult with your department or supervisor for any specific formatting requirements they may have. Good luck with your thesis!

Application of Thesis

Thesis is an important academic document that serves several purposes. Here are some of the applications of thesis:

• Academic Requirement: A thesis is a requirement for many academic programs, especially at the graduate level. It is an essential component of the evaluation process and demonstrates the student’s ability to conduct original research and contribute to the knowledge in their field.
• Career Advancement: A thesis can also help in career advancement. Employers often value candidates who have completed a thesis as it demonstrates their research skills, critical thinking abilities, and their dedication to their field of study.
• Publication : A thesis can serve as a basis for future publications in academic journals, books, or conference proceedings. It provides the researcher with an opportunity to present their research to a wider audience and contribute to the body of knowledge in their field.
• Personal Development: Writing a thesis is a challenging task that requires time, dedication, and perseverance. It provides the student with an opportunity to develop critical thinking, research, and writing skills that are essential for their personal and professional development.
• Impact on Society: The findings of a thesis can have an impact on society by addressing important issues, providing insights into complex problems, and contributing to the development of policies and practices.

Purpose of Thesis

The purpose of a thesis is to present original research findings in a clear and organized manner. It is a formal document that demonstrates a student’s ability to conduct independent research and contribute to the knowledge in their field of study. The primary purposes of a thesis are:

• To Contribute to Knowledge: The main purpose of a thesis is to contribute to the knowledge in a particular field of study. By conducting original research and presenting their findings, the student adds new insights and perspectives to the existing body of knowledge.
• To Demonstrate Research Skills: A thesis is an opportunity for the student to demonstrate their research skills. This includes the ability to formulate a research question, design a research methodology, collect and analyze data, and draw conclusions based on their findings.
• To Develop Critical Thinking: Writing a thesis requires critical thinking and analysis. The student must evaluate existing literature and identify gaps in the field, as well as develop and defend their own ideas.
• To Provide Evidence of Competence : A thesis provides evidence of the student’s competence in their field of study. It demonstrates their ability to apply theoretical concepts to real-world problems, and their ability to communicate their ideas effectively.
• To Facilitate Career Advancement : Completing a thesis can help the student advance their career by demonstrating their research skills and dedication to their field of study. It can also provide a basis for future publications, presentations, or research projects.

When to Write Thesis

The timing for writing a thesis depends on the specific requirements of the academic program or institution. In most cases, the opportunity to write a thesis is typically offered at the graduate level, but there may be exceptions.

Generally, students should plan to write their thesis during the final year of their graduate program. This allows sufficient time for conducting research, analyzing data, and writing the thesis. It is important to start planning the thesis early and to identify a research topic and research advisor as soon as possible.

In some cases, students may be able to write a thesis as part of an undergraduate program or as an independent research project outside of an academic program. In such cases, it is important to consult with faculty advisors or mentors to ensure that the research is appropriately designed and executed.

It is important to note that the process of writing a thesis can be time-consuming and requires a significant amount of effort and dedication. It is important to plan accordingly and to allocate sufficient time for conducting research, analyzing data, and writing the thesis.

Characteristics of Thesis

The characteristics of a thesis vary depending on the specific academic program or institution. However, some general characteristics of a thesis include:

• Originality : A thesis should present original research findings or insights. It should demonstrate the student’s ability to conduct independent research and contribute to the knowledge in their field of study.
• Clarity : A thesis should be clear and concise. It should present the research question, methodology, findings, and conclusions in a logical and organized manner. It should also be well-written, with proper grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
• Research-Based: A thesis should be based on rigorous research, which involves collecting and analyzing data from various sources. The research should be well-designed, with appropriate research methods and techniques.
• Evidence-Based : A thesis should be based on evidence, which means that all claims made in the thesis should be supported by data or literature. The evidence should be properly cited using appropriate citation styles.
• Critical Thinking: A thesis should demonstrate the student’s ability to critically analyze and evaluate information. It should present the student’s own ideas and arguments, and engage with existing literature in the field.
• Academic Style : A thesis should adhere to the conventions of academic writing. It should be well-structured, with clear headings and subheadings, and should use appropriate academic language.

Advantages of Thesis

There are several advantages to writing a thesis, including:

• Development of Research Skills: Writing a thesis requires extensive research and analytical skills. It helps to develop the student’s research skills, including the ability to formulate research questions, design and execute research methodologies, collect and analyze data, and draw conclusions based on their findings.
• Contribution to Knowledge: Writing a thesis provides an opportunity for the student to contribute to the knowledge in their field of study. By conducting original research, they can add new insights and perspectives to the existing body of knowledge.
• Preparation for Future Research: Completing a thesis prepares the student for future research projects. It provides them with the necessary skills to design and execute research methodologies, analyze data, and draw conclusions based on their findings.
• Career Advancement: Writing a thesis can help to advance the student’s career. It demonstrates their research skills and dedication to their field of study, and provides a basis for future publications, presentations, or research projects.
• Personal Growth: Completing a thesis can be a challenging and rewarding experience. It requires dedication, hard work, and perseverance. It can help the student to develop self-confidence, independence, and a sense of accomplishment.

Limitations of Thesis

There are also some limitations to writing a thesis, including:

• Time and Resources: Writing a thesis requires a significant amount of time and resources. It can be a time-consuming and expensive process, as it may involve conducting original research, analyzing data, and producing a lengthy document.
• Narrow Focus: A thesis is typically focused on a specific research question or topic, which may limit the student’s exposure to other areas within their field of study.
• Limited Audience: A thesis is usually only read by a small number of people, such as the student’s thesis advisor and committee members. This limits the potential impact of the research findings.
• Lack of Real-World Application : Some thesis topics may be highly theoretical or academic in nature, which may limit their practical application in the real world.
• Pressure and Stress : Writing a thesis can be a stressful and pressure-filled experience, as it may involve meeting strict deadlines, conducting original research, and producing a high-quality document.
• Potential for Isolation: Writing a thesis can be a solitary experience, as the student may spend a significant amount of time working independently on their research and writing.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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What is a thesis | A Complete Guide with Examples

Table of Contents

A thesis is a comprehensive academic paper based on your original research that presents new findings, arguments, and ideas of your study. It’s typically submitted at the end of your master’s degree or as a capstone of your bachelor’s degree.

However, writing a thesis can be laborious, especially for beginners. From the initial challenge of pinpointing a compelling research topic to organizing and presenting findings, the process is filled with potential pitfalls.

Therefore, to help you, this guide talks about what is a thesis. Additionally, it offers revelations and methodologies to transform it from an overwhelming task to a manageable and rewarding academic milestone.

What is a thesis?

A thesis is an in-depth research study that identifies a particular topic of inquiry and presents a clear argument or perspective about that topic using evidence and logic.

Writing a thesis showcases your ability of critical thinking, gathering evidence, and making a compelling argument. Integral to these competencies is thorough research, which not only fortifies your propositions but also confers credibility to your entire study.

Furthermore, there's another phenomenon you might often confuse with the thesis: the ' working thesis .' However, they aren't similar and shouldn't be used interchangeably.

A working thesis, often referred to as a preliminary or tentative thesis, is an initial version of your thesis statement. It serves as a draft or a starting point that guides your research in its early stages.

As you research more and gather more evidence, your initial thesis (aka working thesis) might change. It's like a starting point that can be adjusted as you learn more. It's normal for your main topic to change a few times before you finalize it.

While a thesis identifies and provides an overarching argument, the key to clearly communicating the central point of that argument lies in writing a strong thesis statement.

What is a thesis statement?

A strong thesis statement (aka thesis sentence) is a concise summary of the main argument or claim of the paper. It serves as a critical anchor in any academic work, succinctly encapsulating the primary argument or main idea of the entire paper.

Typically found within the introductory section, a strong thesis statement acts as a roadmap of your thesis, directing readers through your arguments and findings. By delineating the core focus of your investigation, it offers readers an immediate understanding of the context and the gravity of your study.

Furthermore, an effectively crafted thesis statement can set forth the boundaries of your research, helping readers anticipate the specific areas of inquiry you are addressing.

Different types of thesis statements

A good thesis statement is clear, specific, and arguable. Therefore, it is necessary for you to choose the right type of thesis statement for your academic papers.

Thesis statements can be classified based on their purpose and structure. Here are the primary types of thesis statements:

Argumentative (or Persuasive) thesis statement

Purpose : To convince the reader of a particular stance or point of view by presenting evidence and formulating a compelling argument.

Example : Reducing plastic use in daily life is essential for environmental health.

Analytical thesis statement

Purpose : To break down an idea or issue into its components and evaluate it.

Example : By examining the long-term effects, social implications, and economic impact of climate change, it becomes evident that immediate global action is necessary.

Expository (or Descriptive) thesis statement

Purpose : To explain a topic or subject to the reader.

Example : The Great Depression, spanning the 1930s, was a severe worldwide economic downturn triggered by a stock market crash, bank failures, and reduced consumer spending.

Cause and effect thesis statement

Purpose : To demonstrate a cause and its resulting effect.

Example : Overuse of smartphones can lead to impaired sleep patterns, reduced face-to-face social interactions, and increased levels of anxiety.

Compare and contrast thesis statement

Purpose : To highlight similarities and differences between two subjects.

Example : "While both novels '1984' and 'Brave New World' delve into dystopian futures, they differ in their portrayal of individual freedom, societal control, and the role of technology."

When you write a thesis statement , it's important to ensure clarity and precision, so the reader immediately understands the central focus of your work.

What is the difference between a thesis and a thesis statement?

While both terms are frequently used interchangeably, they have distinct meanings.

A thesis refers to the entire research document, encompassing all its chapters and sections. In contrast, a thesis statement is a brief assertion that encapsulates the central argument of the research.

Here’s an in-depth differentiation table of a thesis and a thesis statement.

Now, to craft a compelling thesis, it's crucial to adhere to a specific structure. Let’s break down these essential components that make up a thesis structure

15 components of a thesis structure

Navigating a thesis can be daunting. However, understanding its structure can make the process more manageable.

Here are the key components or different sections of a thesis structure:

Your thesis begins with the title page. It's not just a formality but the gateway to your research.

Here, you'll prominently display the necessary information about you (the author) and your institutional details.

• Title of your thesis
• Your full name
• Your department
• Your institution and degree program
• Your submission date
• Your Supervisor's name (in some cases)
• Your Department or faculty (in some cases)
• Your University's logo (in some cases)
• Your Student ID (in some cases)

In a concise manner, you'll have to summarize the critical aspects of your research in typically no more than 200-300 words.

This includes the problem statement, methodology, key findings, and conclusions. For many, the abstract will determine if they delve deeper into your work, so ensure it's clear and compelling.

Acknowledgments

Research is rarely a solitary endeavor. In the acknowledgments section, you have the chance to express gratitude to those who've supported your journey.

This might include advisors, peers, institutions, or even personal sources of inspiration and support. It's a personal touch, reflecting the humanity behind the academic rigor.

Table of contents

A roadmap for your readers, the table of contents lists the chapters, sections, and subsections of your thesis.

By providing page numbers, you allow readers to navigate your work easily, jumping to sections that pique their interest.

List of figures and tables

Research often involves data, and presenting this data visually can enhance understanding. This section provides an organized listing of all figures and tables in your thesis.

It's a visual index, ensuring that readers can quickly locate and reference your graphical data.

Introduction

Here's where you introduce your research topic, articulate the research question or objective, and outline the significance of your study.

• Present the research topic : Clearly articulate the central theme or subject of your research.
• Background information : Ground your research topic, providing any necessary context or background information your readers might need to understand the significance of your study.
• Define the scope : Clearly delineate the boundaries of your research, indicating what will and won't be covered.
• Literature review : Introduce any relevant existing research on your topic, situating your work within the broader academic conversation and highlighting where your research fits in.
• State the research Question(s) or objective(s) : Clearly articulate the primary questions or objectives your research aims to address.
• Outline the study's structure : Give a brief overview of how the subsequent sections of your work will unfold, guiding your readers through the journey ahead.

The introduction should captivate your readers, making them eager to delve deeper into your research journey.

Literature review section

Your study correlates with existing research. Therefore, in the literature review section, you'll engage in a dialogue with existing knowledge, highlighting relevant studies, theories, and findings.

It's here that you identify gaps in the current knowledge, positioning your research as a bridge to new insights.

To streamline this process, consider leveraging AI tools. For example, the SciSpace literature review tool enables you to efficiently explore and delve into research papers, simplifying your literature review journey.

Methodology

In the research methodology section, you’ll detail the tools, techniques, and processes you employed to gather and analyze data. This section will inform the readers about how you approached your research questions and ensures the reproducibility of your study.

Here's a breakdown of what it should encompass:

• Research Design : Describe the overall structure and approach of your research. Are you conducting a qualitative study with in-depth interviews? Or is it a quantitative study using statistical analysis? Perhaps it's a mixed-methods approach?
• Data Collection : Detail the methods you used to gather data. This could include surveys, experiments, observations, interviews, archival research, etc. Mention where you sourced your data, the duration of data collection, and any tools or instruments used.
• Sampling : If applicable, explain how you selected participants or data sources for your study. Discuss the size of your sample and the rationale behind choosing it.
• Data Analysis : Describe the techniques and tools you used to process and analyze the data. This could range from statistical tests in quantitative research to thematic analysis in qualitative research.
• Validity and Reliability : Address the steps you took to ensure the validity and reliability of your findings to ensure that your results are both accurate and consistent.
• Ethical Considerations : Highlight any ethical issues related to your research and the measures you took to address them, including — informed consent, confidentiality, and data storage and protection measures.

Moreover, different research questions necessitate different types of methodologies. For instance:

• Experimental methodology : Often used in sciences, this involves a controlled experiment to discern causality.
• Qualitative methodology : Employed when exploring patterns or phenomena without numerical data. Methods can include interviews, focus groups, or content analysis.
• Quantitative methodology : Concerned with measurable data and often involves statistical analysis. Surveys and structured observations are common tools here.
• Mixed methods : As the name implies, this combines both qualitative and quantitative methodologies.

The Methodology section isn’t just about detailing the methods but also justifying why they were chosen. The appropriateness of the methods in addressing your research question can significantly impact the credibility of your findings.

Results (or Findings)

This section presents the outcomes of your research. It's crucial to note that the nature of your results may vary; they could be quantitative, qualitative, or a mix of both.

Quantitative results often present statistical data, showcasing measurable outcomes, and they benefit from tables, graphs, and figures to depict these data points.

Qualitative results , on the other hand, might delve into patterns, themes, or narratives derived from non-numerical data, such as interviews or observations.

Regardless of the nature of your results, clarity is essential. This section is purely about presenting the data without offering interpretations — that comes later in the discussion.

In the discussion section, the raw data transforms into valuable insights.

Start by revisiting your research question and contrast it with the findings. How do your results expand, constrict, or challenge current academic conversations?

Dive into the intricacies of the data, guiding the reader through its implications. Detail potential limitations transparently, signaling your awareness of the research's boundaries. This is where your academic voice should be resonant and confident.

Practical implications (Recommendation) section

Based on the insights derived from your research, this section provides actionable suggestions or proposed solutions.

Whether aimed at industry professionals or the general public, recommendations translate your academic findings into potential real-world actions. They help readers understand the practical implications of your work and how it can be applied to effect change or improvement in a given field.

When crafting recommendations, it's essential to ensure they're feasible and rooted in the evidence provided by your research. They shouldn't merely be aspirational but should offer a clear path forward, grounded in your findings.

The conclusion provides closure to your research narrative.

It's not merely a recap but a synthesis of your main findings and their broader implications. Reconnect with the research questions or hypotheses posited at the beginning, offering clear answers based on your findings.

Reflect on the broader contributions of your study, considering its impact on the academic community and potential real-world applications.

Lastly, the conclusion should leave your readers with a clear understanding of the value and impact of your study.

References (or Bibliography)

Every theory you've expounded upon, every data point you've cited, and every methodological precedent you've followed finds its acknowledgment here.

In references, it's crucial to ensure meticulous consistency in formatting, mirroring the specific guidelines of the chosen citation style .

Proper referencing helps to avoid plagiarism , gives credit to original ideas, and allows readers to explore topics of interest. Moreover, it situates your work within the continuum of academic knowledge.

To properly cite the sources used in the study, you can rely on online citation generator tools  to generate accurate citations!

Here’s more on how you can cite your sources.

Often, the depth of research produces a wealth of material that, while crucial, can make the core content of the thesis cumbersome. The appendix is where you mention extra information that supports your research but isn't central to the main text.

Whether it's raw datasets, detailed procedural methodologies, extended case studies, or any other ancillary material, the appendices ensure that these elements are archived for reference without breaking the main narrative's flow.

For thorough researchers and readers keen on meticulous details, the appendices provide a treasure trove of insights.

Glossary (optional)

In academics, specialized terminologies, and jargon are inevitable. However, not every reader is versed in every term.

The glossary, while optional, is a critical tool for accessibility. It's a bridge ensuring that even readers from outside the discipline can access, understand, and appreciate your work.

By defining complex terms and providing context, you're inviting a wider audience to engage with your research, enhancing its reach and impact.

Remember, while these components provide a structured framework, the essence of your thesis lies in the originality of your ideas, the rigor of your research, and the clarity of your presentation.

As you craft each section, keep your readers in mind, ensuring that your passion and dedication shine through every page.

Thesis examples

To further elucidate the concept of a thesis, here are illustrative examples from various fields:

Example 1 (History): Abolition, Africans, and Abstraction: the Influence of the ‘Noble Savage’ on British and French Antislavery Thought, 1787-1807 by Suchait Kahlon.

Example 2 (Climate Dynamics): Influence of external forcings on abrupt millennial-scale climate changes: a statistical modelling study by Takahito Mitsui · Michel Crucifix

Checklist for your thesis evaluation

Evaluating your thesis ensures that your research meets the standards of academia. Here's an elaborate checklist to guide you through this critical process.

Content and structure

• Is the thesis statement clear, concise, and debatable?
• Does the introduction provide sufficient background and context?
• Is the literature review comprehensive, relevant, and well-organized?
• Does the methodology section clearly describe and justify the research methods?
• Are the results/findings presented clearly and logically?
• Does the discussion interpret the results in light of the research question and existing literature?
• Is the conclusion summarizing the research and suggesting future directions or implications?

Clarity and coherence

• Is the writing clear and free of jargon?
• Are ideas and sections logically connected and flowing?
• Is there a clear narrative or argument throughout the thesis?

Research quality

• Is the research question significant and relevant?
• Are the research methods appropriate for the question?
• Is the sample size (if applicable) adequate?
• Are the data analysis techniques appropriate and correctly applied?
• Are potential biases or limitations addressed?

Originality and significance

• Does the thesis contribute new knowledge or insights to the field?
• Is the research grounded in existing literature while offering fresh perspectives?

Formatting and presentation

• Is the thesis formatted according to institutional guidelines?
• Are figures, tables, and charts clear, labeled, and referenced in the text?
• Is the bibliography or reference list complete and consistently formatted?
• Are appendices relevant and appropriately referenced in the main text?

Grammar and language

• Is the thesis free of grammatical and spelling errors?
• Is the language professional, consistent, and appropriate for an academic audience?
• Are quotations and paraphrased material correctly cited?

Feedback and revision

• Have you sought feedback from peers, advisors, or experts in the field?
• Have you addressed the feedback and made the necessary revisions?

Overall assessment

• Does the thesis as a whole feel cohesive and comprehensive?
• Would the thesis be understandable and valuable to someone in your field?

Ensure to use this checklist to leave no ground for doubt or missed information in your thesis.

After writing your thesis, the next step is to discuss and defend your findings verbally in front of a knowledgeable panel. You’ve to be well prepared as your professors may grade your presentation abilities.

Preparing your thesis defense

A thesis defense, also known as "defending the thesis," is the culmination of a scholar's research journey. It's the final frontier, where you’ll present their findings and face scrutiny from a panel of experts.

Typically, the defense involves a public presentation where you’ll have to outline your study, followed by a question-and-answer session with a committee of experts. This committee assesses the validity, originality, and significance of the research.

The defense serves as a rite of passage for scholars. It's an opportunity to showcase expertise, address criticisms, and refine arguments. A successful defense not only validates the research but also establishes your authority as a researcher in your field.

Here’s how you can effectively prepare for your thesis defense .

Now, having touched upon the process of defending a thesis, it's worth noting that scholarly work can take various forms, depending on academic and regional practices.

One such form, often paralleled with the thesis, is the 'dissertation.' But what differentiates the two?

Dissertation vs. Thesis

Often used interchangeably in casual discourse, they refer to distinct research projects undertaken at different levels of higher education.

To the uninitiated, understanding their meaning might be elusive. So, let's demystify these terms and delve into their core differences.

Here's a table differentiating between the two.

Wrapping up

From understanding the foundational concept of a thesis to navigating its various components, differentiating it from a dissertation, and recognizing the importance of proper citation — this guide covers it all.

As scholars and readers, understanding these nuances not only aids in academic pursuits but also fosters a deeper appreciation for the relentless quest for knowledge that drives academia.

It’s important to remember that every thesis is a testament to curiosity, dedication, and the indomitable spirit of discovery.

Good luck with your thesis writing!

Frequently Asked Questions

A thesis typically ranges between 40-80 pages, but its length can vary based on the research topic, institution guidelines, and level of study.

A PhD thesis usually spans 200-300 pages, though this can vary based on the discipline, complexity of the research, and institutional requirements.

To identify a thesis topic, consider current trends in your field, gaps in existing literature, personal interests, and discussions with advisors or mentors. Additionally, reviewing related journals and conference proceedings can provide insights into potential areas of exploration.

The conceptual framework is often situated in the literature review or theoretical framework section of a thesis. It helps set the stage by providing the context, defining key concepts, and explaining the relationships between variables.

A thesis statement should be concise, clear, and specific. It should state the main argument or point of your research. Start by pinpointing the central question or issue your research addresses, then condense that into a single statement, ensuring it reflects the essence of your paper.

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The black table is still there summary (english/nepali) and question answers | mero solution.

************************************************************************ Contents : 1) Summary of The Black Table is Still There in English 2) Summary of The Black Table is Still There in Nepali 3) Question Answers of The Black Table is Still There 3.1) Comprehensive Question Answers of The Black Table is Still There 3.2) Purpose and Audience Question Answers of The Black Table is Still There 3.3) Style and Structure Question Answers of The Black Table is Still There **********************************************************************

Summary of The Black Table is Still There in English                                       - Lawrence Otis Graham In "The 'Black Table' Is Still There" by Lawrence Otis Graham, relates his experiences as a junior high school student when he pays a visit to his school after fourteen years. He found out that "All black table"was still there along with other segregated tables in the school cafeteria and this table had such an effect on him. He wants to show the importance of being your own person instead of following the trend. By saying, "No matter who I walked in with - usually a white friend - no matter what mood I was in, there was one thing that was certain: I would not sit at the black table," he asserted that he would never go sit at that "all black table" which all the African American kids gathered around because he was afraid to lose all his white friends or he would be making an anti-white statement by sitting with them. He blamed those black teens for keeping integration in his school as he said, "I believed that the black kids were the reason why other kids didn't mix more. I was ready to believe that their self-segregation was the cause of white bigotry." Then, Lawrence finally realized "how wrong I was" when he stated, "During the same time, there were at least two tables of athletes, an Italian table, a Jewish girls table, a Jewish boys table, (where I usually sat), a table of kids who were into heavy metal music and smoking pot, a table of middle class Irish kids. Weren't these table just as segregationist as the black table?" The African American teens weren't isolating themselves by sitting together, but irritating what others were doing such as tables for athletes, Jewish, and Italians would sit. Segregation was a problem is still seen today not just back then. ************************************************************************ Summary of The Black Table is Still There in Nepali

A. Coprehensive :

Q.1. What exactly is the "black table"?

ANSWER : The "black table that Graham refers to is the lunch table in the cafeteria of his high school where only black students sit.

Q.2. In Graham's junior high school, what factors determined where students sat?

ANSWER : The integration between students of the same ethnic background. For example page 350 paragraph 14 states athletes sat with athletes, there was an Italian table, a Jewish girls' table, a Jewish boys' table, a table of kids who were into heavy metal music and smoking pop, and a table of middle-class Irish kids. These determined where they sat in the cafeteria because the students segregated themselves to sit with people they can merely relate too.

Q.3. Why didn't Graham sit at the "black table" when he was in junior high?

ANSWER : Graham thought by sitting at the all black table he would be making an anti-white statement, and he would lose all of his white friends. He didn't want to separate into a group; he believed people who separated themselves from others are the cause of people not communicating well with different religion or racial groups. Graham indicated in his excerpt that segregated tables is a comment on the superficial inroads that integration has made in society.

Q.4. When he was a junior high school student, whom did graham blame for the existence of the exclusively black lunch table? Whom or what does he now see as the cause of the table's existence?

ANSWER : In junior high school Graham blames the "blacks" for the existence of the "black table" he believed they isolated and segregated themselves. In actuality the existence of the table was everyone else who segregated themselves, it was because they were only focused on the "black table" and couldn't seem to see that the other tables around them were just as the "black table" just with their type of people. Graham explains maybe it's the color difference that makes allblack tables or all-black groups attract scrutiny and wrath of so many people.

B. Purpose and Audience :

Q.5. What is Graham's thesis?

ANSWER : Graham's thesis is that even with mandatory integration, groups will still segregate themselves based on culture or common interests.

Q.6. Rather than introducing outside supporting information - such as statistics, interviews with educators, or sociological studies-Graham relies on his own opinions and on anecdotal evidence to support his thesis. Do you think this is enough? Explain your reasoning.

ANSWER : Even though Graham is making a broad statement about self segregation, the essay is largely about his own experience and how he has changed over the years. He is reflecting about how his own attitudes on how he should navigate diverse spaces as a black man have evolved. He notes how he used to feel a sort of resentment toward the black students who engaged in self-segregation and talks about the factors that have prompted him to view things differently. Because the essay is so focused on personal reflection, it does not need additional supporting information.

Q.7. Why does Graham give background information about himself in this essay - for example, in paragraphs 2 and 12? How does this information affect your reaction to him as a person? Your reaction to his essay? Do you think he needs to supply additional information about himself or about his junior high school? If so, what kind of information would be helpful?

ANSWER : The background information that Graham provides gives helpful perspective on a few different levels. Firstly, the information about the types of activities that Graham was involved with during his youth shows that he had a relatively privileged upbringing for an African American boy from his generation. He mentions that he was often "the first and only black person" in many of the activities he was involved with. This helps to explain why he might have felt reluctant to join the "black table" and resentful of those who did. Graham had been integrating himself into non-black spaces for most of his life, so it felt more natural for him to continue doing so in the cafeteria: he had difficulty understanding why the other kids couldn't do the same.

The information in paragraph 12 shows that despite his frequent involvement in "integrated" spaces, he still faced prejudice, even when he didn't notice it. This information shows what a difference perspective makes when analyzing the types of self-segregation Graham discusses

Q.8. Do you think Graham's primary purpose here is to criticize a system he despises, to change his audience's views about segregated lunch tables, or to justify his own behavior? Explain your conclusion.

ANSWER : It seems that Graham is aiming to change his audience's views about segregated lunch tables. He notes that all-black tables receive more scrutiny than other similarly segregated tables and believes that this is unfair. By pointing out how widespread self-segregation is among different groups, as well as how constant the phenomenon has remained over time, he is helping the reader to understand that it is not exclusive to black students.

Q.9. In paragraph 5, Graham tells readers that he usually entered the cafeteria with a white friend; in paragraph 12, he reveals that his best friend was white. Why do you suppose he wants his audience to know these facts?

ANSWER : These facts are important to understanding the context of the story. Knowing that his circle of friends was primarily white makes Graham's choice not to sit at the "black table" make sense; he just wanted to sit with his friends.

Graham's closeness with a white friend circle caused conflict for him, both internally and externally, as alluded to in the article. On the surface, it would seem like wanting to sit with your closest friends would be an obvious, unquestioned choice, but this decision was questioned both by his white and black classmates. His black classmates saw Graham's decision as a form of betrayal, and his white students wondered why he wasn't sitting with the other black students, Graham himself felt like if he did choose to sit at the black table, he would upset his white friends.

C. Style and structure :

Q.10. Throughout his essay, Graham asks rhetorical questions. Identify as many of these questions as you can. Are they necessary? Provocative? Distracting? Explain.

ANSWER : Paragraphs 3 and 7 are comprised entirely of rhetorical questions.

‌Paragraph 10 contains two: "Is that what the all-black table means? Is it a rejection of white people?"

‌Paragraph 13 contains one: "What was I thinking?"

‌Paragraph 14 contains one: "Weren't these tables just as segregationist as the black table?"

Since Graham's essay is quite self-reflective, the rhetorical questions fit well into the essay. He includes them to show the types of questions he was struggling with himself each day in middle school; he still struggles with many of them. These rhetorical questions help the reader to understand what Graham was going through and also prompt the reader to think about these questions themself.

Q.11. In paragraph 16, Graham quotes his long-ago classmates. What do these quotations reveal? Should he have included more of them?

ANSWER : Graham says in paragraph 1 that "the black table" was a "source of fear and dread" for him all throughout junior high school. The quotes he includes in paragraph 16 help to explain where this fear and dread came from. No matter where Graham sat, he felt that he couldn't win; he was criticized either way. If he sat at the black table, he felt like he would be rejecting his white friends, who didn't understand "why all those black kids, sit together". On the other hand, not sitting at the black table resulted in scrutiny from his black classmates and more questions from white students.

These quotations reveal that Graham's anxiety about these segregated tables was not simply internal conflict. His choices were being analyzed by his peers. Including more quotations would have helped to make this clearer, but the essay works just fine as it is.

Q.12. Is Graham's focus on finding causes, describing effects, or both? Explain.

ANSWER : This essay is primarily about finding causes. Graham first discusses the causes that contributed to his choice not to sit at the black table. These causes included his desire to sit with his white friends, fear of losing his white friends, and his belief that the black students' self-segregation was contributing to bigotry. Graham also discusses possible causes for the existence of the black table; he talks about how he once attributed it to the black students, but later attributes it to peoples' natural tendency to self-segregate.

Q.13. This essay uses first-person pronouns and contractions. Do you think Graham would have more credibility if he used a less personal and more formal style?

ANSWER : Graham's essay is a very personal one in which he draws upon his own experiences to back up his thesis. His informal writing style is well suited to the content of his essay. ***********************************************************************

Posted by Krish chhetri

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• What Is a Thesis? | Ultimate Guide & Examples

What Is a Thesis? | Ultimate Guide & Examples

Published on 15 September 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on 5 December 2023.

A thesis is a type of research paper based on your original research. It is usually submitted as the final step of a PhD program in the UK.

Writing a thesis can be a daunting experience. Indeed, alongside a dissertation , it is the longest piece of writing students typically complete. It relies on your ability to conduct research from start to finish: designing your research , collecting data , developing a robust analysis, drawing strong conclusions , and writing concisely .

Thesis template

You can also download our full thesis template in the format of your choice below. Our template includes a ready-made table of contents , as well as guidance for what each chapter should include. It’s easy to make it your own, and can help you get started.

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Table of contents

Thesis vs. thesis statement, how to structure a thesis, acknowledgements or preface, list of figures and tables, list of abbreviations, introduction, literature review, methodology, reference list, proofreading and editing, defending your thesis, frequently asked questions about theses.

You may have heard the word thesis as a standalone term or as a component of academic writing called a thesis statement . Keep in mind that these are two very different things.

• A thesis statement is a very common component of an essay, particularly in the humanities. It usually comprises 1 or 2 sentences in the introduction of your essay , and should clearly and concisely summarise the central points of your academic essay .
• A thesis is a long-form piece of academic writing, often taking more than a full semester to complete. It is generally a degree requirement to complete a PhD program.
• In many countries, particularly the UK, a dissertation is generally written at the bachelor’s or master’s level.
• In the US, a dissertation is generally written as a final step toward obtaining a PhD.

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The final structure of your thesis depends on a variety of components, such as:

• Your discipline
• Your theoretical approach

Humanities theses are often structured more like a longer-form essay . Just like in an essay, you build an argument to support a central thesis.

In both hard and social sciences, theses typically include an introduction , literature review , methodology section ,  results section , discussion section , and conclusion section . These are each presented in their own dedicated section or chapter. In some cases, you might want to add an appendix .

Thesis examples

We’ve compiled a short list of thesis examples to help you get started.

• Example thesis #1:   ‘Abolition, Africans, and Abstraction: the Influence of the “Noble Savage” on British and French Antislavery Thought, 1787-1807’ by Suchait Kahlon.
• Example thesis #2: ‘”A Starving Man Helping Another Starving Man”: UNRRA, India, and the Genesis of Global Relief, 1943-1947’ by Julian Saint Reiman.

The very first page of your thesis contains all necessary identifying information, including:

• Your full title
• Your full name
• Your department
• Your institution and degree program
• Your submission date.

Sometimes the title page also includes your student ID, the name of your supervisor, or the university’s logo. Check out your university’s guidelines if you’re not sure.

Read more about title pages

The acknowledgements section is usually optional. Its main point is to allow you to thank everyone who helped you in your thesis journey, such as supervisors, friends, or family. You can also choose to write a preface , but it’s typically one or the other, not both.

Read more about acknowledgements Read more about prefaces

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An abstract is a short summary of your thesis. Usually a maximum of 300 words long, it’s should include brief descriptions of your research objectives , methods, results, and conclusions. Though it may seem short, it introduces your work to your audience, serving as a first impression of your thesis.

Read more about abstracts

A table of contents lists all of your sections, plus their corresponding page numbers and subheadings if you have them. This helps your reader seamlessly navigate your document.

Your table of contents should include all the major parts of your thesis. In particular, don’t forget the the appendices. If you used heading styles, it’s easy to generate an automatic table Microsoft Word.

Read more about tables of contents

While not mandatory, if you used a lot of tables and/or figures, it’s nice to include a list of them to help guide your reader. It’s also easy to generate one of these in Word: just use the ‘Insert Caption’ feature.

Read more about lists of figures and tables

If you have used a lot of industry- or field-specific abbreviations in your thesis, you should include them in an alphabetised list of abbreviations . This way, your readers can easily look up any meanings they aren’t familiar with.

Read more about lists of abbreviations

Relatedly, if you find yourself using a lot of very specialised or field-specific terms that may not be familiar to your reader, consider including a glossary . Alphabetise the terms you want to include with a brief definition.

Read more about glossaries

An introduction sets up the topic, purpose, and relevance of your thesis, as well as expectations for your reader. This should:

• Ground your research topic , sharing any background information your reader may need
• Define the scope of your work
• Introduce any existing research on your topic, situating your work within a broader problem or debate
• State your research question(s)
• Outline (briefly) how the remainder of your work will proceed

In other words, your introduction should clearly and concisely show your reader the “what, why, and how” of your research.

Read more about introductions

A literature review helps you gain a robust understanding of any extant academic work on your topic, encompassing:

• Selecting relevant sources
• Determining the credibility of your sources
• Critically evaluating each of your sources
• Drawing connections between sources, including any themes, patterns, conflicts, or gaps

A literature review is not merely a summary of existing work. Rather, your literature review should ultimately lead to a clear justification for your own research, perhaps via:

• Addressing a gap in the literature
• Building on existing knowledge to draw new conclusions
• Exploring a new theoretical or methodological approach
• Introducing a new solution to an unresolved problem
• Definitively advocating for one side of a theoretical debate

Read more about literature reviews

Theoretical framework

Your literature review can often form the basis for your theoretical framework, but these are not the same thing. A theoretical framework defines and analyses the concepts and theories that your research hinges on.

Read more about theoretical frameworks

Your methodology chapter shows your reader how you conducted your research. It should be written clearly and methodically, easily allowing your reader to critically assess the credibility of your argument. Furthermore, your methods section should convince your reader that your method was the best way to answer your research question.

A methodology section should generally include:

• Your overall approach ( quantitative vs. qualitative )
• Your research methods (e.g., a longitudinal study )
• Your data collection methods (e.g., interviews or a controlled experiment
• Any tools or materials you used (e.g., computer software)
• The data analysis methods you chose (e.g., statistical analysis , discourse analysis )
• A strong, but not defensive justification of your methods

Read more about methodology sections

Your results section should highlight what your methodology discovered. These two sections work in tandem, but shouldn’t repeat each other. While your results section can include hypotheses or themes, don’t include any speculation or new arguments here.

Your results section should:

• State each (relevant) result with any (relevant) descriptive statistics (e.g., mean , standard deviation ) and inferential statistics (e.g., test statistics , p values )
• Explain how each result relates to the research question
• Determine whether the hypothesis was supported

Additional data (like raw numbers or interview transcripts ) can be included as an appendix . You can include tables and figures, but only if they help the reader better understand your results.

Read more about results sections

Your discussion section is where you can interpret your results in detail. Did they meet your expectations? How well do they fit within the framework that you built? You can refer back to any relevant source material to situate your results within your field, but leave most of that analysis in your literature review.

For any unexpected results, offer explanations or alternative interpretations of your data.

Read more about discussion sections

Your thesis conclusion should concisely answer your main research question. It should leave your reader with an ultra-clear understanding of your central argument, and emphasise what your research specifically has contributed to your field.

Why does your research matter? What recommendations for future research do you have? Lastly, wrap up your work with any concluding remarks.

Read more about conclusions

In order to avoid plagiarism , don’t forget to include a full reference list at the end of your thesis, citing the sources that you used. Choose one citation style and follow it consistently throughout your thesis, taking note of the formatting requirements of each style.

Which style you choose is often set by your department or your field, but common styles include MLA , Chicago , and APA.

Create APA citations Create MLA citations

In order to stay clear and concise, your thesis should include the most essential information needed to answer your research question. However, chances are you have many contributing documents, like interview transcripts or survey questions . These can be added as appendices , to save space in the main body.

Read more about appendices

Once you’re done writing, the next part of your editing process begins. Leave plenty of time for proofreading and editing prior to submission. Nothing looks worse than grammar mistakes or sloppy spelling errors!

Consider using a professional thesis editing service to make sure your final project is perfect.

Once you’ve submitted your final product, it’s common practice to have a thesis defense, an oral component of your finished work. This is scheduled by your advisor or committee, and usually entails a presentation and Q&A session.

After your defense, your committee will meet to determine if you deserve any departmental honors or accolades. However, keep in mind that defenses are usually just a formality. If there are any serious issues with your work, these should be resolved with your advisor way before a defense.

The conclusion of your thesis or dissertation shouldn’t take up more than 5-7% of your overall word count.

When you mention different chapters within your text, it’s considered best to use Roman numerals for most citation styles. However, the most important thing here is to remain consistent whenever using numbers in your dissertation .

If you only used a few abbreviations in your thesis or dissertation, you don’t necessarily need to include a list of abbreviations .

If your abbreviations are numerous, or if you think they won’t be known to your audience, it’s never a bad idea to add one. They can also improve readability, minimising confusion about abbreviations unfamiliar to your reader.

A thesis or dissertation outline is one of the most critical first steps in your writing process. It helps you to lay out and organise your ideas and can provide you with a roadmap for deciding what kind of research you’d like to undertake.

Generally, an outline contains information on the different sections included in your thesis or dissertation, such as:

• Your anticipated title
• Your abstract
• Your chapters (sometimes subdivided into further topics like literature review, research methods, avenues for future research, etc.)

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