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Speech time calculator

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convert words to time .

How long will it take to read a speech or presentation?

Enter the word count into the tool below (or paste in text) to see how many minutes it will take you to read. Estimates number of minutes based on a slow, average, or fast paced reading speed.

Number of words

Reading speed

Common conversions (average speed)

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Introducing Speech Time Calculate

Estimate how many minutes your speeches, presentations, and voice-over scripts will take based on your words per minute rate!

How To Speech Time Calculate Using This Tool?

If you have a certain number of words or a piece of text you want to time, you can either type in the word count or paste the text into the provided area. This tool will then calculate how long it would take to read that text out loud.

The talk time estimate is calculated using the average speaking speed of adults, which is determined to be 183 words per minute based on scientific studies. If you’re interested in how long it would take to read silently, it’s estimated at 238 words per minute ( This data is also backed by research )

You can adjust the slider to change the words per minute value, which will affect the talk time estimate. However, the silent reading time estimate remains fixed at 238 words per minute.

For ease of use, we’ve also provided reference points for slow, average, and fast reading rates below the slider.

To begin anew, simply click the ‘clear text’ button to erase the content and restore the slider back to its original setting of 183.

Who is This Words to Minutes Converter Tool For?

If you are a student wondering how long is my essay or you’ve been tasked with writing a speech and need to know how many words to aim for and how many minutes will it take to deliver or perhaps you are a podcaster, just starting out, who wants the ability to easily synchronize music and spoken word without having to painstakingly calculate seconds between them, then this Speech Time Calculate is precisely for you!

From now on, instead of spending long hours in front of the computer trying to figure out how many seconds it takes for one phrase or section of dialogue to end and another to begin, you can let our innovative tool do all the work and convert your text to time quickly and accurately. With this powerful tool at your disposal, whether you’re giving a TED talk or just need to nail a business presentation, your life will become a little bit easier.

So keep reading to learn more about what this fantastic words to minutes converter has in store for public speakers, aspiring students, and professional radio producers alike!

Whether you want to read the text silently or speak aloud, you can use this tool as both:

Reading time calculator
Talk time calculator

Explanation of the Reading Time

Reading time refers to the duration it takes for an average person to read a written text silently while still comprehending its content. Based on an extensive analysis of 190 studies that involved 18,573 participants , research conducted by Marc Brysbaert in 2019 suggests that the typical silent reading speed for an adult individual is approximately 238 words per minute .

To convert word count to read time for a specific text, you can do so by dividing the total word count of the text by this established value of 238. Here is the mathematical equation for determining the duration of reading time in minutes:

Reading Time = Total Word Count / 238

Explanation of the Speech Time

Speech time refers to the duration it takes for an average person to read a text out loud. Based on data from 77 studies involving 5,965 people , it’s been found that most adults read aloud at a speed of approximately 183 words per minute ( research conducted by Marc Brysbaert in 2019 ). To figure out how long it will take to read a specific piece of text aloud, you can divide the total number of words in the text by this average rate of 183 words per minute.

Of course, it’s important to note that talk time can vary depending on factors such as clarity of speech, pauses for emphasis, and use of visual aids. However, using this tool for converting the number of words to minutes can still provide a helpful guideline for planning and practicing your presentation. By having a better understanding of speech rates, you can ensure that your message is delivered effectively and efficiently.

Benefits of Using a Speech Time Calculate

Time management in presentations.

Effective time management during presentations is crucial to ensure the audience remains engaged and the information is accurately conveyed. This is where our words to speaking time converter comes in handy. By using this tool, presenters can easily determine how many words they need to include in their presentation to stay within the allotted time frame.

Not only does it help with time management, but it also ensures that the pacing of the presentation is consistent, making it easier for the audience to follow. With the use of this presentation time calculator, presenters can confidently deliver their presentations without the worry of running over time or rushing through it.

Estimated speech time for public speaking

Public speaking can be nerve-wracking, especially when you have too little or too much information to fill your time slot. You wonder only if there were an accurate public speaking time calculator available so that you could be able to allocate the appropriate amount of time to each section of your presentation, ensuring that you cover all the necessary points without rushing or going over time.

Effective pacing is key in ensuring your message is delivered with clarity and impact.

Most public speakers target an average of 130-150 words per minute for their spoken content, meaning you should aim to limit your speaking time to roughly one minute per 130-150 words. While this may take some practice to achieve, the end result is a confident, well-timed delivery that keeps your audience engaged from start to finish.

Remember, in public speaking, less is often more—take your time to breathe and emphasize key points. Your audience will appreciate your thoughtful and measured approach. For that, you can use this tool and adjust your words to speech time.

Accurate estimations for audiobooks and podcasts

As more and more people turn to audiobooks and podcasts for their entertainment and information needs, accurate estimations of listening time have become more important than ever. After all, there’s nothing worse than settling in for a quick listen only to find yourself trapped in a story that goes on for hours longer than you anticipated.

That’s why it’s great to see publishers and podcast producers taking estimated reading time seriously, providing listeners with the information they need to choose the right content for their schedule. Whether you’re looking for a quick listen on your daily commute or a lengthy distraction for a lazy Sunday afternoon, accurate estimations using this words to speak time calculator make it easier than ever to find the perfect content.

Some Popular Speech Times

how many words in a 2 minute speech

Almost 300 words

how many words in a 3 minute speech

Almost 450 words

how many words in a 4 minute speech

Almost 600 words

how many words in a 15 minute speech

Almost 2250 words

The speech time is calculated taking 150 words per minute as reference value

Common conversions (average speed)

How long does it take to read 500 words?

3.8 minutes

How long does it take to read 750 words?

5.8 minutes

How long does it take to read 1000 words?

7.7 minutes

How long does it take to read 1200 words?

9.2 minutes

How long does it take to read 1500 words?

11.5 minutes

How long does it take to read 1800 words?

13.8 minutes

How long does it take to read 2000 words?

15.4 minutes

How long does it take to read 3000 words?

23.1 minutes

As the world becomes more fast-paced, time is a precious commodity. Determining how long your script will take to read, whether for a presentation or a video, can make a significant difference in engaging and retaining your audience’s attention.

That’s where our Words to Time Converter comes in handy. It’s a valuable tool for anyone working in various professions, from broadcast journalists to teachers to executives. No matter the industry, time is of the essence, and knowing how long your speech or presentation will take is crucial for effective communication.

Do you wonder how long it takes to deliver your speech?

This website helps you convert the number of words into the time it takes to deliver your speech, online and for free. This tool is useful when preparing a speech or a presentation. The number of minutes you will take is dependent on the number of words and your speed of speech, or reading speed.

Note: This calculator provides an indication only.

Enter details below

The overview below provides an indication of the minutes for a speech (based on an average reading speed of 130 words per minute):

Words in a 1 minute speech 130 words
Words in a 2 minute speech 260 words
Words in a 3 minute speech 390 words
Words in a 4 minute speech 520 words
Words in a 5 minute speech 650 words
Words in a 10 minute speech 1300 words
Words in a 15 minute speech 1950 words
Words in a 20 minute speech 2600 words
How long does a 500 word speech take? 3.8 minutes
How long does a 1000 word speech take? 7.7 minutes
How long does a 1250 word speech take? 9.6 minutes
How long does a 1500 word speech take? 11.5 minutes
How long does a 1750 word speech take? 13.5 minutes
How long does a 2000 word speech take? 15.4 minutes
How long does a 2500 word speech take? 19.2 minutes
How long does a 5000 word speech take? 38.5 minutes

Convert words to time

Word per minute speech

Enter the number of words in the box below to find out how many minutes it will take you to give your speech.

Word Counter

Paste your text here to find out the word count

Word Count: 0

Online Stopwatch

Time your speech on a timer for the actual time it takes you to deliver your speech, practice.

Our tool comes in handy when you are preparing for a speech or creating a presentation. The length of your speech depends on the amount of text and your speaking or reading speed.

Convert Words to Time

Calculate how long it will take to read a speech or presentation

Enter the word count of your speech below to see how long it will take you to read. Estimate the number of minutes based on a slow, average, or fast speaking pace.

Number of words

Reading speed, common conversions (average speed).

Free Online Words to Minutes Calculator

How long should your 5 minutes speech be? How many words should your essay be to take 5 minutes reading?

To find an answer, you need words to minutes calculator. IvyPanda Experts prepared this post, where you will find 10 free words to minutes converters, find out how to measure your speaking rate, and how long your X-minute speech has to be.

🏆 Top 10 Free Words to Minutes Converter

🎤 how long does a 4-minute speech have to be, ⏱ how to measure your speech length, 1. speech in minutes.

This is a free-to-use speech calculator to measure how long it takes to deliver your speech. To use this tool, you need to enter the word count and choose the reading speed: from slow (100 words per minute) to fast (160 words per minute). No registration is needed.

2. Words to Time

Words To Time as an ad-free text to speech calculator that will provide you with the number of minutes immediately. You can type the number of words you want to convert or paste your text and grab the result. Don’t forget to pick up the reading speed!

3. The Word Finder

This is a free speech length estimator. No sign-up, no ads, or captcha. Type the word count, choose speaking speed, and grab the result immediately. There are also available various cool apps like Font Generators, Backwards Text Converter, Time Calc, etc.

4. EdgeStudio

Edge Studio, the voice recording company, developed a free online script timer. Depending on the data available, you can put the words count, paste your text, or type the average words per line. You will get a result instantly after you click the button “Submit.” On the tab “Statistics,” you can find out stats about reading speed, word, and line count.

5. Copywritely

At this website, you can measure the time of reading your text within a couple of clicks using its words to minutes calculator. Paste your text, and at the bottom of the field, you will see the word count and the approximate speech time.

The tool is available in English, Russian, French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch. Also, there are available Grammar Checker, Alphabetizer, Words to Pages, and other apps that will become handy for any writing purpose.

6. Read-O-Meter

Read-O-Meter is a simple and hassle-free word to minutes calculator to estimate the reading time. All you have to do is just type or paste the text you want to calculate the speech or article length and press the button “Estimate Reading Time.”

7. TheVoice Realm

This speech length calculator was designed by the online voice casting company. To use it, you need to paste your text or the word count and find out the estimated time. The page also contains background information about the speaking speed and how many minutes in 300, 900, and more words.

To use the Words to Time Conversion tool, you need to know the word count of your text. To get the estimated speech time, you need to type the number of words and adjust reading or speaking time, and you will get an immediate result. The tool is free and contains no ads.

9. Debatrix

This is another ad-free word to minute speech calculator to find out how long your speech will take. To measure the estimated time, you need to paste the text. The online app will count the number of words and speech duration.

10. TextConverter

The website provides plenty of tools that will be useful for students, SEO specialists, and writers.

Choose the text type: speech or locution, reading rhythm, and get the estimated time for your project. The app also will count the number of words and characters.

On the website, you can also find other utilities: Text Randomizer, Upper and Lower Case converters, E-mails Extractor, Hashtags, etc. The site is available in English and Portuguese languages.

Why do we need to measure the reading or speaking time?

There can be a variety of reasons. For example, you should prepare a 5-minute speech, or your post should not exceed 10 minutes of reading.

Speaking or reading time depends on the person who is going to read the text. Below, you will find a table that will help you quickly determine the duration of the content. The table is divided into two parts. The first one gives you reference information of minutes to words conversion. The second one shows the inverse correlation.

This table provides only the estimated information. The actual speech duration depends on your speaking pace, pauses, and so on. Below you will find out what impacts and how to measure your speaking rate.

Keep reading!

In this post, we will share with you how to measure how long your speech will be. Also, you will find out what impacts your speaking pace and how to practice it.

Determine the Word Count

First things first, so let’s determine the number of words you want to turn to minutes. If you use the Microsoft Word or Open Office, you will find out the word count on the status bar at the bottom of the screen.

In Google Docs, you can click Tools>>Word Count, or use the shortcut CTRL+SHIFT+C. If you use other word processors, refer to the help system of the tool.

Determine the Speech Pace

If you don’t know how many words you speak per minute, there are a couple of options to find out it. Check them below!

Use the sample text. Here is how it works: take your sample text, start the timer, and begin reading it aloud. When the minute is up, use your word processing app to figure out how many words you read. This will be your speed of speech.

Record yourself. Another way to find out your speaking pace is to record your speech. Set a timer for a minute, read any text, or talk about any topic while recording it. Then, listen to it and count the words you spoke. You can count it manually or use the software, for example, IBM Speech to Text calculator .

What Impacts Your Speaking Rate?

The speaking rate is individual. There are many factors that influence it. Here are some of them:

Pauses, and rhetorical devices. The more it has, the slower your speaking rate will be.
Condition of the speaker. If you’re angry, excited, or in a hurry, you will probably speak faster than usual. On the other hand, when you are tired, it makes it harder to speak quickly.
Urgency. Here’s the deal: in emergencies, we are more likely will speak quicker than in a calm environment.
Mental issues. Some mental conditions may lead to a slower or faster speech rate.
Audience and event. For example, if you are recording audio for a radio ad, you will speak faster, since you are limited by the time. Another example is when you are trying to explain the complicated term to students. More likely, you will slow down your speech. During the presentation, you can also make pauses while changing the slides or checking your notes.
Environment. Yes, your background directly impacts your speaking pace: your dialect, family, culture, friends, and neighbors, etc.
Words and content complexity. The long and complex words also impact your speaking pace, making it slower. The same can be said about complex content—it requires more time to deliver it to the audience. Remember about this if you are limited by time.
Language. Depending on the language you speak, your speaking rate will vary. In 2011, the University of Lyon researchers asked volunteers to read twenty texts in their native languages: English, German, French, Spanish, Mandarin, Japanese, and Italian. The purpose of studies was to find out how the density of syllables impacts the rate of communication.

Here’s what they found: the Mandarin language is the slowest one, with 5.18 syllables per second. However, it has the highest information density. The fastest language is Japanese, with its 7.84 syllables per second rate. English language speaking rate is 6.19 syllables per second.

Another interesting fact about the speaking rate is the world record shattered by Steve Woodmore . He articulates 637 words in one minute!

If you are wondering about the average speaking rates, check the table below:

Source: National Center for Voice and Speech

But what about reading? Is the reading pace the same as speaking?

On average, people read 180-300 words per minute. However, speed readers can read 1000+ words per minute.

How to Practice Your Speaking Rate?

You might have met people called a motor-mouth — they speak too fast, and words seem rocket out from their mouths. Others, on the opposite, speak too slowly. You can compare them with sloths from the movie Zootopia:

Both these cases can be fun for a while. However, the too fast and too slow speech will make the listeners lose their interest.

The solution is to practice your speaking rate, making it flexible, and adapting to your audience’s needs.

Below, you will find five easy exercises that will help you to develop a flexible speaking rate:

Read children’s books aloud.

Here’s the deal: when you read stories to a child, you might notice that some passages require you to speak faster, while others must be read at a slow pace.

Read a story several times aloud to become familiar with the text and its passages. If it is possible, record yourself. Then, try reading the text and change the pace. Listen to the records to hear the differences. Think of how the speaking rate impacts the comprehension of the text.

Read scientific reports.

You may find this exercise boring, but yet it will be helpful for delivering complex things in your future speeches.

First, pick up the newspaper or magazine. For example, you can try a Science magazine website — there are plenty of interesting topics, reports, and articles to discover. After you select the report, read it silently to familiarize yourself with the material. The next step is to read it aloud (don’t forget about recording yourself!), noting which parts of the text should be read at a slow pace, and which — faster.

You can extend this exercise and image that you read the article to someone who knows nothing about this topic. Listen to the records and pay attention to the changes you made.

Read your own class speeches.

Make a series of experiments with one of your old class speeches. First, record it delivering the speech at your normal speaking pace. Check the time it took to deliver.

The next step is to mark down some passages to read at slower and others — at a faster rate. Now, read it aloud again while adhering to the marks. Listen to the records; note how changed the time and overall speech comprehension.

Listen to various speakers.

Watch the movie, listen to the news on TV, and watch the classical play. Compare the speech rates of the speakers. You will notice the rhetorical devices they use and how effective their speech is. Then, experiment with your own speech and see how it changes.

Read texts you are familiar with.

Read the text you already know at a quicker or slower pace than usual. Record yourself and play it back. Note the places where your speaking rate was effective and where it wasn’t. Then, mark these places and reread the text again, implementing these changes and recording yourself. See how your speech has changed.

These simple exercises will help you to produce effective speeches for various audiences.

There are a couple of things you need to remember when you speak:

Fast speaking indicates urgency, passion, and emotions. If you want to stimulate and excite the attention of your listeners, speak quickly. However, you should remember that after a couple of minutes of listening to fast speech, it becomes overwhelming.
Slow speaking, on the other hand, indicates the seriousness of your point, its importance. Use this approach to grab the attention of your audience. The slow pace also will help them to easier process the information you want to deliver. Similar to fast speaking, too slow pace in your entire speech also can overwhelm and bore your listeners.

How to Make the Speech Memorable

Pace yourself to highlight the most important parts of the speech, and your audience will memorize what you said. The key to any great speech is the retention of the audience. Check the IvyPanda expert advice to make your talks memorable :

Tell stories. Interesting examples not only illustrate your speech but also help listeners to recall what you said. Humor and short stories from your life will also help you to grab the attention of your audience. Important notice: tell only relevant ones and don’t overuse them.
Use pauses and breaks. Just like a novel is broken into chapters and paragraphs, pauses in your speech serve as a signal of the end of one point and transition to another.

Use simple and short sentences and phrases. Short sentences and simple language will help you to maximize the engagement and comprehension of your audience. Avoid complex words unless you are talking about specific tech terms in front of the professionals in this sphere.

Engage your audience with questions. At the beginning of the speech, ask your audience a question or two. This method will give them a hook and grab their attention.
Review your speech after you wrote it. Check if everything is clear. Rehearse it in various rates and note places where you need to speed up your speech and where to slow it down.

Now you know how to find out the length of your speech, have all the tools to convert words to minutes, and advice on how to practice your speaking rate. Don’t forget to check our other tools to write outstanding speeches.

Updated: Oct 25th, 2023

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When you are working on a 5-minute speech, you may want to know how many words you should write. This page contains links to 10 free online words to minutes converters. Here you will also find tips on how to measure your speaking rate and how to make your speech memorable.

Text to Speech Time Calculator

Table of contents.

the definitive guide on “text to speech how many minutes” it equates to. Whether you’re a professional looking to streamline your workflow, a student aiming to enhance your learning experience, or simply curious about this technological wonder, understanding the time dynamics of text-to-speech (TTS) is crucial. Join us as we dive into the intricacies of TTS, dissecting everything from its definition to the minute details of speech timing.

What is Text to Speech?

Text to speech is a fascinating technology that converts written text into spoken words. Utilizing sophisticated algorithms and linguistic models, TTS systems provide a voice to the voiceless text, enabling users to listen to written content as if it were being read aloud. This technology bridges the gap between digital text and auditory comprehension, offering a multitude of applications across various sectors.

Top 10 Use Cases of Text to Speech

Assisting Visually Impaired Individuals : TTS technology is a lifeline for those with visual impairments. It enables them to consume written material through auditory means, thereby granting them greater independence in accessing information and entertainment.
Language Learning Tools : Language learners leverage TTS to hear correct pronunciation and intonation in a new language, facilitating improved linguistic skills and better accent acquisition.
Navigation Systems : Modern navigation aids use TTS to provide turn-by-turn directions, allowing drivers to focus on the road while receiving audible instructions.
E-Book Reading : E-readers and apps with TTS capabilities can read books out loud, turning any text-based material into an audiobook for convenient consumption.
Accessibility in Education : Students with reading difficulties such as dyslexia can benefit from TTS software, which helps them to better understand the text by listening to it.
Voice Over Production : Voice actors and producers use TTS to draft voice over scripts and create preliminary versions of the spoken content for multimedia projects.
Customer Service Automation : Automated customer service systems employ TTS to communicate with customers, providing information and resolving queries without human intervention.
Public Announcements : Airports, train stations, and other public spaces use TTS to make announcements, delivering consistent and clear messages to the public.
Speech Synthesis for AI Assistants : AI assistants like Siri, Alexa, and Google Assistant rely on TTS to converse with users, answering questions and performing tasks through voice commands.
Telecommunications : TTS is instrumental in reading out text messages or information over the phone, particularly in scenarios where hands-free communication is necessary.

How Much Does Text to Speech Cost?

Text to speech services can range from free to several hundred dollars, depending on the quality, features, and licensing requirements. Open-source TTS systems offer no-cost solutions with varying degrees of sophistication, while premium services provide more natural voices, multilingual support, and additional features, catering to professional speech writers and corporations.

How Long Does It Take to Read Text Aloud?

The duration required for TTS to read a text aloud is influenced by the reading speed (measured in words per minute, or wpm), the number of words, and the spacing and grammar complexity of the text. The average person speaks at approximately 150-160 wpm, which TTS systems often mirror for a natural rhythm.

The Pros and Cons of Using Text to Speech

Increases accessibility for individuals with disabilities.
Enhances multitasking capabilities.
Allows for adjustable speaking speeds.
May lack the emotional nuances of human speech.
High-quality voices can be costly.
Could be less engaging for certain audiences.

How Does Text to Speech Timer Work?

A text to speech timer estimates the speech time based on a predefined speech rate (wpm). Users can input their text, select the desired speed, and the timer will convert words into the estimated number of minutes it will take for the speech to be read aloud.

Speech Duration by Word Count

1-minute speech.

For a 1-minute speech, the average word count is about 150-160 words when spoken at a normal speed.

2-Minute Speech

A 2-minute speech typically contains between 300-320 words at the average speaking rate.

3-Minute Speech

A standard 3-minute speech will have approximately 450-480 words given the average speed of speech.

4-Minute Speech

In a 4-minute speech, expect to fit in around 600-640 words, adhering to the average person’s speaking tempo.

5-Minute Speech

A 5-minute speech usually comprises about 750-800 words, based on the average speaking rate.

10-Minute Speech

A longer 10-minute speech would generally encompass about 1500-1600 words, considering a steady speaking speed.

Try Speechify Text to Speech

Cost : Free to try

Speechify Text to Speech is a groundbreaking tool that has revolutionized the way individuals consume text-based content. By leveraging advanced text-to-speech technology, Speechify transforms written text into lifelike spoken words, making it incredibly useful for those with reading disabilities, visual impairments, or simply those who prefer auditory learning. Its adaptive capabilities ensure seamless integration with a wide range of devices and platforms, offering users the flexibility to listen on-the-go.

Top 5 Speechify TTS Features :

High-Quality Voices : Speechify offers a variety of high-quality, lifelike voices across multiple languages. This ensures that users have a natural listening experience, making it easier to understand and engage with the content.

Seamless Integration : Speechify can integrate with various platforms and devices, including web browsers, smartphones, and more. This means users can easily convert text from websites, emails, PDFs, and other sources into speech almost instantly.

Speed Control : Users have the ability to adjust the playback speed according to their preference, making it possible to either quickly skim through content or delve deep into it at a slower pace.

Offline Listening : One of the significant features of Speechify is the ability to save and listen to converted text offline, ensuring uninterrupted access to content even without an internet connection.

Highlighting Text : As the text is read aloud, Speechify highlights the corresponding section, allowing users to visually track the content being spoken. This simultaneous visual and auditory input can enhance comprehension and retention for many users.

Who is the author of the book “e-Speak”?

Johnathan Marks is the author of the book “e-Speak”.

What is the average length of a book?

The average length of a book is typically around 80,000 to 100,000 words.

What is the time for a text to speech to read a book?

The time it takes for text to speech to read a book depends on the total word count and the selected speech rate. For an average-sized book of 90,000 words, at 150 wpm, it would take about 10 hours.

What is the definition of text-to-speech?

Text-to-speech (TTS) is a type of assistive technology that reads digital text aloud. It’s sometimes called “read aloud” technology.

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Cliff Weitzman

Cliff Weitzman is a dyslexia advocate and the CEO and founder of Speechify, the #1 text-to-speech app in the world, totaling over 100,000 5-star reviews and ranking first place in the App Store for the News & Magazines category. In 2017, Weitzman was named to the Forbes 30 under 30 list for his work making the internet more accessible to people with learning disabilities. Cliff Weitzman has been featured in EdSurge, Inc., PC Mag, Entrepreneur, Mashable, among other leading outlets.

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The Read Time

Words to time converter, accurately estimate talk time for presentations, speeches and voice-over scripts.

Words per Minute:

Not sure about your reading speed? Get it tested with our Free Reading Speed Test

Learn to Speed Read with our Speed Reader

A tool to find out what any word count looks like: What does any word count look like?

Require a sentence count? Do try out our Sentence Counter

Also, convert text to speech with Read My Text

Does This Free Tool Convert Words To Time?

Yes, this tool essentially converts words to time by estimating speech time for texts of all lengths. This is ideal for people who want to calculate talk time for presentations, speeches and voice-over scripts beforehand

How Do I Use This Words To Time Tool?

If you know the number of words, enter this amount in number format into the text area OR if you have a body of text, just copy and paste this onto the text area.
The tool will automatically calculate the Talk Time based on your input. The default Talk Time estimate is based on an oral reading rate of 183 words per minute ; which is considered to be the accepted average for adults according to scientific research. Silent Reading Time is estimated based on a fixed reading speed of 238 words per minute .
Drag the slider to change the words per minute value to see corresponding Talk Time estimates. This will not have an effect on the Silent Reading Time estimate as the reading rate is fixed at 238 words per minute. Slow, Average and Fast reading rates have been denoted in the above table for guidance.
Press the 'clear text' button to empty the text area and reset the slider to its default value of 183.

Is 183 Words Per Minute An Accurate Measure Of Oral Reading Speed?

Yes, based on a paper published by Marc Brysbaert , the average speed for reading aloud is estimated to be 183 words per minute for adults. This value is based on 77 studies involving 5965 participants. The paper further states that reading rates are lower for older adults, children and readers with English as a second language.

What Is Read Time?

Read time is the time taken for an average person to silently read a piece of text while maintaining reading comprehension. Based on the meta-analysis of 100's of studies involving over 18000 participants, the average silent reading speed for an adult individual has been estimated to be approximately 238 words per minute (Marc Brysbaert,2019) .

The reading time of a piece of text can thus be deduced by dividing the total word count by this value of 238. Below is the mathematical formula for calculating reading time in minutes:

Reading Time = Total Word Count / 238

If the reading material consists of images or illustrations, we can assume that an average reader spends around 5 seconds per image, which is equivalent to 0.083 minutes. Hence, we can further modify this formula as below:

Reading Time = Total Word Count / 238 + (Number of Images * 0.083)

Simple Math Really! 🙂

How Long Does It Take To Read 1000 Words?

Assuming the average reading speed of an adult individual is 238 words per minute, it takes approximately 4 minutes and 12 seconds to read 1000 words.

Reading Time For Popular Word Counts (Table)

How long does it take to read 100 pages.

Assuming a page consists of 500 words, it approximately takes 3 hours and 30 minutes to read 100 pages.

Reading Time For Popular Page Counts (Table)

What is speech time.

Speech Time is the time taken for an average person to read aloud a piece of text. Based on the meta-analysis of nearly 80 studies involving 6000 participants, the average oral reading speed for an adult individual is considered to be 183 words per minute (Marc Brysbaert,2019) . The speech time of a piece of text can then be deduced by dividing the total word count by this value of 183. Again simple Math. 🙂

How Long Does It Take To Speak 1000 Words?

Assuming the average oral reading speed of an adult individual is 183 words per minute, it takes approximately 5 minutes and 28 seconds to orate 1000 words.

What Other Metrics Does The Read Time Provide?

In addition to reading time and speech time, The Read Time provides the word count for texts of all lengths.

Who Is It For?

The Read Time is an ideal free tool for scriptwriters, content writers, educators, students and just about anyone who wants to measure the number of words and reading time for texts of all lengths.

Is My Text/Data Safe?

thereadtime.com does not store or process any text/data on its servers while the computations are done purely on the client's browser.

Words to Minutes Calculator

Convert words to minutes to find out the time of your speech or text reading

Paste a text

Paste a content for which you want to calculate reading or speaking time.

Choose a speed of speech

Set how many words per minute you usually read or pronounce.

Evaluate a result

Get instant result with forecast of time period your speech will take.

Fix content issues

Take time on fixing grammar and readability issues to make your speech clear.

What’s inside?

Plagiarism checker

If you are interested to make your speech unique, use duplicate content checker to detect the parts of content that are copied from other websites.

Keyword density checker

Sometimes keyword stuffing can spoil a speech. Keyword density tool will show what words are used the most often in your speech and replace them with synonyms.

Article rewriter

Online editor inside helps to get a list of highlighted issues, fix them instantly and make your content easy to understand.

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Speech Time Calculator

Introduction.

The Speech Time Calculator is a valuable tool designed to assist speakers, presenters, and event organizers in effectively managing their time during public speaking engagements. Whether preparing for a conference, seminar, or any public address, this calculator helps individuals allocate time wisely, ensuring a smooth and well-paced presentation.

The formula for the Speech Time Calculator revolves around dividing the total number of words in a speech by the average words spoken per minute. The formula can be expressed as:

Speech Time (minutes)=Total Words Words Per Minute Speech Time (minutes) = Words Per Minute Total Words

This formula provides an estimate of the time required to deliver a speech based on the speaker’s average speaking speed.

How to Use?

Utilizing the Speech Time Calculator is straightforward and efficient. Here’s a step-by-step guide:

Input Total Words : Enter the total number of words in your speech. This can be an estimate or the actual word count.
Enter Words Per Minute : Specify your average speaking speed in words per minute. This is a personal metric that can be determined through practice or previous speaking engagements.
Click Calculate or Submit : Initiate the calculation process by clicking the designated button on the calculator interface.
Review the Output : The calculator will display the estimated speech time in minutes, allowing the speaker to plan and allocate time effectively.

Suppose a speaker has prepared a speech with 800 words and speaks at an average rate of 150 words per minute. Using the Speech Time Calculator, the estimated speech time would be:

Speech Time (minutes)=800150≈5.33 minutes Speech Time (minutes) = 150 800 ≈ 5.33 minutes

Therefore, the estimated speech time for the given scenario is approximately 5.33 minutes.

Q: Can the Speech Time Calculator account for pauses or audience interaction?

A: The calculator provides a general estimate and does not account for pauses or audience interaction. Speakers may adjust the calculated time based on their individual presentation style.

Q: Is there a recommended words-per-minute rate for public speaking?

A: While an average speaking rate is around 125-150 words per minute, the ideal rate varies based on the speaker’s style, content complexity, and audience.

Q: How accurate is the Speech Time Calculator?

A: The calculator provides a helpful estimate, but actual speech times may vary based on delivery speed, pauses, and other factors.

Conclusion:

The Speech Time Calculator is a valuable tool for speakers and presenters, offering a quick and efficient means of estimating the time required for a speech. By considering the total word count and the speaker’s average words-per-minute rate, this calculator empowers individuals to plan their presentations effectively, ensuring a well-paced and engaging delivery. Whether addressing a large audience or participating in a time-sensitive event, the Speech Time Calculator proves to be an indispensable resource for optimizing speech preparation and delivery.

Free Script Timer - Words to Time Calculator

Word Timer is a free and easy-to-use script timer and word-to-time calculator that estimates the length of your script at your reading speed.

Understanding Script Timer or Word Timer

Content creation demands precision, effectiveness, and engagement. One tool that stands out in achieving these goals is the Script Timer . This blog post delves into the essence of a Script Timer, exploring its utility and relevance in various professional contexts.

What is a Script Timer or Word Timer?

A Script Timer is a tool designed to estimate the duration of reading a script aloud. This tool is invaluable in various fields including broadcasting, radio, podcasting, video production, and public speaking. It ensures that your script aligns with time constraints and maintains audience engagement.

Role of Script Timers in Businesses

Precision in Advertising : In marketing and advertising, every second counts. A Script Timer helps in crafting advertisements that convey the message within the designated time slot, maximizing impact and cost-efficiency.
Efficiency in Video Production : Timing is crucial for content creators in the digital space, such as Vidyard . A Script Timer assists in scripting concise, impactful videos that retain viewer attention.
Enhancing Public Speaking : Whether it’s a business presentation or a keynote speech, a Script Timer, as discussed in Top 10 Presentations: The Power of a Great Speech , is a vital tool for pacing and delivering impactful speeches.

The Technical Side of Script Timers

Understanding the mechanism of a Script Timer involves acknowledging its algorithm, which analyzes the number of words and the average speaking rate. This is where tools like Word Timer come into play, offering an easy-to-use platform for timing scripts.

In scriptwriting, timing is as crucial as the content. A Script Timer, as elaborated on Script Writing , assists writers in balancing dialogue and narrative, ensuring the script fits the intended duration.

With the advent of AI and advanced algorithms, Script Timers have evolved. They now offer more accurate estimations, adapting to various speaking styles and complexities in language.

The Business Value of Script Timers

In conclusion, a Script Timer is more than just a timing tool; it’s an essential asset in the arsenal of content creators, marketers, and speakers. Its ability to marry precision with creativity makes it indispensable in crafting impactful, audience-tailored content. In an age where time is a valuable commodity, a Script Timer ensures your message is not just heard, but also felt, within the right period.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

A word timer is a tool that calculates the time required to read a piece of text based on its word count. It helps writers plan and deliver content within specific time limits, ensuring effective time management and audience engagement.

A word timer uses an average reading speed to estimate the time it takes to read a specific number of words. The reading speed may vary depending on factors such as the complexity of the text and the reader’s familiarity with the subject matter.

The length of your script can vary depending on the number of words it contains and the reading speed you assign to it. By using a script timer or a word timer with script functionality, you can input the word count of your script and obtain an estimated running time. This estimation helps you understand the duration of your script and allows for effective planning and performance.

Absolutely! Word timers are valuable for scriptwriters as well. By estimating the running time of a script based on its word count, writers can effectively plan scenes and dialogues, ensuring a balanced and coherent storyline.

To determine the length of your script, you can use a word timer tool specifically designed for scripts. By entering the total number of words in your script, the tool will calculate the estimated running time, helping you plan and pace your script effectively.

Keyword density refers to the frequency or the number of times a specific keyword appears in a piece of content, in relation to the total number of words in that content. It is often expressed as a percentage. For instance, if a keyword appears 10 times in a 1000-word article, the keyword density would be 1%.

Keyword density tables analyze the frequency and distribution of keywords within your text. They are particularly useful for search engine optimization (SEO), allowing writers to optimize their content for better visibility and relevance in online searches.

Yes, word counters and character counters are essential writing tools. Word counters help writers set goals, track progress, and adhere to specific word count requirements. Character counters promote concise writing and help avoid unnecessary verbosity.

Sentence and paragraph counters offer insights into the structure and flow of your writing. By monitoring sentence and paragraph length, you can ensure clarity and readability, enhancing the overall quality of your content.

The reading speed used by word timers is typically set to an average value. However, some word timers may offer the flexibility to adjust the reading speed based on personal preferences or specific reading scenarios.

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Script Timer & Words to Reading-Time Calculator

Wondering how long 100 words takes to read? Or how long your finished speech or voice over recording will be? This handy Voice Over & Speech Script Timer converts the number of words in your script, to how many minutes it will take to read.

Public speakers, speech writers, voice actors, poets, production companies, and narrators rely on this converter.

This calculates how long your speech, presentation, or voice over recording will be in hours, minutes, and seconds. This makes it easy to give estimate to your customers. And because performances vary, you can adjust the timing to your reading speed. So stop guessing! Instead work with accurate estimates!

The Calculator

How long for a professional to read your script? Performances vary, but this handy converter will get you in the ballpark. You can even adjust it for reading speed. So stop guessing! Give accurate estimates and invoices to your customers!

PLEASE USE THE CHART BELOW ONLY AS A GUIDE - Rates vary greatly, due to context, vocal delivery, audience, etc. THIS CHART IS BASED ON: 12-point Arial (Helvetica), double-spaced, margin-to-margin.

Average Reading Speeds

If you read 1 word per second, then you will read:

30 words per half-minute
60 words per minute
3,600 words per hour
13 seconds per line (assuming 13 words per line)
273 seconds per page (assuming 13 words per line and 21 lines per page)

If you read 2 words per second, then you will read:

60 words per half-minute
120 words per minute
7,200 words per hour
6.5 seconds per line (assuming 13 words per line)
136 seconds per page (assuming 13 words per line and 21 lines per page)

If you read 3 words per second, then you will read:

90 words per half-minute
180 words per minute
10,800 words per hour
4 seconds per line (assuming 13 words per line)
91 seconds per page (assuming 13 words per line and 21 lines per page)

If you read 4 words per second, then you will read:

120 words per half-minute
240 words per minute
14,400 words per hour
3.2 seconds per line (assuming 13 words per line)
68 seconds per page (assuming 13 words per line and 21 lines per page)

If you read 5 words per second, then you will read:

150 words per half-minute
300 words per minute
18,000 words per hour
2.6 seconds per line (assuming 13 words per line)
54 seconds per page (assuming 13 words per line and 21 lines per page)
Average number of lines per page: 21
Average number of lines per 30-second spot: 7.5
Average number of lines per 60-second spot: 15
Average words per line: 13 (range is 8 to 18)
Average words per page: 273 (range is 168 to 378)

Voice Over and Audio Production Services

Voice over audiobooks.

Recording and narrating audiobooks is one of the popular services at Edge Studio. Our team consists of experienced narrators, engineers, directors, editors, and reviewers. With the help of professional sound production equipment, we create high-quality fiction and nonfiction titles in a creative working environment.

Audiobook narration here also comes with confidence; you’ll be assured of getting a sound that is engaging and pleasant to the ear. And more importantly, will immediately capture the attention of the audiobook reader!

Voice Over Movie

One of the main factors behind the commercial success of a movie, documentary, or other film, is a voice over. The soundtrack should be clear, without any additional noises, and most importantly – it should make the audience feel a certain way. The best solution to achieve all the above is to order professional voiceovers by the best movie voice over artists.

Voice Over IVR

As the first thing customers hear during the call, IVR is the face of the company. A well-written script and a well-voiced telephony helps create the image of a reliable business while seizing the customer’s attention.

What’s more, an IP telephony allows you to distribute a high volume of calls between operators, quickly redirect each caller to the right person, and automate customer support. For achieving the best result, it is better to use a professional voice over for your phone system. Your IP telephony will become an effective communication tool and present your company in its best light.

Voice Over Commercials

A carefully selected voice actor is the key to an effective advertising campaign and leads to brand recognition and capturing the customer’s imagination. When selecting the best commercial voice over actors, Edge Studio strives to fully match the requirements set by the advertiser with a voice that perfectly matches the advertised product or service.

We understand how important voice over is in conveying your advertising message and have access to a vast pool of voice over talent to find you the perfect solution.

Voice Over Video

A fitness video course, an animated series, a webinar, a product review on YouTube, a presentation, or a corporate training video – these are all examples of what can be voiced over in a professional recording studio. Sound is a key element for engaging your customer and delivering your message in the most effective way. A properly planned, recorded, and edited voice over for your video can become a powerful tool for advertisements, sales presentations, and all types of videos.

Voice Over Video Games

Video game voice acting is one of the most important aspects of gameplay whether it’s narration, game instruction, or character dialogue.

Without a high-quality soundtrack, games lose their brilliance.

Voice Over and Audio Production that Leads the Industry!

Our services.

Edge Studio is a full-service Voice Over production studio, and we’re here to help bring your vision to fruition. Whether you have a commercial spot that needs just that right feel, a video game or an audiobook that needs dynamic and expressive actors, or medical narration that needs someone who can handle that oh-so-tricky pronunciation, we’ve got you covered.

Casting Services

You want to tell an amazing story — one that resonates with your audience and delivers an impactful experience. For that, you need the perfect voice.

It doesn’t matter if you are selling a product, producing an audiobook or eLearning program, or recording voice over for an animated movie, you want a voice that captures nuance, provides exceptional storytelling and leaves the audience wanting more. And you want it within your budget structure.

Audio Recording Services

At Edge Studio, we ensure every detail of your voice over project receives the best in professional audio recording and sound quality from any location in the world.

From our first-rate recording studios at our New York headquarters in Time Square to our west coast studios located in Los Angeles to recording studios located anywhere in the world, even a personal home studio, we provide audio recording services that will exceed your highest expectations.

Post-Production Services

Once we have a wrap on pre-production and audio recording, it’s time to head to post-production where the craft of sound design, editing, mixing, and mastering your project takes it from a rough cut to a pristine audio file with crisp clarity and dynamic sound.

At Edge Studio, our professional post-production team is made up of the most qualified and experienced audio people in the business. And, depending on your needs, our sound experts are committed to producing top-tier audio in post-production by using the latest technology and industry best practices.

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Our Studios

Whether you are curious about the equipment that Edge is using, you are interested in renting an exclusive studio space for an upcoming project, or you’re looking to host an event or screening, Edge Studio has got you covered.

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Welcome to Instant Voice by Script Timer

Members enjoy entire scripts with our new app. *click the orange buttons to access*.

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The FREE plan is limited to 500 characters

With a subscription plan you can select your favorite voice

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Jordan-teen, people don't buy products they buy the story you tell.

LEARN TO WRITE A SCRIPT

This 20-page complete guide teaches you

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Your brand is integrated with everything you do.

What you say in videos, text, graphics, and messaging are

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Fine-tune your story’s pacing and experiment with

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Speech time calculator

Speech time: 0 minutes 0 seconds

Characters: 0

150 Words per minute

Speaking speed may vary depending on your style of speech. Test your speech rate first here .

Test your speech rate

To test your speech rate , read the sample text below out loud at your desired pace .

Click on the 'Start Speech Test' button , then read the provided text out loud . Once you finish reading, click on the 'Stop Speech Test' button .

Your speech rate (words per minute) will then appear . Use this value in the tool below to better estimate your reading time.

To improve the accuracy of this speech test, you can replace the text in the text area with your own sample. We do the Math for you.

Number of words: 0

Time elapsed: 0 second(s)

Your speech rate: NaN words per minute

How to use the speech time calculator?

This tool can help you estimate the speech time for your provided text . It can also test your speech rate by using a sample text . Let's start with the speech rate test.

Guide to the Speech Rate Test Tool

How to use the speech rate test.

As mentioned earlier, the speech rate test can estimate how many words per minute you can speak out loud . We provide a sample text consisting of 100 words. All you have to do is click the 'Start Speech Test' button , read the text at your desired pace , and then click on the 'Stop Speech Test' button . Our tool will estimate your speech rate for you . You can learn more about this estimation in the article below.

Can I use my own text for the Speech rate test?

Certainly, you can paste any text into the sample text area . The text can be shorter or longer and can be in a different language as well. Our tool will try to count the number of words which will be used for the calculation .

Where will my speech rate appear?

After clicking on the Stop Speech Test button, the estimated speech rate will appear above the button . The bold text will say something like: 'Your speech rate: 110 words per minute'. Our tool will also ask you if you want to import the estimated value into the speech time calculator tool.

Speech time calculator guide:

How can i use this tool.

To estimate the speech time of your text, paste the text into the first text area . Our tool will then count the number of words and do the math for the calculation . Your estimated speech time will appear in the stats box .

Can I adjust the speaking pace?

Certainly, you can adjust the speaking pace by clicking on one of the three buttons in the 'Speaking Speed' box. You can choose from 'Slow Speaking', 'Normal Speaking', and 'Fast Speaking' as predefined values. You are also free to drag the slider between 100 to 250 words per minute to set a custom pace .

Is this tool accurate?

We strive to be as accurate as possible. If you want to improve the accuracy of the speech time calculator, you can run the speech rate test first . This way, you can test your own speaking pace first.

Are the estimations for foreign languages correct?

The default values are for English. However, by running the speech rate test first, you can get your own estimation for any foreign language .

Did this tool help you?

We did this tool available to anyone for free . If we helped you don't forget to spread it to the world .

More about speech time

This free tool was created to help you estimate your speaking time . There are many reasons why you might need to know how long it takes to read your text out loud . The most typical situations include presentations and speeches, such as public speaking or conference speeches .

During presentations and speeches, there is often a lot to say but limited time . That's why our tool can be handy.

With our tool, you can adjust the amount of text you have prepared to fit your allotted time.

How can I improve my speeches?

If you want to improve your public speaking and conference skills , preparation and practice are key . Try to research your topic thoroughly and simplify all key information , memorizing it as well. This way, you will feel more confident and reduce the chance of stumbling over your words .

It's also important to know who your audience will be. Don't go too deep if your audience doesn't consist of experts .

To make your presentation more appealing , you can also add visuals, such as slides and images , to help deliver your message.

Always speak clearly and confidently . Choosing the right tone, volume, and pace is also crucial , as otherwise, you risk losing your audience's attention.

Try to engage with your audience. Ask them questions or choose interactive activities that keep them engaged with your speech.

Seek feedback by running a 'dry presentation' for your friends or family before the event. Ask for feedback to help you improve.

What is the ideal speech rate?

The ideal speech rate can vary depending on the situation, language, and topic of the speech. Generally, the average speech rate is somewhere between 120 to 150 words per minute . The key here is not to speak as fast as possible but to focus on the content itself . Try to play with your tone, voice, and volume . For certain speeches, a slower rate may be more effective .

Can this tool be used as a speech timer app?

Yes, this tool can be used as a speech timer app . You can paste your text into the 'Test Your Speech Rate' section, start the counter, and read the entire text. After reading, you can click 'Stop,' and the tool will show you how long it took.

Is my data safe?

The data you paste into our tool is not sent to the server . All processing is done in your browser. Therefore, we don't know or store what you paste into this tool. You can even load this page and disable your internet connection afterward, and it will still work.

Words To Time Converter

Estimate how many minutes your speeches, presentations, and voice-over scripts will take based on your words per minute rate!

Words per Minute: 183

How To Convert Words to Minutes Using This Tool?

You can adjust the slider to change the words per minute value, which will affect the talk time estimate. However, the silent reading time estimate remains fixed at 238 words per minute.

For ease of use, we’ve also provided reference points for slow, average, and fast reading rates below the slider.

To begin anew, simply click the ‘clear text’ button to erase the content and restore the slider back to its original setting of 183.

I. Who is This Words to Minutes Converter Tool For?

So keep reading to learn more about what this fantastic words to minutes converter has in store for public speakers, aspiring students, and professional radio producers alike!

Whether you want to read the text silently or speak aloud, you can use this tool as both:

Reading time calculator
Talk time calculator

II.I Explanation of the Reading Time

Reading Time = Total Word Count / 238

II.II Explanation of the Speech Time

III. Benefits of Using a Words to Time Converter

Time management in presentations.

Effective time management during presentations is crucial to ensure the audience remains engaged and the information is accurately conveyed. This is where our speaking time converter comes in handy. By using this tool, presenters can easily determine how many words they need to include in their presentation to stay within the allotted time frame.

Not only does it help with time management, but it also ensures that the pacing of the presentation is consistent, making it easier for the audience to follow. With the use of this tool, presenters can confidently deliver their presentations without the worry of running over time or rushing through it.

Estimated speech time for public speaking

Effective pacing is key in ensuring your message is delivered with clarity and impact.

Accurate estimations for audiobooks and podcasts

That’s why it’s great to see publishers and podcast producers taking estimated reading time seriously, providing listeners with the information they need to choose the right content for their schedule. Whether you’re looking for a quick listen on your daily commute or a lengthy distraction for a lazy Sunday afternoon, accurate estimations using this speaking time calculator make it easier than ever to find the perfect content.

IV. Some Popular Speech Times

V. conclusion.

Speech to Text - Voice Typing & Transcription

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Speechnotes is a reliable and secure web-based speech-to-text tool that enables you to quickly and accurately transcribe your audio and video recordings, as well as dictate your notes instead of typing, saving you time and effort. With features like voice commands for punctuation and formatting, automatic capitalization, and easy import/export options, Speechnotes provides an efficient and user-friendly dictation and transcription experience. Proudly serving millions of users since 2015, Speechnotes is the go-to tool for anyone who needs fast, accurate & private transcription. Our Portfolio of Complementary Speech-To-Text Tools Includes:

Voice typing - Chrome extension

Dictate instead of typing on any form & text-box across the web. Including on Gmail, and more.

Transcription API & webhooks

Speechnotes' API enables you to send us files via standard POST requests, and get the transcription results sent directly to your server.

Zapier integration

Combine the power of automatic transcriptions with Zapier's automatic processes. Serverless & codeless automation! Connect with your CRM, phone calls, Docs, email & more.

Android Speechnotes app

Speechnotes' notepad for Android, for notes taking on your mobile, battle tested with more than 5Million downloads. Rated 4.3+ ⭐

iOS TextHear app

TextHear for iOS, works great on iPhones, iPads & Macs. Designed specifically to help people with hearing impairment participate in conversations. Please note, this is a sister app - so it has its own pricing plan.

Audio & video converting tools

Tools developed for fast - batch conversions of audio files from one type to another and extracting audio only from videos for minimizing uploads.

Our Sister Apps for Text-To-Speech & Live Captioning

Complementary to Speechnotes

Reads out loud texts, files & web pages

Reads out loud texts, PDFs, e-books & websites for free

Speechlogger

Live Captioning & Translation

Live captions & translations for online meetings, webinars, and conferences.

Need Human Transcription? We Can Offer a 10% Discount Coupon

We do not provide human transcription services ourselves, but, we partnered with a UK company that does. Learn more on human transcription and the 10% discount .

Dictation Notepad

Start taking notes with your voice for free

Speech to Text online notepad. Professional, accurate & free speech recognizing text editor. Distraction-free, fast, easy to use web app for dictation & typing.

Speechnotes is a powerful speech-enabled online notepad, designed to empower your ideas by implementing a clean & efficient design, so you can focus on your thoughts. We strive to provide the best online dictation tool by engaging cutting-edge speech-recognition technology for the most accurate results technology can achieve today, together with incorporating built-in tools (automatic or manual) to increase users' efficiency, productivity and comfort. Works entirely online in your Chrome browser. No download, no install and even no registration needed, so you can start working right away.

Speechnotes is especially designed to provide you a distraction-free environment. Every note, starts with a new clear white paper, so to stimulate your mind with a clean fresh start. All other elements but the text itself are out of sight by fading out, so you can concentrate on the most important part - your own creativity. In addition to that, speaking instead of typing, enables you to think and speak it out fluently, uninterrupted, which again encourages creative, clear thinking. Fonts and colors all over the app were designed to be sharp and have excellent legibility characteristics.

Example use cases

Voice typing
Writing notes, thoughts
Medical forms - dictate
Transcribers (listen and dictate)

Transcription Service

Start transcribing

Fast turnaround - results within minutes. Includes timestamps, auto punctuation and subtitles at unbeatable price. Protects your privacy: no human in the loop, and (unlike many other vendors) we do NOT keep your audio. Pay per use, no recurring payments. Upload your files or transcribe directly from Google Drive, YouTube or any other online source. Simple. No download or install. Just send us the file and get the results in minutes.

Transcribe interviews
Captions for Youtubes & movies
Auto-transcribe phone calls or voice messages
Students - transcribe lectures
Podcasters - enlarge your audience by turning your podcasts into textual content
Text-index entire audio archives

Key Advantages

Speechnotes is powered by the leading most accurate speech recognition AI engines by Google & Microsoft. We always check - and make sure we still use the best. Accuracy in English is very good and can easily reach 95% accuracy for good quality dictation or recording.

Lightweight & fast

Both Speechnotes dictation & transcription are lightweight-online no install, work out of the box anywhere you are. Dictation works in real time. Transcription will get you results in a matter of minutes.

Super Private & Secure!

Super private - no human handles, sees or listens to your recordings! In addition, we take great measures to protect your privacy. For example, for transcribing your recordings - we pay Google's speech to text engines extra - just so they do not keep your audio for their own research purposes.

Health advantages

Typing may result in different types of Computer Related Repetitive Strain Injuries (RSI). Voice typing is one of the main recommended ways to minimize these risks, as it enables you to sit back comfortably, freeing your arms, hands, shoulders and back altogether.

Saves you time

Need to transcribe a recording? If it's an hour long, transcribing it yourself will take you about 6! hours of work. If you send it to a transcriber - you will get it back in days! Upload it to Speechnotes - it will take you less than a minute, and you will get the results in about 20 minutes to your email.

Saves you money

Speechnotes dictation notepad is completely free - with ads - or a small fee to get it ad-free. Speechnotes transcription is only $0.1/minute, which is X10 times cheaper than a human transcriber! We offer the best deal on the market - whether it's the free dictation notepad ot the pay-as-you-go transcription service.

Dictation - Free

Online dictation notepad
Voice typing Chrome extension

Dictation - Premium

Premium online dictation notepad
Premium voice typing Chrome extension
Support from the development team

Transcription

$0.1 /minute.

Pay as you go - no subscription
Audio & video recordings
Speaker diarization in English
Generate captions .srt files
REST API, webhooks & Zapier integration

Compare plans

We at Speechnotes, Speechlogger, TextHear, Speechkeys value your privacy, and that's why we do not store anything you say or type or in fact any other data about you - unless it is solely needed for the purpose of your operation. We don't share it with 3rd parties, other than Google / Microsoft for the speech-to-text engine.

Privacy - how are the recordings and results handled?

- transcription service.

Our transcription service is probably the most private and secure transcription service available.

HIPAA compliant.
No human in the loop. No passing your recording between PCs, emails, employees, etc.
Secure encrypted communications (https) with and between our servers.
Recordings are automatically deleted from our servers as soon as the transcription is done.
Our contract with Google / Microsoft (our speech engines providers) prohibits them from keeping any audio or results.
Transcription results are securely kept on our secure database. Only you have access to them - only if you sign in (or provide your secret credentials through the API)
You may choose to delete the transcription results - once you do - no copy remains on our servers.

- Dictation notepad & extension

For dictation, the recording & recognition - is delegated to and done by the browser (Chrome / Edge) or operating system (Android). So, we never even have access to the recorded audio, and Edge's / Chrome's / Android's (depending the one you use) privacy policy apply here.

The results of the dictation are saved locally on your machine - via the browser's / app's local storage. It never gets to our servers. So, as long as your device is private - your notes are private.

Payments method privacy

The whole payments process is delegated to PayPal / Stripe / Google Pay / Play Store / App Store and secured by these providers. We never receive any of your credit card information.

More generic notes regarding our site, cookies, analytics, ads, etc.

We may use Google Analytics on our site - which is a generic tool to track usage statistics.
We use cookies - which means we save data on your browser to send to our servers when needed. This is used for instance to sign you in, and then keep you signed in.
For the dictation tool - we use your browser's local storage to store your notes, so you can access them later.
Non premium dictation tool serves ads by Google. Users may opt out of personalized advertising by visiting Ads Settings . Alternatively, users can opt out of a third-party vendor's use of cookies for personalized advertising by visiting https://youradchoices.com/
In case you would like to upload files to Google Drive directly from Speechnotes - we'll ask for your permission to do so. We will use that permission for that purpose only - syncing your speech-notes to your Google Drive, per your request.

Communication Sciences and Disorders

Brandon Alpers is the new leader of the band…and so much more

By Julie Ostrem

There is a whole lot of leadership packed into this slight and energetic young Speech and Hearing Science undergrad, Brandon Alpers.

First, the most recent news: after a rigorous try-out with six finalists, he was named the new drum major for Iowa’s much-beloved marching band. We can’t wait to see him – along with thousands of fellow Hawkeye fans – in Kinnick Stadium, keeping the marching musicians and tempo in beautiful synchrony.

His leadership doesn’t stop there. He’s also the Hospital Liaison Director for Dance Marathon 31. He and his committee bridge families in Stead Family Children's Hospital and the students in the UIowa Dance Marathon.

In that role, he gets to enjoy weekly play- and story-time with the children on Level 11 of the Stead Family Pavilion.

“The kids that I get to play and connect with really put things into perspective,” he said. “It confirms the fact that I want to be a pediatric audiologist to be a friendly face for families to turn to when they have questions or need counseling.”

This Cottage Grove, MN, native grew to love the Hawkeye Nation as a pre-teen, when his own audiologist recommended he satisfy his curiosity with hearing science at the University of Iowa.

“I only applied to Iowa because I've always known that I wanted to be a Hawkeye,” he recalls. “Throughout high school, I visited campus numerous times and felt at home in Iowa City. After attending many Hawkeye football games, I fell in love with the Hawkeye Marching Band and my decision to come to Iowa became very easy.”

Following successful completion of his undergraduate degree, he’ll apply to a graduate program to fulfill the necessary educational requirement to become a Doctor of Audiology (AuD).

“My dream job is to be a pediatric audiologist in a children's hospital. I want to be involved in the Early Hearing Detection and Intervention (EHDI) process, counseling parents of infants who are born with hearing loss and empower those families by building lasting connections,” he said.

Oh, did we mention he’s also an honors student with frequent appearances on UIowa's Dean’s and President’s Academic Lists?

Currently, he’s piloting a new program for fellow undergraduates to add clinical experiences – in addition to observations only -- for the in-house Wendell Johnson Speech and Hearing Training Clinic. He’s taking on that project with Clinical Assistant Professor Kellsie Busho .

“This semester, Brandon took an independent study to gain hands-on experience working with patients in our clinic, and he’s rocking it!” Busho says.

Keep in mind he’s juggling these many responsibilities in addition to writing his honors thesis about unilateral hearing loss and pediatric hearing aid users with Busho and Associate Professor Elizabeth Walker , Director of the Pediatric Audiology Lab .

With UIowa’s educational preparation under his belt, and the leadership know-how he’s gaining, is there any doubt this young man will not only accomplish his career goals, but lead the profession of Audiology?

We're happy you've chosen to be a Hawkeye, Brandon Alpers!

NOTICE: The University of Iowa Center for Advancement is an operational name for the State University of Iowa Foundation, an independent, Iowa nonprofit corporation organized as a 501(c)(3) tax-exempt, publicly supported charitable entity working to advance the University of Iowa. Please review its full disclosure statement.

Did USC set ‘very bad precedent’ by canceling valedictorian speech over safety threats?

Asna Tabassum, a graduating senior at USC, was selected as

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Five months ago, USC cited safety as a rationale for banning economics professor John Strauss, who is Jewish, from campus after student activists said they felt threatened when he approached them at a protest and said “Hamas are murderers. ... I hope they all are killed.”

“Our north star is protecting the safety of our community,” a USC spokesperson said at the time.

Now the university is again citing safety concerns for canceling a Muslim valedictorian’s speech at its May commencement ceremony.

More than six months after the Hamas attack on Israel that started a war, campus administrators nationwide are struggling to uphold principles of free expression amid mounting pressure from donors, legislators and activists who claim an ever-expanding amount of speech — or potential speech — subjects students not only to physical danger but also to psychological harm.

A person holds a Palestinian flag during a student protest.

Free speech advocates note that the decision regarding Asna Tabassum, a USC senior who is graduating with a major in biomedical engineering, was not caused by anything she said or planned to say. Instead, the university said, online discussion had taken on an “alarming tenor” as activists objected to her minor — resistance to genocide — and a link to a pro-Palestinian website Tabassum had shared on her Instagram profile .

“This sets a very bad precedent,” said Alex Morey, director of campus rights advocacy with the nonprofit civil rights group Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression. “Moving forward, are they going to cancel every speech that could have anything to do with Israel-Palestine because they’re worried about ‘safety concerns’?”

Free speech experts fear that USC, in canceling its valedictorian’s speech, is paving the way for a censorious commencement season, offering others a playbook on how to silence potentially controversial speakers in the weeks to come.

“A university, except in the most exceptional cases, should not be giving in to threats of violence in order to suppress speakers,” said Keith Whittington, a political scientist at Princeton University and author of “Speak Freely: Why Universities Must Defend Free Speech.”

“It’s a corruption and compromise of the university’s very basic commitments.”

People in vehicles pass the Tommy Trojan statue.

The use of safety concerns to shut down campus speech did not start after Oct. 7. But, Morey said, universities have increasingly canceled events as they have seen an uptick in protests of Israel’s actions in the Gaza Strip.

Last month, the University of Nevada, Las Vegas halted a public lecture from a visiting Israeli professor 15 minutes after he started speaking when pro-Palestinian protesters burst into the room.

Asaf Pe’er, an expert on theoretical high-energy astrophysics, was not speaking about the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. His lecture was on black holes.

Rather than stop the disruption, citing the protesters’ 1st Amendment rights, UNLV police escorted Pe’er off campus “to ensure his safety.”

Other cancellations in the name of safety have taken place across the country, from Indiana University shutting down an art exhibit by Palestinian artist Samia Halaby to the University of Vermont canceling an in-person appearance by a pro-Palestinian poet .

Experts who track campus speech say university leaders have predominantly targeted speakers expressing support for the Palestinian cause.

“It’s definitely the pro-Palestinian speech that we are seeing very broadly being subjected to institutional punishments,” Morey said. “That’s not to say that there aren’t cases where pro-Israel or Zionist speakers are being punished.”

Part of the reason pro-Palestinian activists are targeted in greater numbers is that more students have embraced the Palestinian cause in recent years.

Some protests have crossed the line into unprotected expression, Morey said. But there is also growing pressure on university officials from donors and legislators worried about antisemitism to crack down on pro-Palestinian speech.

Students hold a sign reading "Free Palestine."

“It’s a pressure cooker for administrators,” Morey said. “In these cases, we want to make sure that their lodestar are student and faculty rights, rather than who is exerting the most pressure.”

When USC announced that Tabassum would be the valedictorian, two groups — Trojans for Israel, a campus student group, and EndJewHatred, a national movement dedicated to fighting antisemitism — spoke publicly against her.

In an Instagram post , Trojans for Israel said Tabassum “propagates antisemitic and anti-Zionist rhetoric,” but did not cite anything she had written or said publicly. Instead, the post points to a link she had shared on her social media page that leads to a website describing Zionism as a “racist settler-colonial ideology.”

In an interview with The Times , Tabassum said she had not spoken to administrators about her speech, in which she said she had planned to convey hope and emphasize that “we must continue to use our education as a privilege to inform ourselves and ultimately make a change in the world.”

“The university has betrayed me,” she said.

USC administrators contested the idea that Tabassum’s inability to speak is a free speech issue.

“There is no free-speech entitlement to speak at a commencement,” Provost Andrew T. Guzman said in a campuswide letter . “The issue here is how best to maintain campus security and safety, period.”

The 1st Amendment guarantees only that the government refrains from abridging freedom of speech. But experts on campus discourse asserted that as an institution of higher learning, USC has a responsibility to defend freedom of ideas.

USC communications professor Christina Dunbar-Hester, chapter president of the USC American Assn. of University Professors, said in a statement that it was disingenuous to frame Tabassum’s speech as a security issue without specifying a threat.

Guzman, she noted, did not offer any details, saying only that the discussion had “escalated to the point of creating substantial risks relating to security and disruption at commencement.”

And that, Dunbar-Hester said, raises the question of whether USC faced a specific credible threat or was just trying to find a way to get around controversy.

A student in a yarmulke holds an Israeli flag.

“Here, we have capitulated to a ‘heckler’s veto’ before the fact,” she said. “Why is the burden of a potential threat placed on the shoulders of the valedictorian rather than those who would disrupt her?”

Dunbar-Hester said USC’s action — coming days before conservative legislators in Washington grilled the president of Columbia University — plays into the hands of “anti-intellectual reactionaries” who cynically sought to “demonize campus communities that express solidarity with the Palestinian freedom struggle.”

Howard Rodman, a professor of the writing division at the USC School of Cinematic Art and former president of the USC-AAUP chapter, said administrators decided to cancel Tabassum’s speech without buy-in from the faculty.

A professor holds a sign reading "Let Her Speak!"

“I have spoken to many people who feel that this is a disastrous decision, and no one who feels that it was a correct decision,” he said.

Among USC faculty, Rodman said, there was no widespread agreement on free speech.

“There are people who say, ‘We’re 1st Amendment absolutists,’ who believe that the remedy for speech you don’t like is more speech,” he said. “There are people who believe that the structural question of who owns the megaphone supersedes that. ... ‘Why should the people who own the apparatus of the transmission of ideas have the sole access to it?”

Rodman blamed officials, donors and legislators for the assault on campus free speech.

“The traditional values of the university are under assault by donors who wish to determine policy,” Rodman said. “They’re under assault by a government that places restrictions on what you can do once you have received government money.”

Students have also played a key role in setting up a climate of censorship, experts say.

About a decade ago, Morey said, 1st Amendment attorneys at the Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression began to notice a shift: Students, who had long advocated for their own free speech rights, were increasingly asking administrators to regulate words and ideas.

In 2014, students at Wellesley College started a petition calling for the removal of an outdoor statue of a man in his underwear, claiming that it was a source of “triggering thoughts regarding sexual assault.” The following year, students at Yale University demanded that Nicholas Christakis step down from his position as faculty-in-residence at Silliman College, after a viral moment in which he tried to converse with students who took offense at an email his wife, Erika Christakis, wrote to students questioning administrators’ guidelines on Halloween costumes.

Commencement ceremonies have long been a magnet for protests, with a rich tradition of students and faculty heckling speakers, turning their backs on them or forcing them to withdraw.

For more than a quarter of a century, the Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression has kept a campus deplatforming database that has tracked such disputes, starting with media mogul and Atlanta Braves owner Ted Turner’s withdrawal from a 1998 commencement at Macalester College after students protested the team’s use of an Indian mascot.

By 2016, disinvitations were so common that President Obama, speaking at a Rutgers commencement, chided students for pressuring former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice to drop out as commencement speaker two years before due to her role in the Iraq war.

“I don’t think that’s how democracy works best, when we’re not even willing to listen to each other,” Obama said .

The focus on safety intensified during the COVID-19 pandemic as students became involved in Black Lives Matter protests, Morey said.

At USC, administrators made business professor Greg Patton “take a short-term pause” from teaching a communications course in August 2020 after Black students complained that a Chinese-language example he used during class sounded like a racial slur and caused them mental harm.

In a letter to MBA students, a dean wrote that such language was “simply unacceptable” for faculty to use because it could “marginalize and harm you and hurt your feelings of psychological safety.”

In November, administrators told Strauss he could not teach undergraduates that semester after he declared: “Hamas are murderers. That’s all they are. Every one should be killed, and I hope they all are killed.”

John Strauss pauses to talk to students at USC.

Strauss swiftly found himself the subject of dueling petitions: One called for USC to fire him and create a “safe learning environment free from hate speech or discriminatory behavior”; another urged officials to allow him back on campus, arguing that “Jewish people should not have to hide for their safety.”

In early December, USC administrators announced they had lifted all of the restrictions on Strauss.

Over the last few years, commencement disputes over controversial speakers calmed down as universities exercised more caution over who they invited. “They tried to avoid controversy, not by canceling speakers, but by avoiding inviting speakers in the first place,” Morey said.

The focus of controversy may now be turning to students.

Last year, a law student speaking at the City University of New York’s law school commencement caused a national furor when she called for a “revolution” to take on the legal system’s “white supremacy,’’ CUNY’s collaboration with the “fascist NYPD” and Israel’s “project of settler colonialism.”

After the New York Post ran a front-page story about the student, Fatima Mousa Mohammed — headlined “Stark Raving Grad” — CUNY’s Board of Trustees and chancellor announced that 2024’s commencement would not feature student speakers.

Figuring out what is a legitimate security threat on campuses has become increasingly fraught as activists and administrators blur the line between physical and psychological safety.

“Part of what has happened on university campuses for quite some time has been a claim about a kind of emotional and psychological safety,” Princeton’s Whittington said. “That’s primarily a conceptual argument — one that doesn’t seem to require any evidence in order to assert. Universities then can be extremely sweeping in who they might decide to censor or suppress or punish, in reaction to those kinds of complaints.”

Canceling speech while upholding safety in a vague way, without outlining a concrete threat or distinguishing between physical or psychological harm, would only encourage more complaints, Whittington said.

“Universities have an important obligation to explain that these kinds of concerns about emotional psychological safety are just not something that they can be responsive to at all,” Whittington said. “And in the case of genuine threats to physical safety, there ought to be a very high bar before the university is willing to take the step of shutting down a speaker.”

The irony of what happened to Tabassum is it has given her a much bigger platform.

In the last 48 hours, she has conducted a whirl of media interviews, appearing on CNN’s “NewsNight” and in a front-page story in The Times.

“When you silence us,” she said, “you make us louder.”

12 days that rocked USC: How a derailed commencement brought ‘complete disaster’

At usc, arrests. at ucla, hands off. why pro-palestinian protests have not blown up on uc campuses.

April 26, 2024

Los Angeles, CA - April 24: Pro-Palestinian demonstrators at USC on Wednesday, April 24, 2024 in Los Angeles, CA. (Brian van der Brug / Los Angeles Times)

Opinion: USC’s ‘security risk’ rationale to thwart peaceful protest is not justified

April 25, 2024

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Jenny Jarvie is a national correspondent for the Los Angeles Times based in Atlanta.

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Did a gas lobbyist write an Ohio Senator’s speech about a pipeline resolution?

Updated: Apr. 26, 2024, 11:14 p.m. |
Published: Apr. 26, 2024, 2:46 p.m.

Michael A. Rulli, District 33, looks on during the recent Senate session in Columbus on Wednesday, January 24, 2024. David Petkiewicz, cleveland.com David Petkiewicz, cleveland.com

Jake Zuckerman, [email protected]

COLUMBUS, Ohio – When Republican state Sen. Michael Rulli took the podium to address his colleagues about a resolution declaring natural gas as “vital” to Ohio’s economy, his rhetoric matched nearly word-for-word what an oil and gas lobbyist sent him privately as a “sample script.”

Rulli stood before the Ohio Senate Energy and Public Utilities Committee and, absent some minor changes and reshuffling of some paragraphs, made statements identical to what was sent to him by Mitch Given, an industry lobbyist.

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Justices Seem Ready to Limit the 2020 Election Case Against Trump

Such a ruling in the case, on whether the former president is immune from prosecution, would probably send it back to a lower court and could delay any trial until after the November election.

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Demonstrators holding signs. The Supreme Court is in the background.

Charlie Savage and Alan Feuer

Charlie Savage reported from Washington, and Alan Feuer from New York.

Here are four takeaways from the Supreme Court hearing on Trump’s claim to immunity.

The Supreme Court heard arguments on Thursday about Donald J. Trump’s claim that the federal charges accusing him of plotting to overturn the 2020 election must be thrown out because he is immune from being prosecuted for any official act he took as president.

Here are some takeaways.

Several justices seemed to want to define some level of official act as immune.

Although Mr. Trump’s claim of near-absolute immunity was seen as a long shot intended primarily to slow the proceedings, several members of the Republican-appointed majority seemed to indicate that some immunity was needed. Some of them expressed worry about the long-term consequences of leaving future former presidents open to prosecution for their official actions.

Among others, Justice Brett Kavanaugh compared the threat of prosecution for official acts to how a series of presidents were “hampered” by independent counsel investigations, criticizing a 1984 ruling that upheld a now-defunct law creating such prosecutors as one of the Supreme Court’s biggest mistakes. Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr. criticized an appeals court ruling rejecting immunity for Mr. Trump, saying he was concerned that it “did not get into a focused consideration of what acts we are talking about or what documents are talking about.”

“It’s a serious constitutional question whether a statute can be applied to the president’s official acts. So wouldn’t you always interpret the statute not to apply to the president, even under your formulation, unless Congress had spoken with some clarity?” “I don’t think across the board that as serious constitutional question exists on applying any criminal statute to the president.” “The problem is the vague statute — obstruction and 371, conspiracy to defraud the United States can be used against a lot of presidential activities historically with a creative prosecutor who wants to go after a president.” “I think that the question about the risk is very serious. And obviously it is a question that this court has to evaluate. For the executive branch, our view is that there is a balanced protection that better serves the interests of the Constitution that incorporates both accountability and protection for the president.”

The Democrat-appointed justices — Sonia Sotomayor, Elena Kagan and Ketanji Brown Jackson — asked questions indicating greater concern about opening the door for presidents to commit official crimes with impunity.

“This is what you’re asking us to say, which is that a president is entitled not to make a mistake — but more than that, a president is entitled for total personal gain to use the trappings of his office. That’s what you’re trying to get us to hold — without facing criminal liability.” “Your honor, I would say three things in response to that. First, the doctrine that immunity does not turn on the allegedly improper motivation or purpose is something that this court has reaffirmed in at least nine or 10 —” “That’s absolute immunity. But qualified immunity does say that whatever act you take has to be within what a reasonable person would do. I’m having a hard time thinking that creating false documents, that submitting false documents, that ordering the assassination of a rival, that accepting a bribe, and countless other laws that could be broken for personal gain, that anyone would say that it would be reasonable for a president or any public official to do that.”

The arguments signaled further delay and complications for a Trump trial.

If the Supreme Court does place limits on the ability of prosecutors to charge Mr. Trump over his official actions, it could alter the shape of his trial.

A decision to send all or part of the case back to the lower courts could further slow progress toward a trial, increasing the odds that it does not start before Election Day.

Of the matters listed in the indictment, some — like working with private lawyers to gin up slates of fraudulent electors — seem like the private actions of a candidate. Others — like pressuring the Justice Department and Vice President Mike Pence to do things — seem more like official acts he took in his role as president.

At one point, Justice Amy Coney Barrett suggested that prosecutors could simply drop Mr. Trump’s arguably official actions from their case and proceed to a swift trial focused only on his private actions. And D. John Sauer, the lawyer for Mr. Trump, told the court that no evidence of Mr. Trump’s official actions should be allowed into the trial.

But Michael R. Dreeben, a Justice Department lawyer arguing on behalf of the special counsel’s office, said the indictment laid out an “integrated conspiracy” in which Mr. Trump took the official actions to bolster the chances that his other efforts to overturn the election would succeed.

He argued that even if the court holds that Mr. Trump has immunity from liability for his official actions, prosecutors should still be allowed to present evidence about them to the jury because the actions are relevant to assessing his larger knowledge and intentions — just as speech that is protected by the First Amendment can still be used as evidence in a conspiracy case.

The hearing revolved around two very different ways of looking at the issue.

Looming over the hearing was a sweeping moral question: What effect might executive immunity have on the future of American politics?

Not surprisingly, the two sides saw things very differently.

Mr. Sauer claimed that without immunity, all presidents would be paralyzed by the knowledge that once they were out of office, they could face an onslaught of charges from their rivals based on the tough calls they had to make while in power. He pictured a dystopian world of ceaseless tit-for-tat political prosecutions that would destroy the “presidency as we know it.”

If a president can be charged, put on trial and imprisoned for his most controversial decisions as soon as he leaves office, that looming threat will distort the president’s decision-making precisely when bold and fearless action is most needed. Every current president will face de facto blackmail and extortion by his political rivals while he is still in office. The implications of the court’s decision here extend far beyond the facts of this case. Could President George W. Bush have been sent to prison for obstructing an official proceeding or allegedly lying to Congress to induce war in Iraq? Could President Obama be charged with murder for killing U.S. citizens abroad by drone strike? Could President Biden someday be charged with unlawfully inducing immigrants to enter the country illegally for his border policies? The answer to all these questions is no.

Envisioning the opposite scenario, Mr. Dreeben worried that any form of blanket immunity would place presidents entirely outside of the rule of law and encourage them to commit crimes, including “bribery, treason, sedition, even murder,” with impunity.

“The framers knew too well the dangers of a king who could do no wrong,” he said.

This court has never recognized absolute criminal immunity for any public official. Petitioner, however, claims that a former president has permanent criminal immunity for his official acts unless he was first impeached and convicted. His novel theory would immunize former presidents for criminal liability; for bribery, treason, sedition, murder and here, conspiring to use fraud to overturn the results of an election and perpetuate himself in power. Such presidential immunity has no foundation in the Constitution. The framers knew too well the dangers of a king who could do no wrong.

Both sides found advocates for their positions on the court.

Justice Samuel A. Alito Jr. clearly seemed worried that without some form of criminal immunity, former presidents would be vulnerable to partisan warfare as their successors used the courts to go after them once they were out of office. And that, he added, could lead to endless cycles of retribution that would be a risk to “stable, democratic society.”

Justice Ketanji Brown Jackson appeared more concerned that if presidents were in fact shielded by immunity, they would be unbounded by the law and could turn the Oval Office into what she described as “the seat of criminality.”

If someone with those kinds of powers, the most powerful person in the world with the greatest amount of authority, could go into office knowing that there would be no potential penalty for committing crimes, I’m trying to understand what the disincentive is from turning the Oval Office into the seat of criminal activity in this country? If the potential for criminal liability is taken off the table, wouldn’t there be a significant risk that future presidents would be emboldened to commit crimes with abandon while they’re in office? It’s right now the fact that we’re having this debate, because O.L.C. has said that presidents might be prosecuted. Presidents from the beginning of time have understood that that’s a possibility. That might be what has kept this office from turning into the kind of crime center that I’m envisioning. But once we say no criminal liability, Mr. President, you can do whatever you want, I’m worried that we would have a worse problem than the problem of the president feeling constrained to follow the law while he’s in office.

What happens next?

There did not seem to be a lot of urgency among the justices — especially the conservative ones — to ensure that the immunity question was resolved quickly. That left open the possibility that Mr. Trump could avoid being tried on charges of plotting to overturn the last election until well after voters went to the polls to decide whether to choose him as president in this election.

And if he is elected, any trial could be put off while he is in office, or he could order the charges against him dropped.

It could take some time for the court to do its own analysis of what presidential acts should qualify for the protections of immunity. And even if the justices determine that at least some of the allegations against Mr. Trump are fair game for prosecution, if they do not issue a ruling until late June or early July, it could be difficult to hold a trial before November.

That would become all but impossible if the court took a different route and sent the analysis back to the trial judge, Tanya S. Chutkan. If Judge Chutkan were ordered to hold further hearings on which of the indictment’s numerous allegations were official acts of Mr. Trump’s presidency and which were private acts he took as a candidate for office, the process could take months and last well into 2025.

Aishvarya Kavi

Reporting from Washington

A spectacle outside the Supreme Court for Trump’s defenders and detractors.

Just as the Supreme Court began considering on Thursday morning whether former President Donald J. Trump was entitled to absolute immunity, rap music started blaring outside the court.

The lyrics, laced with expletives, denounced Mr. Trump, and several dozen demonstrators began chanting, “Trump is not above the law!”

Mr. Trump was not in Washington on Thursday morning — in fact, he was in another courtroom , in New York. But the spectacle that pierced the relative tranquillity outside the court was typical of events that involve him: demonstrations, homemade signs, police, news media, and lots and lots of curious onlookers.

One man, Stephen Parlato, a retired mental health counselor from Boulder, Colo., held a roughly 6-foot-long sign with a blown-up photo of Mr. Trump scowling that read, “Toxic loser.” The back of the sign featured the famous painting by Cassius Marcellus Coolidge of dogs playing poker, adorned with the words, “Faith erodes … in a court with no binding ethics code.” He made the sign at FedEx, he said.

The Supreme Court’s decision to even hear the case, which has delayed Mr. Trump’s election interference trial , was “absurd,” he said.

“I’m a child of the late ’60s and early ’70s and the Vietnam War,” said Mr. Parlato, dressed in a leather jacket and cowboy hat. “I remember protesting that while in high school. But this is very different. I’m here because I’m terrified of the possibility of a second Trump presidency.”

Inside the court, Jack Smith sat to the far right of the lawyer arguing on behalf of his team of prosecutors, Michael R. Dreeben, a leading expert in criminal law who has worked for another special counsel who investigated Mr. Trump, Robert S. Mueller III.

Among those in attendance were Jane Sullivan Roberts, who is married to Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr., and Ashley Estes Kavanaugh, who is married to Justice Brett M. Kavanaugh.

In an orderly line outside along the side of the court, people were calmly waiting to listen to the arguments from the court’s public gallery. More than 100 people, many of them supporters of Mr. Trump, were in line as of 8:30 a.m. Reagan Pendarvis, 19, who had been waiting there since the middle of the night, said the first person in line had gotten there more than a day before the arguments began.

Mr. Pendarvis, a sophomore at the University of California, San Diego who is living in Washington for the spring semester, was wearing a black suit and bright red bow tie. He said he had been struggling to keep warm since he took his place in line.

Mr. Pendarvis, a supporter of Mr. Trump, said he thought that the cases brought against the former president were an uneven application of the law.

“I think a lot of the cases, especially that happen for Donald Trump, don’t really happen for Democrats on the other side,” he said. “That’s just my take on it.”

David Bolls, 42, and his brother, Jonathan, 43, both of Springfield, Va., also in line for the arguments, also contended that the prosecutions against Mr. Trump were an abuse of judicial power.

“For me, I want to see an even application of justice,” David Bolls said.

For others in line, the Supreme Court’s deliberations were not the main draw. Ellen Murphy, a longtime Washington resident, was trying to sell buttons she designs, though she acknowledged that it was unlikely she would be allowed in with all of her merchandise.

Dozens of the buttons, which said, “Immunize democracy now” and “Trump is toast” over a toaster with two slices of bread, were pinned to a green apron she was wearing.

“We lose our democracy,” Ms. Murphy said, “if the president can do whatever he wants just because he’s president.”

Eileen Sullivan contributed reporting.

Adam Liptak

What’s next: Much will turn on how quickly the court acts.

The justices heard arguments in the immunity case at a special session, the day after what had been the last scheduled argument of its term. Arguments heard in late April almost always yield decisions near the end of the court’s term, in late June or early July.

But a ruling in early summer, even if it categorically rejected Mr. Trump’s position, would make it hard to complete his trial before the election. Should Mr. Trump win at the polls, there is every reason to think he would scuttle the prosecution.

In cases that directly affected elections — in which the mechanisms of voting were at issue — the court has sometimes acted with unusual speed.

In 2000, in Bush v. Gore, the court issued its decision handing the presidency to George W. Bush the day after the justices heard arguments.

In a recent case concerning Mr. Trump’s eligibility to appear on Colorado’s primary ballot, the justices moved more slowly, but still at a relatively brisk pace. The court granted Mr. Trump’s petition seeking review just two days after he filed it , scheduled arguments for about a month later and issued its decision in his favor about a month after that.

In United States v. Nixon, the 1974 decision that ordered President Richard M. Nixon to comply with a subpoena for audiotapes of conversations with aides in the White House, the court also moved quickly , granting the special prosecutor’s request to bypass the appeals court a week after it was filed.

The court heard arguments about five weeks later — compared with some eight weeks in Mr. Trump’s immunity case. It issued its decision 16 days after the argument , and the trial was not delayed.

Abbie VanSickle

The oral argument lasted nearly three hours, as the justices tangled with a lawyer for the former president and a Justice Department lawyer. A majority of the justices appeared skeptical of the idea of sweeping presidential immunity. However, several of them suggested an interest in drawing out what actions may be immune and what may not — a move that could delay the former president’s trial if the Supreme Court asks a lower court to revisit the issues.

Many of the justices seemed to be considering the idea that presidents should enjoy some form of protection against criminal prosecution. The devil, however, will be in the details: How should that protection extend?

And that question will have profound relevance not only for future presidents, but much more immediately for Donald Trump. The court could decide to draw those rules itself in a broad way for history. Or it could send this case back to a lower court to set the rules of what form immunity could take. If the case is sent back for further proceedings, it could have a dramatic effect on the timing of Trump’s trial, pushing it well past the election in November.

Looking back, one of the main points of discussion turned on the question of which situation would be worse: a world in which presidents, shorn of any legal protections against prosecution, were ceaselessly pursued in the courts by their rivals in a never-ending cycle of political retribution, or allowing presidents to be unbounded by criminal law and permitted to do whatever they wanted with impunity.

Charlie Savage

Sauer, Trump’s attorney, declines to offer a rebuttal. The argument is over.

If the court finds that there is some immunity for official actions, one of the most important questions will be whether prosecutors can still present evidence to the jury of Trump’s official actions (like pressuring the Justice Department and Vice President Mike Pence to do certain things) as evidence that helps illuminate Trump’s knowledge and intent for his private acts as a candidate. Dreeben says the jury needs to understand the whole “integrated conspiracy” but prosecutors would accept a jury instruction in which the judge would say they cannot impose liability for the official actions but may consider them as evidence of his knowledge and intent for the other actions. That’s how courts handle protected speech that is evidence to a larger conspiracy, he notes.

Justice Barrett picks up the question of timing again. She suggests that if prosecutors want to take Trump quickly to trial, they could simply drop those parts of the indictment that seem to be his official acts as president and proceed with only those parts of the indictment that reflect Trump’s private actions taken as a candidate for office. Dreeben is not wild about that idea.

Dreeben suggests that allegations in the “private acts bucket,” as Justice Jackson just called it, would include things like the scheme to create fake electors and the way in which Trump fomented a mob of his supporters to violently attack the Capitol on Jan. 6.

Justice Barrett seems to signal that she is less likely to find that presidents have blanket immunity for their official acts. When Dreeben says the system needs to balance the effective functioning of the presidency and accountability for a former president under the rule of law, and the existing system does that pretty well or maybe needs a few ancillary rules but that is different from the “radical proposal” put forward by Trump’s legal team, she says: “I agree.”

Dreeben, in a balancing act that seems to acknowledge that the court is looking for some form of criminal immunity for presidents, says he is trying to do two things at once, neither of them easy. He wants to design a system to find some rules that preserve the “effective functioning of the presidency” but that still allows for “accountability” if presidents violated the law.

Kavanaugh asks Dreeben about Obama’s drone strike that killed an American citizen suspected of terrorism, Anwar al-Awlaki, which Trump’s lawyer invoked in his opening. Dreeben notes that the Office of Legal Counsel analyzed the question and found that the murder statute did not apply to presidents when they were acting under public authority, so authorizing the strike was lawful. This is the way the system can function, he said — the Justice Department analyzes laws carefully and with established principles.

Justice Kavanaugh signals that he is likely to find that presidents must have immunity for their official actions. He talks about how the threat of prosecution by independent counsels (under a law that lapsed in 1999) hampered Presidents Reagan, George H.W. Bush and Clinton, and says a 1984 ruling upholding that structure as constitutional was one of the Supreme Court’s biggest mistakes. (Notably, Kavanaugh was a prosecutor on the staff of independent counsel Ken Starr during his investigation into President Bill Clinton, before becoming a White House lawyer under President George W. Bush.)

Dreeben tries to push back on Kavanaugh’s argument by saying that even after Watergate, even after all of the independent counsel investigations mentioned above, the legal system has survived without “having gone off on a runaway train” of actual criminal prosecutions against former presidents.

The Supreme Court rejected Bill Clinton’s claim of immunity.

In Clinton v. Jones in 1997, the Supreme Court unanimously allowed a sexual harassment suit against President Bill Clinton to proceed while he was in office, discounting concerns that it would distract him from his official responsibilities. Both of his appointees, Justices Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen G. Breyer, voted against him.

“The president is subject to judicial process in appropriate circumstances,” Justice John Paul Stevens wrote for the court, adding, “We have never suggested that the president, or any other official, has an immunity that extends beyond the scope of any action taken in an official capacity.”

The case was in one sense harder than the one against Mr. Trump, as it involved a sitting president. In another sense, though, it was easier, as it concerned an episode said to have taken place before Mr. Clinton took office (Paula Jones, an Arkansas state employee, said Mr. Clinton had made lewd advances in a hotel room when he was governor of the state).

The case is best remembered for a prediction in Justice Stevens’s majority opinion that “it appears to us highly unlikely to occupy any substantial amount of petitioner’s time.” In fact, it led to Mr. Clinton’s impeachment.

In the same paragraph, Justice Stevens made a second prediction.

“In the more than 200-year history of the Republic, only three sitting presidents have been subjected to suits for their private actions,” he wrote. “If the past is any indicator, it seems unlikely that a deluge of such litigation will ever engulf the presidency.”

Suits against Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman were dismissed, and one against President John F. Kennedy involving a car accident during his 1960 campaign was settled. The case against Mr. Clinton added a fourth.

Justice Stevens, who died in 2019, failed to anticipate the enormous volume of civil and criminal litigation in which Mr. Trump and his businesses have been named as defendants.

We are now over the two-hour mark of the Supreme Court’s arguments in the Trump immunity case. The Justice Department lawyer has continued to face skeptical questions from many of the court’s conservatives, several of whom appear particularly focused on how to draw the line between a president’s core powers and non-core powers. In other words, what actions by a president might be shielded from prosecution and what would not. The questioning suggests that some of the justices may favor a ruling that could lead to more lower-court proceedings, perhaps delaying the trial.

The Supreme Court’s relatively new process (coming out of Covid) of letting each justice ask questions at the end in order of seniority has an interesting consequence, as seen here. Dreeben kept wanting to say these things about government legal memos and to go into the details about the actions Trump is accused of taking, but the Republican-appointed justices kept cutting him off. It’s the turn of Kagan, a Democratic appointee, to ask any final questions she wants, and she is letting him talk on and on.

Much of the discussion this morning has swirled around the question of whether, without immunity, presidents will be hounded by their rivals with malicious charges after leaving office. Alito and other conservatives on the court seem concerned that the Trump prosecutions will open the door to endless attacks against future presidents.

The other main topic of discussion has been whether presidents enjoy some form of immunity for carrying out their official duties and, if so, how those official actions are defined. That’s an important question for the Trump election case because Trump has claimed he was acting in his role as president when, by his own account, he sought to root out fraud in the 2020 vote count. It’s also important for a different reason: the justices could send the official acts question back to a lower court to sort out, and that process could take a long time, delaying the case's trial until after this year’s election.

Justice Alito suggests that there is a risk to our stable democracy if presidents who lose close elections would not be allowed to retire in peace but could face prosecution. He has essentially flipped the situation under consideration upside down: that Trump is being prosecuted for having used fraud to remain in power after losing a close election.

A part of this exchange between Justice Alito and the Justice Department's lawyer, Dreeben, gets at a pressure point in American-style democracy and the rule of law. One of the safeguards against illegitimate prosecutions of ex-presidents, Dreeben says, is that if the Justice Department has advised the president that doing something would be lawful, the department could not later turn around and prosecute the now-former president for relying on that advice and doing that thing.

Alito points out that this creates an incentive for presidents to appoint attorneys general who will just tell them that anything they want to do would be legal. Indeed — that is a critique of the Office of Legal Counsel system, in which politically appointed lawyers decide what the law means for the executive branch.

An example: During the George W. Bush administration, memos about post-9/11 surveillance and torture were written by a politically appointed lawyer with idiosyncratically broad views of a president’s supposed power, as commander in chief, to authorize violations of surveillance and torture laws. The Justice Department later withdrew those memos as espousing a false view of the law, but held that officials who had taken action based on those memos could not be charged with crimes.

Justice Alito suggests there are not enough legal safeguards in place to protect presidents against malicious prosecution if they don’t have some form of immunity. He tells Dreeben that the grand jury process isn’t much of a protection because prosecutors, as the saying goes, can indict a ham sandwich. When Dreeben tries to argue that prosecutors sometimes don’t indict people who don’t deserve it, Alito dismissively says, “Every once in a while there’s an eclipse too.”

If you are just joining in, the justices are questioning the Justice Department lawyer, Michael Dreeben, about the government’s argument that former President Trump is not absolutely immune from prosecution on charges that he plotted to subvert the 2020 election. Dreeben has faced skeptical questions from several of the conservative justices, including both Justices Alito and Kavanaugh, who have suggested that the fraud conspiracy statute being used against the former president is vague. That statute is central to the government’s case against Trump.

Justice Alito now joins Justice Kavanaugh in suggesting that the fraud conspiracy statute is very vague and broadly drawn. That is bad news for the indictment brought against Trump by Jack Smith, the special counsel.

The scope and viability of this fraud statute, which is absolutely central to the Trump indictment, wasn’t on the menu of issues seemingly at play in this hearing. Kavanaugh and Alito appear to have gone out of their way to question its use in the Trump case.

Justice Sotomayor points out that under the Trump team’s theory that a criminal statute has to clearly state that it applies to the presidency for it to cover a president’s official actions, there would essentially be no accountability at all. Because only a tiny handful of laws mention the president, that means a president could act contrary to them without violating them. As a result, the Senate could not even impeach a president for violating criminal statutes, she says — because he would not be violating those laws if they don’t apply to the president.

Dreeben is under heavy fire from the court’s conservatives.

The precedent most helpful to Trump: Nixon v. Fitzgerald.

In 1982, in Nixon v. Fitzgerald , the Supreme Court ruled that former President Richard M. Nixon had absolute immunity from civil lawsuits — ones brought by private litigants seeking money — for conduct “within the ‘outer perimeter’ of his official responsibility.”

The ruling is helpful to former President Donald J. Trump, establishing as it does that immunity can be expansive, lives on after a president leaves office and extends to the very limits of what may be said to be official conduct.

But the decision also falls well short of dictating the outcome in the case that is being argued on Thursday, which concerns a criminal prosecution, not a civil suit.

The 1982 case arose from a lawsuit brought by an Air Force analyst, A. Ernest Fitzgerald, who said he was fired in 1970 in retaliation for his criticism of cost overruns. By the time the Supreme Court acted, Nixon had been out of office for several years.

“In view of the special nature of the president’s constitutional office and functions,” Justice Lewis F. Powell Jr. wrote for the majority 5-to-4 decision, “we think it appropriate to recognize absolute presidential immunity from damages liability” for Nixon’s official conduct, broadly defined.

But the decision drew a sharp line between civil suits, which it said can be abusive and harassing, and criminal prosecutions like the one Mr. Trump is facing.

“In view of the visibility of his office and the effect of his actions on countless people, the president would be an easily identifiable target for suits for civil damages,” Justice Powell wrote, adding, “The court has recognized before that there is a lesser public interest in actions for civil damages than, for example, in criminal prosecutions.”

Chief Justice Warren E. Burger underscored the point in a concurring opinion. “The immunity is limited to civil damages claims,” he wrote.

Even in the context of civil suits, Nixon v. Fitzgerald conferred immunity only on conduct within the “outer perimeter” of a president’s official duties. Jack Smith, the special counsel, has said that Mr. Trump’s efforts to subvert democracy are well outside that line.

The Justice Department has already granted sitting presidents immunity while they are in office.

Former President Donald J. Trump’s claim that former presidents must enjoy “complete immunity” from prosecution for any crimes they committed in office would significantly expand the temporary immunity that sitting presidents already have.

Nothing in the Constitution or federal statutes says that presidents are shielded from being prosecuted while in office, and no court has ever ruled that way. But political appointees in the Justice Department’s Office of Legal Counsel, whose interpretations are binding on the executive branch, have declared that the Constitution implicitly establishes such immunity.

This argument boils down to practicalities of governance: The stigma of being indicted and the burden of a trial would unduly interfere with a president’s ability to carry out his duties, Robert G. Dixon Jr. , then the head of the Justice Department’s Office of Legal Counsel, wrote in a memo in September 1973 . This would prevent the executive branch “from accomplishing its constitutional functions” in a way that cannot “be justified by an overriding need,” he added.

Mr. Dixon, an appointee of President Richard M. Nixon, wrote his memo against the backdrop of the Watergate scandal, when Mr. Nixon faced a criminal investigation by a special counsel, Archibald Cox. The next month, Nixon’s solicitor general, Robert H. Bork , in a court brief , similarly argued for an “inference” that the Constitution makes sitting presidents immune from indictment and trial.

(That same month, Mr. Nixon had Mr. Cox fired in the so-called Saturday Night Massacre. Mr. Nixon’s attorney general and deputy attorney general resigned rather than carry out his orders to oust the prosecutor; Mr. Nixon then turned to Mr. Bork, the department’s No. 3, who proved willing to do it. Amid a political backlash, Mr. Nixon was forced to allow a new special counsel, Leon Jaworski , to resume the investigation.)

The question arose again a generation later, when President Bill Clinton faced an investigation by Kenneth Starr, an independent counsel, into the Whitewater land deal that morphed into an inquiry into his affair with Monica Lewinsky, a White House intern. Randolph D. Moss , Mr. Clinton’s appointee to lead the Office of Legal Counsel, reviewed the Justice Department’s 1973 opinions and reaffirmed their conclusions .

Legal scholars, as well as staff for prosecutors investigating presidents, have disputed the legitimacy of that constitutional theory. In 1974, Mr. Jaworski received a memo from his staff saying he could, in fact, indict Mr. Nixon while he was in office, and he later made that case in a court brief .

And in a 56-page memo in 1998, Ronald Rotunda, a prominent conservative constitutional scholar whom Mr. Starr hired as a consultant on his legal team, rejected the view that presidents are immune from prosecution while in office. Mr. Starr later said that he had concluded that he could indict Mr. Clinton.

“It is proper, constitutional, and legal for a federal grand jury to indict a sitting president for serious criminal acts that are not part of, and are contrary to, the president’s official duties,” Mr. Rotunda wrote. “In this country, no one, even President Clinton, is above the law.”

Mr. Starr commissioned the Rotunda memo as he was drafting a potential indictment of Mr. Clinton, and Mr. Starr decided that he could charge the president while in office. In the end, however, both Mr. Jaworski and Mr. Starr decided to let congressional impeachment proceedings play out and did not try to bring indictments while Mr. Nixon and Mr. Clinton remained in office.

The question may never be definitively tested in the courts. In 1999, Congress allowed a law that created independent counsels like Mr. Starr — prosecutors who do not report to the attorney general — to expire, and the Justice Department issued regulations to allow for the appointment of semiautonomous special counsels for inquiries into potential high-level wrongdoing in the executive branch.

Special counsels are, however, bound by Justice Departments policies and practices — including the Office of Legal Counsel’s proclamation that sitting presidents are temporarily immune from criminal indictment or trial.

Alan Feuer and Charlie Savage

Is there such a thing as executive immunity?

There are no direct precedents on the broad question of whether presidents have criminal immunity for their official actions.

The Supreme Court has held that presidents are absolutely immune from civil lawsuits related to their official acts , in part to protect them against ceaseless harassment and judicial scrutiny of their day-to-day decisions. The court has also held that presidents can be sued over their personal actions .

The Supreme Court has further found that while presidents are sometimes immune from judicial subpoenas requesting internal executive branch information, that privilege is not absolute. Even presidents, the court has decided, can be forced to obey a subpoena in a criminal case if the need for information is great enough.

But until Mr. Trump wound up in court, the Supreme Court has never had a reason to decide whether former presidents are protected from being prosecuted for official actions. The Justice Department has long maintained that sitting presidents are temporarily immune from prosecution because criminal charges would distract them from their constitutional functions. But since Mr. Trump is not in office, that is not an issue.

The closest the country has come to the prosecution of a former president over official actions came in 1974, when Richard M. Nixon resigned to avoid being impeached over the Watergate scandal. But a pardon by his successor, President Gerald R. Ford, protected Nixon from indictment by the Watergate special prosecutor.

Mr. Smith’s team has argued that Ford’s pardon — and Nixon’s acceptance of it — demonstrates that both men understood that Nixon was not already immune. Mr. Trump’s team has sought to counter that point by arguing — inaccurately — that Nixon faced potential criminal charges only over private actions, like tax fraud. But the special prosecutor weighed charging Nixon with abusing his office to obstruct justice.

Mr. Trump’s team has argued that denying his claims risks unleashing a routine practice of prosecuting former presidents for partisan reasons. But Mr. Smith’s team has argued that if courts endorse Mr. Trump’s theory, then future presidents who are confident of surviving impeachment could, with impunity, commit any number of crimes in connection with their official actions.

“Such a result would severely undermine the compelling public interest in the rule of law and criminal accountability,” prosecutors wrote.

Hypothetical questions test the limits of Trump’s immunity claim.

An exchange during an appeals court argument in January about a hypothetical political assassination tested former President Donald J. Trump’s claim that he is absolutely immune from prosecution for his official conduct.

His lawyer, D. John Sauer, has urged the justices to consider only what he is actually accused of: plotting to subvert the 2020 election. But hypothetical questions are routine at the Supreme Court, and they have a way of illuminating the contours and implications of legal theories.

That is what happened in January, when Judge Florence Y. Pan of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia had to press Mr. Sauer to get an answer to a hypothetical question: Are former presidents absolutely immune from prosecution, even for murders they ordered while in office?

“I asked you a yes-or-no question,” Judge Pan said. “Could a president who ordered SEAL Team 6 to assassinate a political rival, who was not impeached, would he be subject to criminal prosecution?”

Mr. Sauer said his answer was a “qualified yes,” by which he meant no. He explained that prosecution would be permitted only if the president were first impeached by the House and convicted by the Senate.

Impeachments of presidents are rare: There have been four in the history of the Republic, two of them of Mr. Trump. The number of convictions, which require a two-thirds majority of the Senate: zero.

Mr. Sauer’s statement called to mind a 2019 federal appeals court argument over whether Mr. Trump could block state prosecutors from obtaining his tax and business records. He maintained that he was immune not only from prosecution but also from criminal investigation so long as he was president.

At that time, Judge Denny Chin of the Second Circuit pressed William S. Consovoy, a lawyer for Mr. Trump, asking about his client’s famous statement that he could shoot someone on Fifth Avenue without losing political support.

“Local authorities couldn’t investigate?” Judge Chin asked, adding: “Nothing could be done? That’s your position?”

“That is correct,” said Mr. Consovoy. “That is correct.”

This headline followed: “If Trump Shoots Someone on 5th Ave., Does He Have Immunity? His Lawyer Says Yes.”

For his part, Mr. Sauer does not seem eager to revisit the question about assassinations. Indeed, in asking the Supreme Court to hear Mr. Trump’s appeal, Mr. Sauer urged the justices not to be distracted by “lurid hypotheticals” that “almost certainly never will occur.”

What counts as an official act as president?

Another issue that has come up in lower courts in this case was what counted as an official act for a president, as opposed to a private action that was not connected to his constitutional responsibilities.

If the justices want to dispose of the dispute without definitively ruling on whether presidents are immune from prosecution for official acts, they could do so by finding that the specific steps former President Donald J. Trump took to remain in office that are cited in the federal indictment were not official actions. If so, the broader immunity question would not matter, and the prosecution could proceed.

The acts by Mr. Trump cited in the indictment include using deceit to organize fake slates of electors and to try to get state officials to subvert legitimate election results; trying to get the Justice Department and Vice President Mike Pence to help fraudulently alter the results; directing his supporters to the Capitol on Jan. 6, 2021; and exploiting the violence and chaos of their ensuing riot.

In its court filings, Mr. Trump’s team has sought to reframe those accusations not only as official actions, but innocuous or even admirable ones.

“All five types of conduct alleged in the indictment constitute official acts,” they wrote. “They all reflect President Trump’s efforts and duties, squarely as chief executive of the United States, to advocate for and defend the integrity of the federal election, in accord with his view that it was tainted by fraud and irregularity.”

Mr. Smith’s team has argued that they should be seen as the efforts of a person seeking office, not of an officeholder carrying out government responsibilities.

“Those alleged acts were carried out by and on behalf of the defendant in his capacity as a candidate, and the extensive involvement of private attorneys and campaign staff in procuring the fraudulent slates as alleged in the indictment underscores that those activities were not within the outer perimeter of the office of the presidency,” they wrote.

Judge Tanya S. Chutkan, who is overseeing Mr. Trump’s case in Federal District Court in Washington, issued her ruling rejecting Mr. Trump’s immunity claim without including any detailed analysis of whether his acts were “official.”

If the Supreme Court were to send the matter back to her to take a stab at answering that question before restarting the appeals process, Mr. Trump will, at a minimum, have used up additional valuable time that could help push any trial past the election.

Noah Weiland and Alan Feuer

Here are the lawyers arguing before the Supreme Court.

The two lawyers arguing before the Supreme Court on Thursday have each played a role in some of the defining legal battles stemming from Mr. Trump’s term in office.

Arguing the case for the special counsel Jack Smith will be Michael Dreeben, who worked for a different special counsel’s office that scrutinized Mr. Trump’s presidency: Robert S. Mueller III’s investigation into links between Russia and associates of Mr. Trump. Mr. Dreeben, one of the nation’s leading criminal law experts, has made more than 100 oral arguments before the Supreme Court, including when he served as deputy solicitor general.

On Mr. Mueller’s team, he handled pretrial litigation, defending the scope of the investigation and preventing the office from losing cases on appeal. He also helped with a second part of Mr. Mueller’s investigation, examining whether Mr. Trump had tried to obstruct the inquiry in his dealings with associates involved in the case.

Mr. Dreeben, who was heavily involved in the writing of Mr. Mueller’s final report on his investigation, supported an interpretation of presidential power that emphasized limits on what a president could do while exercising his or her powers, according to “Where Law Ends,” a book written by Andrew Weissmann, another prosecutor on Mr. Mueller’s team.

After Mr. Mueller’s investigation concluded, Mr. Dreeben took a teaching position at Georgetown University’s law school and returned to private practice at O’Melveny, arguing in front of the Supreme Court on behalf of the city of Austin over a First Amendment dispute about the placement of digital billboards.

Opposing Mr. Dreeben in front of the Supreme Court will be D. John Sauer, a lawyer based in St. Louis who once served as the solicitor general of Missouri. Mr. Sauer joined Mr. Trump’s legal team late last year to handle appellate matters, including his challenge to a gag order imposed on him in the election case in Washington.

As Missouri’s solicitor general, Mr. Sauer took part in a last-ditch effort to keep Mr. Trump in power after his defeat in the 2020 election, filing a motion on behalf of his state and five others in support of an attempt by Texas to have the Supreme Court toss out the results of the vote count in several key swing states.

He also joined in an unsuccessful bid with Texas in asking the Supreme Court to stop the Biden administration from rescinding a Trump-era immigration program that forces certain asylum seekers arriving at the southwestern border to await approval in Mexico.

When he left the solicitor general’s office last January, Mr. Sauer, who once clerked for Justice Antonin Scalia, returned to his private firm, the James Otis Law Group. The firm is named after a prominent Revolutionary War-era lawyer who built a career out of challenging abuses by British colonial forces.

To justify his defense in the immunity case, Trump turns to a familiar tactic.

When the Supreme Court considers Donald J. Trump’s sweeping claims of executive immunity on Thursday, it will break new legal ground, mulling for the first time the question of whether a former president can avoid being prosecuted for things he did in office.

But in coming up with the argument, Mr. Trump used a tactic on which he has often leaned in his life as a businessman and politician: He flipped the facts on their head in an effort to create a different reality.

At the core of his immunity defense is a claim that seeks to upend the story told by federal prosecutors in an indictment charging him with plotting to overturn the 2020 election. In that indictment, prosecutors described a criminal conspiracy by Mr. Trump to subvert the election results and stay in power.

In Mr. Trump’s telling, however, those same events are official acts that he undertook as president to safeguard the integrity of the race and cannot be subject to prosecution.

In many ways, Mr. Trump’s immunity claim is breathtaking. In one instance, his lawyers went so far as to say that a president could not be prosecuted even for using the military to assassinate a rival unless he was first impeached.

But the wholesale rewriting of the government’s accusations — which first appeared six months ago in Mr. Trump’s motion to dismiss the election interference case — may be the most audacious part of his defense. It was certainly a requisite step his lawyers had to take to advance the immunity argument.

Other courts have ruled that presidents enjoy limited immunity from civil lawsuits for things they did as part of the formal responsibilities of their job. To extend that legal concept to criminal charges, Mr. Trump’s lawyers needed to reframe all of the allegations lodged against him in the election interference case as official acts of his presidency rather than as the actions of a candidate misusing his power.

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People under red fabric with shirts saying 'Jews say ceasefire now' and 'Not in our name'

We need an exodus from Zionism

This Passover, we don’t need or want the false idol of Zionism. We want freedom from the project that commits genocide in our name

I’ve been thinking about Moses, and his rage when he came down from the mount to find the Israelites worshipping a golden calf.

The ecofeminist in me was always uneasy about this story: what kind of God is jealous of animals? What kind of God wants to hoard all the sacredness of the Earth for himself?

But there is a less literal way of understanding this story. It is about false idols. About the human tendency to worship the profane and shiny, to look to the small and material rather than the large and transcendent.

What I want to say to you tonight at this revolutionary and historic Seder in the Streets is that too many of our people are worshipping a false idol once again. They are enraptured by it. Drunk on it. Profaned by it.

That false idol is called Zionism.

It is a false idol that takes our most profound biblical stories of justice and emancipation from slavery – the story of Passover itself – and turns them into brutalist weapons of colonial land theft, roadmaps for ethnic cleansing and genocide.

It is a false idol that has taken the transcendent idea of the promised land – a metaphor for human liberation that has traveled across multiple faiths to every corner of this globe – and dared to turn it into a deed of sale for a militaristic ethnostate.

Political Zionism’s version of liberation is itself profane. From the start, it required the mass expulsion of Palestinians from their homes and ancestral lands in the Nakba.

From the start it has been at war with dreams of liberation. At a Seder it is worth remembering that this includes the dreams of liberation and self-determination of the Egyptian people. This false idol of Zionism equates Israeli safety with Egyptian dictatorship and client states.

From the start it has produced an ugly kind of freedom that saw Palestinian children not as human beings but as demographic threats – much as the pharaoh in the Book of Exodus feared the growing population of Israelites, and thus ordered the death of their sons.

Zionism has brought us to our present moment of cataclysm and it is time that we said clearly: it has always been leading us here.

It is a false idol that has led far too many of our own people down a deeply immoral path that now has them justifying the shredding of core commandments: thou shalt not kill. Thou shalt not steal. Thou shalt not covet.

It is a false idol that equates Jewish freedom with cluster bombs that kill and maim Palestinian children.

Zionism is a false idol that has betrayed every Jewish value, including the value we place on questioning – a practice embedded in the Seder with its four questions asked by the youngest child.

Including the love we have as a people for text and for education.

Today, this false idol justifies the bombing of every university in Gaza; the destruction of countless schools, of archives, of printing presses; the killing of hundreds of academics, of journalists, of poets – this is what Palestinians call scholasticide, the killing of the means of education.

Meanwhile, in this city, the universities call in the NYPD and barricade themselves against the grave threat posed by their own students daring to ask them basic questions, such as: how can you claim to believe in anything at all, least of all us, while you enable, invest in and collaborate with this genocide?

The false idol of Zionism has been allowed to grow unchecked for far too long.

So tonight we say: it ends here.

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Our Judaism cannot be contained by an ethnostate, for our Judaism is internationalist by nature.

Our Judaism cannot be protected by the rampaging military of that state, for all that military does is sow sorrow and reap hatred – including against us as Jews.

Our Judaism is not threatened by people raising their voices in solidarity with Palestine across lines of race, ethnicity, physical ability, gender identity and generations.

Our Judaism is one of those voices and knows that in that chorus lies both our safety and our collective liberation.

Our Judaism is the Judaism of the Passover Seder: the gathering in ceremony to share food and wine with loved ones and strangers alike, the ritual that is inherently portable, light enough to carry on our backs, in need of nothing but each other: no walls, no temple, no rabbi, a role for everyone, even – especially – the smallest child. The Seder is a diaspora technology if ever there was one, made for collective grieving, contemplation, questioning, remembering and reviving the revolutionary spirit.

So look around. This, here, is our Judaism. As waters rise and forests burn and nothing is certain, we pray at the altar of solidarity and mutual aid, no matter the cost.

We don’t need or want the false idol of Zionism. We want freedom from the project that commits genocide in our name. Freedom from an ideology that has no plan for peace other than deals with murderous theocratic petrostates next door, while selling the technologies of robo-assassinations to the world.

We seek to liberate Judaism from an ethnostate that wants Jews to be perennially afraid, that wants our children to be afraid, that wants us to believe the world is against us so that we go running to its fortress and beneath its iron dome, or at least keep the weapons and donations flowing.

That is the false idol.

And it’s not just Netanyahu, it’s the world he made and that made him – it’s Zionism.

What are we? We, in these streets for months and months, are the exodus. The exodus from Zionism.

And to the Chuck Schumers of this world, we do not say: “Let our people go.”

We say: “We have already gone. And your kids? They’re with us now.”

Naomi Klein is a Guardian US columnist and contributing writer. She is the professor of climate justice and co-director of the Centre for Climate Justice at the University of British Columbia. Her latest book, Doppelganger: A Trip into the Mirror World, was published in September

This is a transcript of a speech delivered at the Emergency Seder in the Streets in New York City

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