case study of environmental issues in india

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Physical Risk - Risk Management - Transition Risk

India: A Case Study in Climate Mitigation and Adaptation

This article explores the difficult trade-offs that need to be made between the competing claims of climate mitigation, adaptation, and economic development..

Thursday, September 14, 2023

By Maxine Nelson

This article has been extensively updated, incorporating new COP 27 commitments, Reserve Bank of India (RBI) statements and current green bond issuance. It was originally published Oct. 18, 2021.

After decades of population growth and economic development, India is now the third largest emitter of greenhouse gases in the world. In addition, India is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change due to its geography and dependence on agriculture.

It has been estimated that if emissions are not significantly reduced, India could suffer economic losses of USD 35 trillion . Indeed, much of India has been experiencing annual heatwaves followed by intense flooding, and in 2021 alone it experienced even more  extreme weather events — including cyclones and a glacier collapse. Thus, India makes a thought-provoking case study for policymakers and risk professionals given the difficult trade-offs that need to be made between the competing claims of climate mitigation, adaptation and economic development.

Climate Change’s Effect on India

The banking regulator, Reserve Bank of India (RBI) , explains that “India has witnessed changes in climatic patterns in line with the rest of the world… the rainfall pattern, particularly with respect to the [south west monsoon] SWM, which provides around 75 percent of the annual rainfall, has undergone significant changes. Moreover, the occurrence of extreme weather events like floods/unseasonal rainfall, heat waves and cyclones has increased during the past two decades, and data reveal that some of the key agricultural states in India have been the most affected by such events.”

A more recent, detailed RBI study points out that “it is the increased frequency of extreme weather occurrences that is breaking the back of our capability to cope with natural disasters.” As shown by India’s nationally determined contributions (NDCs) — the actions it has committed to take to reduce its emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change — it is among the most vulnerable countries in the world to the impact of accelerated sea level rise from global warming. This is due to its long coastline, large number of islands and population of 170 million living in coastal regions.

The RBI also notes that precipitation and temperature — the two key climate indicators — “play a crucial role in the overall health of the Indian economy.” As well as affecting food production, the extreme weather in agricultural states impacts employment and GDP, with approximately 44% of the working population employed in agriculture and allied sectors which contribute about 20% of GDP, according to M.K. Jain, the deputy governor of the Reserve Bank . Several challenges confronting Indian agriculture, including diminishing and degrading natural resources and unprecedented climate change, need to be tackled for the long-term sustainability and viability of Indian agriculture.

However, there is uncertainty over how large the impacts might be. The Swiss Re Institute , for example, estimates a 35% reduction in the level of India’s GDP by 2050 if greenhouse gas emissions are not reduced globally, and approximately a 6% GDP reduction even if the Paris Agreement goals are met. An Oxford Economics report “Estimating the Economic Impact of Global Warming” has framed the impact differently, estimating that India’s GDP could be 90% lower in 2100 than it would be if there was no climate change, suggesting that climate change has the potential to absorb all of India’s future prospective growth in income per capita. And  Deloitte  has estimated USD 35 trillion of economic losses by 2070. While these different approaches produce diverse estimates, they all show that the impact will be big and require additional investments in both mitigation and adaptation.

India’s Effect on Climate Change

Not only will the changing climate have a significant impact on India, but India is also expected to have a significant impact on the climate. Although historically it has not had high emissions, India rose to the number three spot in the national emissions rankings 15 years ago, behind China and the U.S. The RBI noted that “With the increase in population, the cumulative level of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has increased, resulting in a rise of average temperature. According to a study by the International Energy Agency (IEA), India emitted 2,299 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) in 2018, a rise of 4.8% over the previous year.”

Unfortunately, India’s future potential emissions are not yet aligned with the Paris Agreement goals. India’s NDCs currently correspond to temperature increases above 3°C, according to Climate Action Tracker . (You can find out more about NDCs and their place in the Paris Agreement in this  short article . ) India increased its commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions at COP 26, the 2021 annual meeting of the signatories of the Paris Agreement, where it pledged to cut its emissions to net zero by 2070. While this was a large increase in commitment, it isn’t yet aligned with the worldwide goal of cutting emissions to net zero by 2050 needed to limit global warming to 1.5°C.

Maxine Nelson

In advance of COP 27, India has again increased its commitment and pledged to a 45% reduction in GDP emissions intensity by 2030 — marking an 10% increase from the previous pledge. Any emissions reduction is helpful to mitigate climate change. However, as the pledge is based on emissions intensity and not absolute emissions, emissions can continue increasing as the economy expands. This pledge, therefore, doesn’t meet the net-zero goal of reducing emissions by 45% by 2030. Still, the effort required to overcome the challenge of rapidly expanding an economy while decreasing emissions intensity needs to be appreciated.

To further mitigate climate change, India may need to agree to reduce its emissions even more — a big task for a developing economy with average annual energy consumption of a third the global average, and per capita emissions already 10 times lower than that of the U.S., four times lower than China, and three times lower than Europe. With IPCC reports highlighting the urgency of tackling climate change quickly to reduce the loss and damage for humans and ecosystems, it is even more important that emissions reductions are ambitious.

Financing Mitigation and Adaptation

A 2021 RBI Financial Stability Report noted that climate change and the associated mitigating policy commitments are “set to reshape the macroeconomic and financial landscape”. Extensive funding is needed both to reduce future emissions and to finance the adaptation needed to manage the impacts of climate change. In their 2016 NDC, India estimated that at least USD 2.5 trillion (at 2014-15 prices) would be required for meeting its climate change actions between 2016 and 2030. And the International Energy Agency estimates that nearly 60% of India’s CO 2 emissions in the late 2030s will be coming from infrastructure and machines that do not exist today. If this investment is to be sustainable, USD 1.4 trillion extra funding (above that required for current policies) is needed over the next 20 years.

Like most of the world, green bond issuance in India — which could provide some of this funding — is currently a small proportion of all bond issuance.  The rate of issuance is increasing, however, with USD 21.6 billion of green, sustainable or social bonds issued in 2022. And in 2023, the Government of India entered the green finance market issuing USD 2 billion of green bonds to finance their spending on a range of projects including solar power, green hydrogen and afforestation. As they obtained a greenium (lower financing costs than other equivalent bonds), we should expect to see more of these issued in the future.

There are also substantial opportunities in other financial markets, such as the  development of a derivatives market   to aid adaptation via products such as:

• agricultural commodity derivatives, which can help reduce risks by enabling continuous price discovery and providing hedging
• weather derivatives, which can hedge the risks of high-probability, low-risk events

Of course, meeting the needs of climate change financing carries the usual financial risk implications of any lending. An RBI analysis shows that banks’ direct exposure to fossil fuels (through electricity, chemicals and cars) is 10% of total outstanding non-retail bank credit, so it should have a limited impact on the banking system. However, it notes that many other industries indirectly use fossil fuels and their impacts also need to be closely monitored.

Regulatory Response

The RBI has noted that policy measures such as a deepening of the corporate bond market, standardization of green investment terminology, consistent corporate reporting and removing information asymmetry between investors and recipients can make a significant contribution in addressing some of the shortcomings of the green finance market.

Like in most of the rest of the world, there is an increasing regulatory focus on climate risk. The RBI Governor has stated that guidelines will be issued about disclosure of climate-related risks, and also scenario analysis and stress testing. This followed last year’s RBI consultation which asked for inputs on a comprehensive range of topics from climate risk governance to strategy, and risk monitoring, management and mitigation at regulated entities. This consultation, in turn, built on the results of an RBI survey of banks that was also published last year. The survey found that “although banks have begun taking steps in the area of climate risk and sustainable finance, there remains a need for concerted effort and further action in this regard.” It also found that board-level engagement is inadequate, and few banks had a strategy for incorporating climate risk into their risk management framework. To see what leading climate risk firms are doing globally look at GARP’s whitepaper: “ Climate Risk Leadership: Lessons From 4 Annual Surveys .”

Given the widespread impact of climate change, it isn’t just the banking regulator that is looking at how climate risk will affect firms in its jurisdiction. In 2021, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) mandated that the largest 1,000 listed firms complete a Business Responsibility and Sustainability Report . The report asks for information like material ESG risks and opportunities and their financial implications; sustainability related targets and performance; and their greenhouse gas emissions. Companies’ value chains also need to be assessed. This requirement is being progressively rolled out from 2023 to 2027, with the largest companies also required to get assurance of their disclosures.

In addition, SEBI has altered the rules for mutual funds , allowing them to have multiple ESG schemes with different strategies; in the past, a mutual fund could only have one ESG fund. This increase in scope follows one for green debt securities , which was expanded to include bonds such as blue bonds (sustainable water management and marine sector), yellow bonds (solar energy generation and transmission), transition bonds and adaptation bonds. Both of these expansions in scope should increase financing for sustainability related initiatives.

Reflecting the fact that addressing climate change is a global problem, needing both local and global solutions, the RBI joined the Network for Greening the Financial System (NGFS) in April 2021. The NGFS’s purpose is to strengthen the global response required to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement and to enhance the role of the financial system to manage risks and to mobilize capital for green and low-carbon investments. These goals align very well with the work India needs to undertake to make not just its financial system resilient to the risks from climate change, but to balance mitigation, adaptation, and economic development across the country.

Maxine Nelson , Ph.D, Senior Vice President, GARP Risk Institute, currently focusses on sustainability and climate risk management. She has extensive experience in risk, capital and regulation gained from a wide variety of roles across firms including Head of Wholesale Credit Analytics at HSBC. She also worked at the U.K. Financial Services Authority, where she was responsible for counterparty credit risk during the last financial crisis.

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Climate change and environmental sustainability, unicef estimates that by 2040, almost 600 million children globally are projected to be living in areas of extremely high-water stress.

India’s average temperature has risen by around 0.7°C during 1901–2018.1 This rise in temperature is caused largely on account of greenhouse gases (GHG) induced warming leading to climate change. In 2019, India was the 7th most affected country due to climate change led extreme weather events – both in terms of the fatalities (2,267 people) as well as the economic losses (66,182 million US$ PPP).2  In fact, extreme weather events due to climate change have led to 17 out of 20 people in India being vulnerable to extreme hydrological and meteorological (or “hydromet”) disasters like flood, drought and cyclone.3    UNICEF’s 2021 report titled ‘The Climate Crisis Is a Child Rights Crisis: Introducing the Children’s Climate Risk Index’  (CCRI), presents the first child-focused global climate risk index. The report ranks India as 26th out of 163 ranked countries. This implies that children in India are among the most ‘at-risk’ to the impacts of climate change, threatening their health, education, and protection.4 The same report also shares that around 90 per cent of the world’s children breathe poisonous air every day, while air pollution is associated with some of the biggest killers of children, such as pneumonia. In fact, globally, countries in Asia (including India as per reports) and Africa experience the highest age-standardized rates of death attributable to PM2.5 as found out in the State of Global Air report for 2020.5 With 21 of the world’s 30 most polluted cities being in India (IQ Air Report, 2020), millions are at risk to respiratory and other related illnesses. A Lancet study from 2018 estimates that air pollution in India killed 1.24 million people in 2017 (12.5 per cent of total deaths). 

 Besides pollution related fatality, the WHO predicts that an additional 250,000 climate-related deaths will occur globally – per year – between 2030 and 2050, given the current trajectory, from malnutrition, malaria diarrhoea and heat stress. Especially women and children are at risk, as well as other vulnerable groups such as people with disabilities. UNICEF estimates that by 2040, almost 600 million children globally are projected to be living in areas of extremely high-water stress.6 Moreover, close to 25 per cent of children in India are experiencing high/ extremely high-water vulnerability .7  

According to UN Women’s 2020 report on gender equality, “Men are 75 per cent of parliamentarians, hold 73 per cent of managerial positions, are 70 per cent of climate negotiators and almost all peace negotiators”. This means that women have inequitable shares of the decision-making power needed to address climate resilience issues that affect their employment, communities and families.  

According to WHO’s 2017 ‘Inheriting a Sustainable World?’, 26 per cent of under five deaths could be avoided by addressing environmental health risks. Climate change is an ever-increasingly presence in our daily lives, and as such, resilience and mitigation measures addressing its consequences need to be incorporated into UNICEF’s current and future programmes. This is particularly true in this last ‘Decade of Action’ before the world’s nations have to deliver on the Sustainable Development Goals in 2030.   

According to UNEP’s 2020 Emissions Gap Report, a ‘green’ pandemic recovery in the aftermath of the spread of COVID-19 can ‘shave up to 25 per cent off the emissions we would expect to see in 2030 with the implementation of unconditional NDCs – bringing the world close to the 2° C pathway.  

UNICEF Approach in India

UNICEF’s climate and environmental sustainability strategy is anchored around four pillars- i) make children as focus on environmental strategies ii) reduce emission and pollution iii) empower children as agents of change, iv) protect children from impacts. t is the basis for our coordinated external advocacy, programmatic interventions, and internal greening efforts. Regarding our programmatic interventions, UNICEF has initially identified five areas where we have the potential to programmatically deliver climate related initiatives at scale in the near term:  a) climate smart health centres  b) climate smart schools  c) climate-resilient WASH services  d) tackling pollution (air, soil and water); and e) the engagement of children and young people.  The last area is considered as both a stand-alone area of focus, as well as integrated into each of the four other programmatic priorities.    

In 2020, after witnessing how the COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated existing inequities and collapsed social systems for vulnerable communities globally, UNICEF India recognized the importance of strengthening its support to communities to build their resilience against climactic and environmental shocks that could aggravate the spread of any future health outbreaks. Going forward, UNICEF India is committed to:    

Advocating for every child's right to a sustainable and healthy future.    

Influence government policy making efforts to promote inclusive and climate-responsive programming.   

Strengthening service delivery that reflect climate mitigation, adaptation and resilience outcomes.   

Empowering communities, especially women and children, with the resources they need to advocate for themselves and drive action; and   

Investing in opportunities for convergent programme delivery, public-private partnerships, and financing or funding that will effectively amplify positive inputs and results contributing to climate action and environmental sustainability.    

Over the coming two years, UNICEF seeks to identify opportunities with government partners and within programmatic blueprints to strengthen outputs related to building climate resilience, through adaptative and mitigative interventions being rolled-out for bolstering education, health, water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), child protection, social protection and nutrition outcomes.   

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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, environmental and sustainability campaigns: a case study of india's swachh bharat abhiyan (2014–2019).

Journal of Communication Management

ISSN : 1363-254X

Article publication date: 5 May 2021

Issue publication date: 5 November 2021

With the increasing realization of the importance of communication for sustainable development, strategic issues such as institutional alliances, public participation and media integration have emerged as indispensable tools in any environmental campaign. This study is an inquiry into India's Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (2014–2019) which is one of the major strategic sustainable development campaigns of the 21st century. The twin research questions raised are (1) What were the major action-plans and the key outreach strategies adopted in SBA? and (2) How the discourse of swachhata (cleanliness) was propagated in SBA?

Design/methodology/approach

With response to research question 1, a seven-fold analysis of the strategic aspects of the SBA is undertaken utilizing Willner's (2006) strategic approach to the promotion of sustainable development campaigns. Research question 2 is addressed through a multimodal analysis of the discourse of swachhata (cleanliness) following the Grammar of Visual Design framework of Kress and van Lieuwen (2006).

The campaign employed a 360-degree promotional strategy. It involved print, electronic and social media; promoted inter- and intra-institutional alliances; roped in opinion leaders and opinion formers; and encouraged massive public participation. Strategically, SBA's discourse of cleanliness adhered to the “3R” principles of the United Nation's Sustainability Goals: Reduce, Reuse and Recycle. Tactically, the discourse of cleanliness was framed in the ideas of shame versus dignity and was entrenched in the ideals of commitment to nation and neighborhood, and good citizenship.

Research limitations/implications

One major limitation of this study is the exclusion of certain intervening variables such as (1) access to the state of the art of green technology, (2) green financing, (3) green incubation, (4) sustainable PPP models for SBA and (5) for-profit approach to environmental cleanliness. Future studies can expand the scope of research by incorporating these variables in their analytical frameworks.

Originality/value

This is the first study to undertake a comprehensive analysis of the communication aspect of SBA. This case study, in particular, can be useful for the young research scholars and postgraduate students of Communication, Management and Public Policy.

• Swachh Bharat Abhiyan
• Sustainable development campaign
• Institutional alliance
• Public participation
• Media integration
• Impact assessment
• Multimodal discourse analysis

Dash, A.K. and Dash, R.K. (2021), "Environmental and sustainability campaigns: a case study of India's Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (2014–2019)", Journal of Communication Management , Vol. 25 No. 4, pp. 385-400. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCOM-07-2020-0072

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Copyright © 2021, Emerald Publishing Limited

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15 Landmark Judgments on Environmental Protection

The Indian Judiciary, the custodian of constitution, has been giving beacon light for protection of Environment while interpretation the constitution in positive manner. Judicial Chronology is full of landmark decisions, which embarked upon that Right to life far exceeds mere breathing and walking and developed Environment Jurisprudence. Judiciary plays a vital role in the protection of environment. Here are some of the Landmark judgment on Environment Protection:

1.      Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra & Ors. v. State of Uttar Pradesh & Ors. ; Supreme Court of India

Judgment- This case is also known as the ‘Dehradun Valley Litigation’. In Mussoorie hill range of Himalayas, the activity of quarrying was being carried out.  Limestone was extracted by blasting out the hills with dynamite. This practice has also resulted in cave-ins and slumping because the mines dug deep into the hillsides, which is an illegal practice per se. Due to lack of vegetation many landslides occurred, which killed villagers, and destroyed their homes, cattle and agricultural land. It was contended by the mining operators that the case should be dismissed by the court and the issue should be left to the administrative authorities under the Environment Protection but the Court rejected the miners’ arguments the ground that the litigation had already commenced and significant orders had been issued by the court before the adoption of the Environment Protection Act. Later a monitoring committee was made. Monitoring Committee directed the company in certain way but the lessee continued to quarry limestone in an unscientific manner and in disregard of the directions issued by the Monitoring committee. In an application filed by the committee, the court held that the mining activity secretly carried on by Vijay Shree Mines had caused immense damage to the area and directed the firm to pay Rs. 3 lakhs to the fund of the Monitoring committee. After years, the Supreme Court of India has held that pollution caused by quarries adversely affects the health and safety of people and hence, the same should be stopped. The right to wholesome environment is a part of right to life and personal liberty guaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution. This case was the first requiring the Supreme Court to balance environment and ecological integrity against industrial demands on the forest resources. The Court issued the following directions:

· Orders that mine lessees whose operations were terminated by the court would be given priority for leases in new areas open to limestone mining.

· Orders that the Eco-Task Force of the central department of Environment reclaim and reforest the area damaged by mining and that workers displaced by mine closure be given priority for jobs with the Eco-Task Force operations in the region.

2.      Municipal Council, Ratlam v. Shri Vardhichand & Ors.; Supreme Court of India

Judgment- Ratlam is a city in the State of Madhya Pradesh in India. Some of the residents of the municipality filed a complaint before the Sub-Divisional Magistrate alleging that the municipality is not constructing proper drains and there is stench and stink caused by the exertion by nearby slum-dwellers and that there was nuisance to the petitioners. The Sub Divisional Magistrate of Ratlam district instructed the municipality to prepare a proper development plan within 6 months of the complaint submitted by the residents of Ratlam city (approved by High Court). Afterwards the municipality came in appeal before the apex court of India and alleged that they do not have proper financial support as well as proper funds to comply with the direction given by the sub divisional magistrate of Ratlam city. Respondents argued that the Municipality of Ratlam city had failed to meet its obligations given by the sub divisional magistrate to provide for public health including by failing to abate pollution and other hazardous waste from impacting their homes. Respondents focused to stop pollution caused by a runoff from a nearby alcohol plant resulting in form of malaria. The Supreme Court instructed the Municipal Council of Ratlam to immediately follow order given by the Sub Divisional Magistrate of Ratlam city to protect the area from pollution caused by alcohol plant flowing into the neighboring areas of the resident. Supreme court also ordered the municipal to take necessary steps to  fulfill their obligation by providing adequate number of public laterals for specifically men and women separately along with to provide water supply and scavenging service in morning as well as in evening to ensure proper sanitation. The court also ordered that these obligations to be fulfilled within six months of court order.   The problem was due to private polluters and haphazard town planning, it was held by Supreme Court that pollution free environment is an integral part of right to life under Article 21. The Court Further held that in case municipality feel the need of resources then it will raise its demand from State government by elitist projects, request loans from the State Government from the savings account of public health expenditure to fulfill the resource requirement for the implementation of courts order.

3.      M.C. Mehta v. Union Of India (Gas Leak In Shriram Factory); Supreme Court of India

Judgment- On the midnight of 2/3-12, 1984; there was a leakage of poisonous gas (methyl isocyanate) from Union Carbide Corporation India Limited, located at Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. This disaster was described as “World’s worst industrial disaster” as it claimed the lives of 2260 people and caused serious injuries with a variety of complications to about 6 lakhs of people. When the matter was pending before the Supreme Court, another gas disaster took place from Shri Ram Foods and Fertilizer Industries (belonging to Delhi Textile Mills Ltd.), Delhi on 4th and 6th December 1985. One advocate died and several others injured. MC Mehta, a leading legal practitioner, Supreme Court filed a “public interest litigation” petition under Article 32 of the Constitution. The Supreme Court through P.N. Bhagwati, C.J., keeping in mind the one-year-old great gas disaster of Bhopal, evolved a new rule, “Absolute Liability” in preference to 1868 rule of Strict Liability. Issues Raised were- Whether the plant can be allowed to continue or not?

If not, what measures are required to be taken to prevent the leakages, explosions, air and water pollution? To find out the number of safety devices exists in the plant and others though necessary is not installed in the plant. Court held that the “absolute liability” of a hazardous chemical manufacturer to give compensation to all those affected by an accident was introduced in this case and it was the first time compensation was paid to victims. The court laid down following principles- The management, Shri Ram Foods was required to deposit in the court, Rs. 20 lakhs as security for payment of compensation to the victims. A green belt of 1 to 5 K.M. widths around such industries should be provided. The court directed the Central Government to set up an Environmental Court consisting of a Judge and two experts (Ecological Sciences Research Experts) as members to assist the judge in deciding the environmental cases. Pursuant upon the recommendation, the Govt. of India passed the National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995 to deal with the cases of environmental pollution.

4.      M.C. Mehta v. Union of India- Ganga Pollution Case; Supreme Court of India

Judgment- In 1985, M.C. Mehta filed a writ petition in the nature of mandamus to prevent these leather tanneries from disposing of the domestic and industrial waste and effluents in the Ganga River. In this petition, the petitioner requested the court to request the Supreme Court (the Court) to restrain the respondents from releasing effluents into the Ganga river till the time they incorporate certain treatment plants for the treatment of toxic effluents to arrest water pollution. The Court highlighted the importance of certain provisions in our constitutional framework, which enshrine the significance and the need for protecting our environment. Article 48-A provides that the State shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country. Article 51-A of the Constitution of India imposes a fundamental duty on every citizen to protect and improve the natural environment, including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife. The Court stated the importance of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (the Water Act). This act was passed to prevent and control water pollution and maintaining water quality. This act established central and stated boards and conferred them with power and functions relating to the control and prevention of water pollution. Now, the question was raised that what is Trade Effluent? A Trade Effluent is any substance in the form of solid, liquid, or gaseous state which is discharged from any establishment used for carrying out any trade or industrial activity, other than domestic sewage. It was noted that the leather industry is one of the significant industries besides paper and textiles consuming large quantities of water. Most of the water used is discharged as wastewater. The wastewater contains toxic substances that deplete the Oxygen content of the clean river water in which they are discharged. This results in the death of aquatic life and emanates foul odor. The Court held the despite provisions in the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 Act no effective steps were taken by the State Board to prevent the discharge of effluents into the river Ganga. Also, despite the provisions in the Environment Protection Act, no effective steps were taken by the Central Government to prevent the public nuisance caused by the tanneries at Kanpur. In a historic judgment in 1987, the court ordered the closure of a number of polluting tanneries near Kanpur. The court held that- “Just like an industry which cannot pay minimum wages to its workers cannot be allowed to exist, a tannery which cannot set up a primary treatment plant cannot be permitted to continue to be in existence.” The Court ordered the tanneries to establish primary treatment plants, if not Secondary treatment plants. That is the minimum which the tanneries should do in the circumstances of the case.

5.      Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India; Supreme Court of India

Judgment- The petition was filed against the excessive pollution caused by River Palar due to the release of pollutants by the tanneries and other industries in the State of Tamil Nadu. Palar River is the main source of drinking and bathing water for the surrounding people. Later, the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Research Centre, Vellore discovered that approximately 35,000 hectares of agricultural land have turned either entirely or partially unsuitable for cultivation. This is one of the landmark cases whereby the Supreme Court critically analyzed the relationship between environment and industrial development. The question which emerged for thought under the steady gaze of the Supreme Court was whether the tanneries ought to be permitted to keep on working at the expense of lives of lakhs of individuals. It was presented by the petitioner that the whole surface and sub-soil water of river Palar has been intoxicated and has resulted in the non-accessibility of consumable water to the inhabitants of the region. The Supreme Court analyzing the report conveyed its judgment putting forth all attempts to keep up a concordance among condition and improvement. The Court conceded that these Tanneries in India are the major foreign exchange earner and furthermore gives work to a large number of individuals. In any case, at the equivalent time, it wrecks nature and represents a wellbeing danger to everybody. The court conveying its judgment in favor of the petitioner guided all the Tanneries to submit a whole of Rs. 10,000 as fine in the Collector’s office. The Court additionally coordinated the State of Tamil Nadu to grant Mr. M. C. Mehta with an entirety of Rs. 50,000 as gratefulness towards his endeavors for the security of the Environment.

6.      A.P. Pollution Control Board v. Prof. M.V. Nayudu (Retd.) & Ors.; Supreme Court of India

Judgment- In this case the respondent industry is ought to be establishing a new factory for the production of vegetable oils in the State of Andhra Pradesh. Respondent industry purchased a piece of land in Indore village named Peddashpur. Within the range of the village the reservoirs that provides drinking water for the 5 million of people around the area. Issues raised were- The validity of the orders passed by the A.P. Pollution Control Board? The correctness of the orders of the Appellate Authority under section 28 of the Water Act, 1974? The validity of exemption granted for the operation of the 10 k.m. rule? In what ways that the technological aspects of the environmental law cases ought to be adjudicated? In the impugned judgment, the Supreme Court relied on the judicial doctrine of the Precautionary Principle. The Precautionary Principle as it is very name suggests needs the authorities in charge to anticipate, prevent and attack the reason behind environmental pollution. This rule is based on the salutary theory that it is better to err on the side of caution and safety than in the wrong way wherever environmental damage, once done, is also irreversible. In other words, one ought to take measures in anticipation of environmental damage, instead of to hunt cure when the damage is inflicted. It would be better to stay safe earlier then be sorry later. Hindrance is healthier than cure. The Court in the present judgment directed that the authority to be appointed under Section 3(3) of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 that shall implement the Precautionary Principle and also the Polluter Pays Principle. Further, it had been discovered that the new conception envisages that when a risk of great or irreversible damage to the environment is perceived, the burden of proof lies on the one that is proposing to undertake the activity in question.

7.      M. C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath & Ors.; Supreme Court of India

Judgment- The Indian Express published an article reporting that a private company, Span Motels Private Ltd. (‘the Motel Company’), owner of Span Resorts, had floated an ambitious project called Span Club. Kamal Nath who was the Minister of Environment and Forests had direct links with this company. The company encroached upon 27.12 big has of land which also included forest land. The land was regularized and subsequently leased out to the company on 11th April 1994. Issues raised were- Whether the court has wrongly inducted Mr. Kama Nath as a Respondent in the present petition? Whether the construction activity carried out by the Motel Company justified? The Supreme Court rejected this contention and held that the forest lands which have been given on lease to the Motel by the State Governments are situated at the bank of the river Beas. The Beas is a young and dynamic river and it changes its course very often. The right bank of the river is where the Motel is located comes under forest. The area is ecologically fragile and therefore it should not be converted into private ownership. The Supreme Court applied the ‘Doctrine of Public Trust’ to the present case. Doctrine of Pubic trust is an ancient legal doctrine which states that certain common properties such as rivers, seashore, forests and the air were held by Government in trusteeship for the free and unimpeded use of the general public. Public Trust Doctrine primarily rests on the principle that certain resources like air, sea, water and the forests have such a great importance to the people as a whole that it would be unjustified to make them a subject of private ownership. Therefore- The Court quashed the lease-deed by which forested land was leased to the Motel Company and held that the construction activity carried out by the Motel Company was not justified. The Motel was ordered to pay compensation by way of cost for the restitution of the environmental and ecology of the area. The Motel was ordered to construct a boundary wall at a distance of not more than 4 meters for the building of the motel beyond which they were not allowed to use the land of the river basin. The Court restricted the Motel from discharging untreated effluent into the river. Himachal Pradesh Pollution Control Board was directed to inspect and keep a check.

8.      M.C. Mehta v. Union of India- Vehicular Pollution Case; Supreme Court of India

Judgment- Union Territory of Delhi has a total population of 96 lakhs. Out of this population approximately 90 lakh people reside in urban areas. At the time of independence the population of Delhi was around 5 lakh. In nearly 40 years, it multiplied by 19 times. This writ petition was filed by M.C. Mehta requesting the court to pass appropriate orders for the reduction of Vehicular Pollution in Delhi. Supreme Court in this case held that Indian constitution recognizes the importance of protection of environment, life, flora and fauna by the virtue of Article 51-A and Directive principles of state policy. Therefore, it is the duty of the state to protect the environment and all the persons using automobiles should have a fair idea of the harmful effects on the environment due to emissions caused by their vehicles.  A committee was setup to look in to the problem and decide on what can be done. The committee was setup with the following objectives –

• To make an assessment of the technologies available for vehicular pollution control in the world;
• To make an assessment of the current status of technology available in India for controlling vehicular pollution;
• To look at the low cost alternatives for operating vehicles at reduced pollution levels in the metropolitan cities of India.
• To examine the feasibility of measures to reduce/eliminate pollution from motor vehicles both on short term and long term basis and make appropriate recommendations in this regard;
• To make specific recommendations on the administrative/legal regulations required for implementing the recommendations.

The committee was ordered to give reports in two months and also mention the steps taken.

9.      Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar & Ors.; Supreme Court of India

Judgment- The petition was filed by the way of Public Interest Litigation by Subhash Kumar for preventing the pollution of the water of the river Bokaro from the discharge of sludge/slurry from the Tata Iron & Steel Co. Ltd. The Petitioner alleged that the Parliament enacted Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1978 for maintaining the wholesomeness of water and for the prevention of water pollution. The State Pollution Control Board failed to take actions against the Company and permitted the pollution of the water and the State of Bihar instead of taking actions, it is granting a lease on the payment of royalty for collection of slurry to various persons. Issue raised was whether the water of the river Bokaro is polluted by the discharge of the slurry from the Company? The apex court held that the right to get pollution free water and air is a fundamental right under Article 21. Following this, the right to pollution free environment was incorporated under the head of right to life and all the laws courts within the Indian Territory were bound to follow. Public health and ecology were held to be the priorities under Article 21 and the constitution of a green bench was also ordered by the Supreme Court. The Tata Iron & Steel Co. has been granted sanction from the Board for discharging effluents from their outlets under Sections 25 and 26 of the Water Prevention and Control of Pollution Act, 1974. Before granting the discharge of the effluents to the Bokaro River, the Board has analyzed and monitored that the effluents generated did not pollute the river. It was clear from the facts that and pleadings on behalf of the Respondent that there was no good reason to accept Petitioner’s contentions that the water of Bokaro River was polluted by the discharge of slurry/sludge from the respondent Company, on the other hand, the bench found that effective steps were taken by State Pollution Control Board to check pollution. Therefore, the petition was dismissed.

10.  Samit Mehta v. Union of India & Ors.; National Green Tribunal

Judgment- In this case, an environmentalist filed an application regarding the damage caused by the sinking of a ship which was carrying coal, fuel oil and diesel. Due to the sinking, a thick oil layer was formed on the surface of the sea which caused damage to the marine ecosystem. This case was held to involve questions of public importance and significance of environmental jurisprudence. The tribunal noticed the negligence. The sinking of the ship was the result of the negligence of the Respondents and upholding the principle of Polluter Pay. The Tribunal has further held that it has power to grant compensation for the costs incurred by the Central Government to clean the wrecks which may pose hazards to navigation and to marine environment. The Court thereby reaffirmed the “Precautionary Principle” and “Polluter Pays Principle” and also recognized Right to clean environment as a fundamental right under Article 21 of the Constitution of India which guarantees protection of life and personal liberty. The Tribunal held that the ship sinking accident is said to have led to the pollution of the marine environment on three counts: (a) Dumping of the cargo on the ship, i.e., coal in to the sea; (b) Release of the Fuel oil stored on board and the resultant oil spill caused by it and (c) wreckage of the ship itself, which contained the materials. In the present case, the ship used in the transport is unseaworthy and the respondents should have never used the ship for transport purpose. Therefore, in the present case, sinking of the ship is held equivalent to dumping. Environmental compensation of Rs. 100 crores was imposed. This is one of the biggest compensation ever made by private entity to government.

11.  Ms. Betty C. Alvares v. The State of Goa and Ors. ; National Green Tribunal

Judgment- A complaint regarding various instances of illegal construction in the Coastal Regulation Zone of Candolim, Goa was made by a personal of foreign nationality. Her name was Betta Alvarez. The first objection was that Betty Alvarez had no locus standi in the matter because she was not an Indian citizen and thus legally incompetent to file the petition under Article 21 because as a non-citizen, she has not been guaranteed any right under the Indian Constitution. The second objection was that the matter was barred by the law of limitation and should be dismissed. The case was initiated in the Honorable High Court of Bombay Bench at Goa in the form of a PIL but by an order dated Oct 23, 2012, the Writ Petition was transferred to the National Green Tribunal. Therefore The Tribunal in bold terms stated that even assuming that the Applicant – Betty Alvarez is not a citizen of India, the Application is still maintainable as she had filed several other writ petitions and contempt applications before she filed the present application, in which she had asserted that the Respondents had raised some illegal constructions by way of which they were encroaching the sea beaches along with governmental properties. The Court laid down in very bold terms that once it is found that any person can file a proceeding related to the environmental dispute, Ms. Betty’s application is maintainable without regards to the question of her nationality.

12.  Art of Living Case on Yamuna Flood Plain; National Green Tribunal

Judgment- The National Green Tribunal (NGT) held the Art of Living Foundation of Sri Sri Ravi Shankar responsible for the alleged damage caused to the Yamuna floodplains due to the World Cultural Festival organized in March 2016. NGT Panel found that the organizers of the Art of Living Festival violated the environmental norms and it has severely damaged the food plane area at the bank of Yamuna River in Delhi. Earlier, the Government of Delhi and Delhi Development Authority (DDA) has permitted the Art of living festival organizers but it was an under some conditions. The NGT panel imposed a penalty of Rs. 5 Crore on Art of Living Foundation as environmental compensation after coming down heavily on the foundation for not disclosing its full plans. The panel also warned AOL Foundation that in case of failure to pay the penalized amount the grant of Rs.2.5 crore which the ministry of culture is supposed to pay AOL will be attached. While reacting with dismay to the verdict, the Art of Living Foundation expressed disappointment and claimed that it had complied with all environment laws and norms and its’ submissions were not considered by NGT. The Art of Living Foundation said in a statement that-“We will appeal to Supreme Court. We are confident that we will get justice.”

13.  -Save Mon Region Federation and Ors. v. Union of India and Ors. ; National Green Tribunal

Judgment- The Save Mon Region Federation, on behalf of the Monpa indigenous community, challenged the environmental clearance granted for the construction of a hydroelectric dam on the Naymjang Chhu River.  The Federation pointed to faults in the environmental impact assessment (EIA) procedure and a lack of close scrutiny of the project by the expert appraisal committee (EAC). The National Green Tribunal concluded: “It is true that hydel power project provides eco friendly renewable source of energy and its development is necessary, however, we are of the considered view that such development should be ‘sustainable development’ without there being any irretrievable loss to environment. We are also of the view that studies done should be open for public consultation in order to offer an opportunity to affected persons having plausible stake in environment to express their concerns following such studies. This would facilitate objective decision by the EAC on all environmental issues and open a way for sustainable development of the region.” Therefore, the project was close to a wintering site for a bird Black-necked Crane, which is included under Schedule I species under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972. It also comes under the ‘Threatened Birds of India’ literature by the appellants in this case. It also had other endangered species such as the red panda, snow leopard, etc. The tribunal gave orders to suspend the clearance for the project. It also directed the EAC to make a new proposal for environmental clearance. The tribunal also directed the Ministry of Environment and Forest in the country to prepare a study on the protection of the bird involved in the case.

14.  Almitra H. Patel & Ors. v. Union of India and Ors. ; National Green Tribunal

Judgment- This case has been the biggest case dealing with the solid waste in India. In this case, Mrs. Almitra Patel and another had filed a PIL under Article 32 of the Constitution of India before the Apex Court whereby the Petitioner sought the immediate and urgent improvement in the practices that are presently adopted for the way Municipal Solid Waste or garbage is treated in India. The Tribunal found that the magnitude of the problem was gigantic because over a lakh tonnes of raw garbage is dumped every day and there is no proper treatment of this raw garbage which is dumped just outside the city limits on land, along highway, lakes. The Tribunal noted the requirement of conversion of this waste into a source of power and fuel to be used for society’s benefit, taking into consideration the Principles of Circular Economy. The tribunal considered it one of the major problems faced by India over the last few years as lakh tonnes of garbage go without proper treatment and just dumped outside the city in the outskirts. The tribunal noted the requirement to solve this problem and make it a source of power for the benefit of society. After hearing the case the tribunal issued over 25 directions. The tribunal asked all the states and UTs to strictly follow and implement the Solid Management Rules, 2016. A complete prohibition on open burning of waste on lands was made after the case. Absolute segregation has been made mandatory in waste to energy plants and landfills should be used for depositing inert waste only and are subject to bio-stabilization within 6 months. The most important direction of the Tribunal was a complete prohibition on open burning of waste on lands, including at landfills.

15.  K.M. Chinnappa, T.N.  Godavarnam v. Union of India & ors. ; Supreme Court of India

Judgment- The court held that- Environmental law is an instrument to protect and improve the environment and to control or prevent any act or omission polluting or likely to pollute the environment. In view of the enormous challenges thrown by the industrial revolutions, the legislatures throw out the world are busy in this exercise. In a number of cases, sentences of imprisonment have been imposed. Apart from the direct cost to business of complying with the stricter regulatory controls, the potential liabilities for non compliance are also increasing. In the present case the Forest Advisory Committee under the Conservation Act on 11/07/2001 examined the renewal proposal in respect of the Company’s mining lease. The Ministry of Environment and Forests deferred a formal decision on the said recommendation as the matter was pending before this court. Taking note of factual background, it is proper to accept the time period fixed by the Forest Advisory Committee constituted under Section 3 of the Conservation Act. That means mining should be allowed till the end of 2005 by which the time the weathered secondary ore available in the already broken area should be exhausted. This is, however, subject to fulfillment of the recommendations made by the Committee on ecological aspects.  Before, we part with this case; note that with concern that the State and Central Government were not very consistent. Whatever be the justification, it was but imperative due application of mind should have been made before taking particular stand. Certain proceedings have been initiated against the company and these proceedings shall be considered by the respective forums/courts.

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Contemporary Issues in Sustainable Development

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This book analyzes different perspectives around sustainable development, risk management and managing demand across various sectors in India. Diverse theories and analytical methods from various disciplines, as well as case studies, are brought together to present an in-depth study.

The book discusses the challenges of achieving sustainability, the role of quantitative research to assess current scenarios, and the role of policy making to bring improvements in the Indian context. It examines the socioeconomic ways of pursuing sustainable development in the areas of agriculture, climate change and energy; the environment and natural resources; health and society. It also analyzes important quantitative models for sustainability policy analysis and provides case studies to understand the practical implementations of the models.

This book will be a great reference manual that covers a whole gamut of analytical techniques that are useful for students, research scholars and practitioners of economics, environmental studies, development studies, sociology, South Asian studies and public policy, among others.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter | 6  pages, introduction, part i | 83  pages, agriculture, chapter 1 | 21  pages, risk and risk management in agriculture, chapter 2 | 20  pages, assessment of water footprint under wheat cultivation in uttar pradesh, chapter 3 | 22  pages, productive efficiency of agricultural sector in uttar pradesh, chapter 4 | 18  pages, agricultural productivity in bihar and its determinants, part ii | 80  pages, energy and climate change, chapter 5 | 16  pages, indian youth’s willingness to pay for climate change policies, chapter 6 | 17  pages, an advance methodology for estimating the elasticities and rebound effect, chapter 7 | 20  pages, index decomposition analysis of energy use in india, chapter 8 | 25  pages, a framework for renewable energy policy modeling, part iii | 79  pages, environment and resources, chapter 9 | 13  pages, integrating natural and human factors for sustainable development in himachal pradesh, chapter 10 | 23  pages, an input–output approach to study environmental impact, chapter 11 | 20  pages, investigating the existence of environmental kuznets curve hypothesis for the south asian region, chapter 12 | 21  pages, coping with changing climate, part iv | 76  pages, chapter 13 | 19  pages, determinants of child survival at the household level, chapter 14 | 12  pages, access to drinking water and the health outcome, chapter 15 | 17  pages, role of information in determining the willingness to pay for health insurance, chapter 16 | 26  pages, private and public dimensions to infectious disease risks, part v | 81  pages, society and policy, chapter 17 | 25  pages, analyzing the poverty situation in india, chapter 18 | 24  pages, values, perception and the quality of life, chapter 19 | 11  pages, sustainability of loan waiver programs in india, chapter 20 | 19  pages, using path analysis to build a sustainable transport service quality model.

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Environmental Case Studies from SW India

• First Online: 01 January 2014

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• D. Padmalal 7 &
• K. Maya 7  

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Kerala state in the southwestern coast of India is blessed with 41 west flowing rivers that debouch into the Arabian Sea. These rivers are small with limited river bed resources. Among the various human interventions that are threatening rivers, indiscriminate river sand mining is of paramount importance as the activity irreparably degrades rivers and its adjoining aquatic environments. Studies reveal that the river bed in their storage zones is lowering at a rate of 5–20 cm per year. In the present chapter, two case studies have been examined to disclose the severity of environmental problems of sand mining from the rivers draining the Western Ghats—an ecologically sensitive area in the Peninsular India.

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Arun PR, Sreeja R, Sreebha S, Maya K, Padmalal D (2006) River sand mining and its impact on physical and biological environments of Kerala rivers, southwest coast of India. Eco-chronicle 1:1–6

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Padmalal, D., Maya, K. (2014). Environmental Case Studies from SW India. In: Sand Mining. Environmental Science and Engineering. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9144-1_6

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Some important cases

• Sanitation in Ratlam: In a landmark judgement in 1980, the Supreme Court explicitly recognised the impact of a deteriorating urban environment on the poor. It linked basic public health facilities to human rights and compelled the municipality to provide proper sanitation and drainage. However, according to numerous reports, little has changed in Ratlam today. • Doon valley quarrying: In 1987, the Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra, on the behalf of residents of the Doon valley, filed a case in the Supreme Court against limestone quarrying. This case was the first requiring the Supreme Court to balance environmental and ecological integrity against industrial demands on forest resources. The courts directed the authorities to stop quarrying in the Mussoorie hills, but today, mining continues unchecked in the interior valleys. • Gas leak in Shriram factory: In the historic case of the oleum gas leak from the Shriram Food and Fertiliser factory in Delhi, in 1986, the Supreme Court ordered the management to pay compensation to the victims of the gas leak. The "absolute liability" of a hazardous chemical manufacturer to give compensation to all those affected by an accident was introduced in this case and it was the first time compensation was paid to victims. • Construction in Silent Valley: In 1980, the Kerala High Court threw out a writ filed by the Society for the Protection of the Silent Valley seeking a ban on construction of a hydro-electric project in the valley. However, despite an unfavourable judgement, active lobbying and grassroots action by environmentalists stopped the project. • Polluting the Ganga: In 1985, activist-advocate M C Mehta filed a writ petition in the Supreme Court to highlight the pollution of the Ganga by industries and municipalities located on its banks. In a historic judgement in 1987, the court ordered the closure of a number of polluting tanneries near Kanpur. Justice E S Venkataramiah, in his judgement, observed: "Just like an industry which cannot pay minimum wages to its workers cannot be allowed to exist, a tannery which cannot set up a primary treatment plant cannot be permitted to continue to be in existence." • Pollution in Bichhri: Effluents from an H-acid factory in Bichhri village in Rajasthan has polluted the ground water of almost 60 wells, destroying crops and orchards. A case was filed in the Supreme Court by the Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action in October 1989. Despite court orders in March 1990 to remove the sludge from the factory, not only does the sludge still pollute Bichhri's drinking water, but no compensation has been paid to the residents either. • Mining in Sariska: A writ petition was filed in the Supreme Court in 1991 by the Tarun Bharat Sangh to stop mining in the Sariska wildlife sanctuary. The court banned mining in the sanctuary, but mining continues nevertheless.

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20 Landmark Cases relating to Environmental Laws in India

Here is a list of 20 landmark cases relating to environmental laws in india delivered by the supreme court and other high courts..

Here is a list of 20 Landmark Cases relating to Environmental Laws in India delivered by the Supreme Court and other High Courts which have further facilitated in furthering of the cause of creating 'environmental consciousness'. Introduction The idea of 'environmental consciousness' began when man realised that the environment does not belong to man but he belongs to the environment. We all are nothing but slaves to nature and it is our duty to protect the environment from any damages...

Here is a list of 20 Landmark Cases relating to Environmental Laws in India delivered by the Supreme Court and other High Courts which have further facilitated in furthering of the cause of creating 'environmental consciousness'.

Introduction

The idea of 'environmental consciousness' began when man realised that the environment does not belong to man but he belongs to the environment. We all are nothing but slaves to nature and it is our duty to protect the environment from any damages to leave a sustainable environment for future generations.

The courts in recent years have emerged as the protector of the environment preventing it from the onslaught of development which is in disharmony with the goal of 'sustainable development'. Here is a list of 20 landmark Judgements delivered by the Supreme Court and other High Courts which have further facilitated in furthering of the cause of creating 'environmental consciousness'.

Vellore Citizen's Welfare Forum v. Union of India, AIR 1996 SC 2715

Narmada bachao andolan v. union of india, air 2000 sc 3751.

• Church of God(Full Gospel) in India v. K.K.R. Majestic Colony Welfare Association, (2000) 7 SCC 282

M.C. Mehta v. Union of India, AIR 1997 SC 734

M.c. mehta v. union of india, air 2002 sc 1696, m.c. mehta v. union of india, air (1987) sc 1086, m.c. mehta v. kamal nath, (2000) 6 scc 213, municipal council, ratlam v. vardhichand, air (1980) sc 1622, rural litigation and entitlement kendra, dehradun v. state of uttar pradesh, air (1985) sc 652, pradeep kishen v. union of india, (1996) 8 scc 599, jagannath v. union of india, 1997 2 scc 87, susetha v. state of tamil nadu, air (2006) sc 2893, murli s. deora v. union of india air 2002 sc 40, indian council for enviro- legal action v. union of india, (20011) 12 scc 768, karnataka industrial areas development board v. c. kenchappa (air 2006 sc 2038), orissa state (prevention & control) of pollution board v. m/s orient paper mills, air (2003) sc 1966, state of m.p. v. kedia leather ltd, (2003) 7 scc 389, olga tellis v. bombay municipal corporation, air 1986 sc 180, ram baj singh v. babulal, air 1982 all. 285, intellectual forum, tirupathi v. state of andhra pradesh, air 2006 sc 1350.

20 Landmark Cases relating to Environmental Laws in India (Explained)

In this case, the Supreme Court applied the precautionary principle directly to the facts. This case is also known as the Tamil Nadu Tanneries Case where a petition was filed by the Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum seeking direction to the tanneries and other industries which caused pollution by the enormous discharge of untreated effluent in the State of Tamil Nadu.

Justice Kuldeep Sigh rejecting the idea that development and ecology were opposed to each other stated that, the only answer to the conflict between environment and development was the concept of 'Sustainable Development' accepted and adopted in the Stockholm Declaration 1972 . The Court further held that the ' Precautionary Principle' and the 'polluter pays principle' are a part of the constitutional and statutory provisions as is clear from Article 47, 48A, 51A(g) of the Constitution of India and other statutes for the protection of the Environment.

The Central Government was directed to establish an authority under Section 3(3) of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 which shall implement the ' Precautionary and the Polluter Pays Principle '. The Supreme Court held that the tanneries were polluting the environment and directed the tanneries to set up common effluent treatment plants.

Click Here and read more about this case

A public interest litigation was initiated against the Sardar Sarovar Project which consisted of the construction of a large dam on the Narmada river. The petition alleged that the project would lead to ecological destruction. In this case, the Supreme Court balanced the developmental imperatives and introduced a new dimension in the 'precautionary principle' by way of interpretation .

The Court stated that sustainable development means what type or extent of development can take place which can be sustained by nature or ecology with or without mitigation. It was held that the construction of a dam is neither a nuclear establishment nor a polluting industry. Even though the construction of dams results in a change of environment but will not be an ecological disaster as contended. Therefore, the construction of a dam was allowed.

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Church of God (Full Gospel) in India v. K.K.R. Majestic Colony Welfare Association, (2000) 7 SCC 282

The Supreme Court, in this case, examined the issue of 'noise pollution' based on the grounds of religion and whether beating of drums or reciting of prayers by use of microphones and loudspeakers should be permitted to disturb the peace and tranquillity of the area should be permitted.

It was held that no religion prescribes that prayers should be performed by disturbing the peace of others and in the name of religion activities that disturb old or infirm persons, students or children and other persons carrying on other activities cannot be permitted. The Supreme Court referring to Article 19(1)(a) and the Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 200 dismissed the appeal of the appellant and observed that the right to religion under Articles 25 and 26 of the Constitution is subject to public order, morality and health.

This case is also known as the 'Taj Trapezium Case' . The chemical and hazardous industries and refineries at Mathura along with brick-klin units and vehicular traffic were polluting the air around the Taj Mahal and as a result, the white marble of the monument was getting blackened in patches. The emissions generated by the coke/coal-consuming industries had a damaging effect on the Taj and the people living around the area.

It was held by the Apex Court, that the Taj Mahal is a part of national and international cultural heritage and must be preserved and protected from damages due to environmental pollution. The court observed that even though the development of the industry is necessary but at the same time environment and ecosystem must be protected and apply the precautionary principle.

This case is also known as 'CNG Vehicles Case' . A writ petition was filed under Article 21 of the Constitution Of India regarding the Air Pollution in Delhi where, smoke and highly toxic other corrosive gases due to industries and vehicles and prayed to the Court to issue appropriate directions to the owners of the vehicles emitting noxious carbon monoxides, oxides of nitrogen, lead and other smoke.

The Supreme Court held that Article 39(c), 47 and 48A collectively cast a duty on the State to secure the health of the people and protect and improve the environment . The Court highlighted that one of the principles underlying environmental law is that of sustainable development i.e ecologically sustainable development. And, the two essential features of sustainable development are the precautionary principle and the polluter pays principle. The phasing out of non-CNG buses was recommended.

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This case is popularly known as ' Shriram Food and Fertilizer Case' . The Supreme Court, in this case, held that exemplary damages are also recoverable when harm results from hazardous or inherently dangerous nature of activity in which the defendant, in this case, was engaged . In such cases, compensation is awarded keeping into account the magnitude of the act and the capacity of the wrongdoer to pay. The larger and more prosperous the enterprise, the greater must be the amount of compensation payable by it.

The Supreme Court, in this case, observed that environmental pollution amounts to a civil wrong and by its nature, it is a tort committed against the whole community. The Court observed that "Pollution is a civil wrong . By its very nature, it is a tort committed against the community as a whole.

A person, therefore, who is guilty of causing pollution has to pay damages (compensation) for the restoration of the environment and ecology. He has also to pay damages to those who have suffered loss on account of the act of the offender. In addition to damages, the person guilty of causing pollution can also be held liable to pay exemplary damages, so that it may act as a deterrent for others not to cause pollution in any manner ."

Justice Shagir Ahmed observed that Article 48A and 51A(g) have to be considered in the light of Article 21 of the Constitution and any disturbance of the basic environmental elements, namely, air, water and soil, which are necessary for 'life' would be hazardous to 'life' within the meaning of Article 21 of the Constitution.

In the facts of the case where a ward of Ratlam Municipality was being used by poor inhabitants as latrine resulting in accumulation of filth making the area inhabitable for the residents and the misery was enhanced by the alcohol plant releasing malodorous fluids into the public streets. The Magistrate ordered for the removal of the nuisance to the Municipal Corporation and it appealed to High Court and High Court also upheld the order of the Magistrate then appeal was made to Supreme Court by the Corporation.

The Supreme Court highlighting the responsibility of the Magistrate under Section 133 Cr.P.C. to order the removal of nuisance within a time to be fixed in the order observed that Municipal Corporation is bound to comply by the order under Section 133 Cr.P.C as failure to comply with the same attracts punishment under Section 188 of IPC.

The Court disallowed the appeal ordered the Ratlam Municipality to provide for drainage system within one year and stop affluents from the alcohol plant into the streets and ensure a pollution-free environment. This decision of the Supreme Court is a landmark in the history of judicial activism as it upholds the social justice component of the rule of law by fixing liability on statutory authorities and mandates them to discharge their legal obligations towards the public at large.

This case is also known as the 'Dehradun Mussoorie Hills Quarrying Case' . In this case, the NGO and a group of citizens approached the Apex Court against progressive mining which denuded the Mussoorie Hills and accelerated soil erosion resulting in landslides and blockage of underground water channels.

The Court ordered the registry to treat the letter as a writ petition under Article 32 of the Constitution (epistolary jurisdiction) which in itself presupposes the infringement of fundamental rights . The Court directed all the mines in the Dehradun Valley remain closed, except for three operations. The Court concluded that continued mining in the valley violated the Forest (Conservation) Act and ordered it to reforest the valley.

The Madhya Pradesh Government issued an order permitting the collection of tendu leaves from sanctuaries and national parks by villagers/tribals living around the boundaries with the object of maintaining their traditional rights including the right to livelihood. This order was challenged by way of public interest litigation for the protection of ecology, environment and wildlife in the sanctuaries and national parks.

The Supreme Court in the circumstances of this case refused to quash the order. However, it also observed that the entry of villagers in these sanctuaries is one of the reasons promoting the shrinkage of forest cover and highlighted that urgent steps must be undertaken to prevent the same. Therefore, in this case, on one hand , the Supreme Court protected the right to livelihood of the tribals and on the other hand, also showed its concern for the protection of ecology .

            Click Here and read more about this case

The Supreme Court, in this case, held that sea beaches and sea coasts are gifts of nature and any activity polluting the same cannot be permitted. The intensified Shrimp (prawn) farming culture industry by modern methods in coastal areas was causing degradation of the mangrove ecosystem, depletion of the plantation, discharge of highly polluting effluents and pollution of potable as well as groundwater. Therefore , it was held that the said activities of the industries are violative of constitutional provisions and various other environmental legislation.

The Supreme Court keeping the scope and content of Article 19(1)(g) in mind held that if any shrimp industry is permitted to be installed in the ecologically fragile coastal area it must pass through a strict environmental test. It was suggested by the Apex Court that, there must be an environmental impact assessment (EIA) before permission is granted to install commercial shrimp farms . It must take into consideration the inter-generational equity and compensation for those who are affected and prejudiced.

In the facts of this case, the panchayat of a village in Tamil Nadu decided of constructing a shopping complex where there was a water tank. This was challenged by the State.

The Supreme Court in this case while dismissing the appeal, highlighted the concept of sustainable development and harmonisation of development without damaging the environment and where developments can be sustained over generations . The Court held that the principle of sustainable development is fundamental to Indian law and allowed the construction.

In this case, it was held that smoking in public places is prohibited. The Supreme Court observed that the fundamental right guaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution of India provides that, no one shall be deprived of his life without due process of law, then why a non-smoker should be afflicted by various diseases including lung cancer or heart diseases only because he is required to go to public places .

This case relates to the action not being taken in the popularly known Bichhri Village case (AIR 1996 SC 1146) where the Court had directed the Union Government to take action but, for 15 years the polluters pursued legal tactics to delay enforcement of 1996 judgement and therefore, a writ petition was filed before the Supreme Court against the respondents.

In this case, the Court observed that the principles of equity, justice and good conscience proclaim that the legal process is not abused by the litigants in any manner. The Court should never permit a litigant to perpetuate illegality by abusing the legal process. The Court also observed that the Apex Court judgements have great sanctity and unless there are extremely compelling circumstances the judgement of the Court should not be disturbed particularly in cases where review and curative petitions have been dismissed.

In the facts of this case, the Karnataka Industrial Areas Development Board (KIADB) acquired lands of different villages. It was contended in the petition that the area acquired was cattle grazing land causing great hardship to the villagers and violative of their Articles 14 and 21.

The Supreme Court held that before the acquisition of the lands for development, the consequences and adverse impact of development on the environment must be properly comprehended to ensure that lands acquired for development do not gravely impair the ecology and environment . The court allowing the appeal directed the appellant to obtain environmental clearance from the Karnataka State Pollution Control Board before the allotment of land for development or industrial purposes.

In this case, the respondent Orient Paper Mills, in manufacturing paper and paper board used Caustic Soda and Chlorine which falls within the Air Pollution Control Area. The consent was obtained from the Board but, the respondent failed to comply with the conditions.

The issue was, can the State Government declare an area as an 'Air Pollution Control Area' in any manner prescribed if the prescribed manner is absent. It was held by the Supreme Court that, where a statute powers an authority to do certain acts or exercise power in respect of certain matters, subject to the rules, the exercise of power conferred by the statutes does not depend on the existence of rules is not a condition precedent to the exercise of power expressly and unconditionally conferred by the statute.

The issue, in this case, was regarding the nature and scope of Section 133 of Cr.P.C. after the introduction of the Water Act and Air Act. The Supreme Court explaining the scope of Section 133 Cr.P.C. vis-à-vis the Water and Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and 1981 observed that the area of operation in the code and the pollution laws in question were different with wholly different aims and objects even though they alleviate nuisance, but were not identical.

They operate in their respective fields and there is no impediment to their existence side by side . It was held that the provisions of Cr.P.C. can be invoked for the removal of a public nuisance caused by the discharge of effluents and air discharge causing hardship to the general public. The order under Section 133 is conditional and of a specific nature i.e. essentially of preventive nature.

In this case, the petitioners, a journalist and two pavement dwellers challenged the governmental scheme by which pavement dwellers were being removed from the Bombay pavements. The main argument advanced on behalf of the petitioners was that evicting a pavement dweller or a slum dweller from his habitat amounts to depriving him of his right to livelihood, which is comprehended in the right guaranteed by Article 21 of the Constitution and therefore is unconstitutional.

It was observed by the Supreme Court, that Social commitment is the quintessence of our Constitution which defines the conditions under which liberty has to be enjoyed and justice has to be administered. The Court directed the Municipal Corporation to provide alternate sites or accommodations to slum and pavement dwellers within a reasonable distance of their original sites.

In this case, the plaintiff, a medical practitioner constructed a consulting chamber opposite the brick-grinding machine erected by the respondent. There was a distance of 40 feet between the two and a road intervened between the grinding machine and the consulting chamber. The plaintiff alleged that the machine-generated dust polluted the general atmosphere and also entered his consulting chamber which caused physical inconvenience to him and his patients.

The Allahabad High Court held that a nuisance is an act or omission that interference with disturbance or annoyance to a person in the exercise or enjoyment of a right belonging to him as a member of the public or owing to his ownership right s. The court observed that a person is ordinarily entitled to do anything on his own property provided such a thing is lawful.

It was observed that, when something is done by the owner of a neighbouring land upon his own land which is not comfortable or is wholly uncomfortable with physical comfort and human existence, the person aggrieved in such cases gets a right to sue. This is a significant case as the Court allowed the private right of action for public nuisance by applying the liberal tests of a 'reasonable man' for the purpose of determining the existence of a nuisance.

In this case, the Government without considering the well-planned development of Tirupathi town alienated the tank bed lands in favour of some governmental agencies for valuable considerations.

The Supreme Court in this case held that the  tank is common property and State authorities are trustees to hold and manage such properties for the benefit of the community and they cannot be allowed to commit any act or omission which will infringe the right of the community & alienate the property to any other person or body .

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Environmental Education: How India Is Integrating Climate Consciousness into Schools

Today, there is a pressing need for our collective commitment to sustainability. The Earth is grappling with unprecedented environmental challenges such as climate change, resource depletion, and biodiversity loss. There is no time to lose in taking action in our attempts to arrest this phenomenon. So who, better than educational institutions, can imbibe the spirit of exhibiting responsibility and environmental consciousness amongst the youngest of learners? In this article, we look at how India is leading the way in environmental education.

The ‘Learning-For-Sustainability’ Approach

According to The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2023 published by the United Nations, “[y]outh have emphasized the need for interdisciplinary, action-oriented education that is both globally relevant and tailored to local realities, along with adequate teacher support.”

Academic institutions have the potential to generate a wave of positive change and, in achieving the 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), higher education institutions have played a key role by implementing and driving sustainable development initiatives within their institutions.

The role of academic organisations is fundamental in addressing pressing global environmental challenges . This is possible through a curriculum that is enriched with the ethos of sustainability and one that offers a platform for research and community involvement, motivating lasting societal change. By showcasing best practices in their operations, research, and teaching, educational institutes have both a direct and a multiplier effect on society. For these to comprehensively address environmental consciousness, a “learning-for-sustainability” approach needs to be embedded synergistically across every aspect of institutional operations. 

The earlier learners are exposed to the importance of embracing environmental consciousness, the bigger the impact and reach. Hence, it is imperative to introduce the concepts of environmental preservation and consciousness, as early as in the preschool stage, for young learners to carry the teachings all the way to higher education, just as we do with other basic social and cultural values. 

In a 2017 research paper on environmental education as a school subject, authors Gunjan Verma and Poonam Dhull  have observed that Environmental Education (EE) contributes directly in creating a better and healthy environment, with studies showing that EE “can increase an individual’s feelings towards environmental problems.” 

Environmental Education in India

In 2020, India passed the National Education Policy (NEP), finally addressing the pressing need for environmental education in schools. Through the policy, the government has successfully incorporated initiatives to ensure that students receive a comprehensive education that increases environmental awareness and encourages practical action. 

By suggesting a shift from content-based learning to skill-based learning, the policy acknowledges the transformative force of an experiential approach in all subject areas, including EE. It actively encourages educators to integrate hands-on pedagogy that enables students to actively engage with real-world environmental challenges. 

The policy enriches school curricula with ecological principles, resource management, and sustainable practices with the aim to equip students with the knowledge and skills to become conscientious guardians of the planet, laying the foundation for an environmentally conscious and sustainable future. 

You might also like: Why STEM Education Is Vital for Developing Innovative Solutions in Sustainable Goods Transportation

The Crucial Role of Educators in Developing a Positive Connection with Nature

The onus to establish a positive relationship between students and the environment lies largely with educators, who have the power and reach to imbibe environmental consciousness through observation, experimentation, and example. 

As the first step, teachers are encouraged to integrate EE into their learning modules. The idea is for them to be well-versed in the curriculum themselves, to be able to carry the legacy ahead and ignite the minds of learners. The NEP also recognises the pivotal role of educators and teachers in training and capacity building in EE. By equipping teachers with professional development opportunities to enhance their understanding of environmental issues, teaching methodologies, and the integration of sustainability principles into the curriculum, the policy lays the foundation for an efficient delivery of EE to learners of all ages. 

In a 2022 paper , researchers from the Philippines noted that “[c]urriculum developers … must have a thorough grasp of their role in the integration of [EE] into educational curricula so they can effectively bridge the gap that hinders youth environmental empowerment,” adding that the “strategic integration” of EE in daily activities could “fulfil the role of education in environment awareness and action.” 

Integrating environmental consciousness into the school curriculum becomes the guiding thread throughout. This integrative approach proves highly effective, surpassing the impact of introducing environmental education as a separate subject. EE can be infused in various disciplines including the Arts, English, Guidance and Career Education, Interdisciplinary Studies, Mathematics, Native Studies, Science, Social Sciences, Humanities, and Technological Education.

Strategies for Learning Institutes 

• Using the school as a lab: Let the children get their hands on the job. Transforming learning into a hands-on experience enhances students’ grasp of environmental and sustainability concepts, making it three-dimensional and tactile and therefore gets ingrained into their memories. As Confucius said: “I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.”
• Language, Arts and Communication: Creating environmental awareness and outreach campaigns for the community is a great way to kickstart the journey of environmental enlightenment. It also provides an opportunity to learn language skills for communication and various forms of art, fostering creativity.
• Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths (STEM). There are a vast number of projects related to the environment that can be incorporated with the STEM curriculum at every stage of schooling. For example, statistics can be taught using graphs created by students based on a survey they do of their neighbourhood. Environmental consciousness can easily be amalgamated with Chemistry and Biology via the analysis of various processes in nature. Social Sciences can encompass the study of the local flora and fauna at elementary levels, progressing to higher grades where students can analyse the long-term impact of climate shifts on landscapes across the globe.
• Field Trips: Practical experience is irreplaceable when it comes to learning. Whether exploring a local vegetable market or visiting a town or city with a different culture, this hands-on approach is the most effective way to raise awareness among children about their environment and understand both challenges and successes.

An ideal curriculum for education should be interdisciplinary, holistic, value-driven, locally rooted, and globally relevant, seamlessly integrating sustainability concepts at all levels. This approach ensures a well-rounded and meaningful educational experience, connecting learners to both their immediate surroundings and broader global contexts. 

There is transformative power in education to shape a future where ecological stewardship is not merely a choice but an inherent part of our societal fabric. From primary schools to institutions of higher learning, the journey towards a sustainable future begins in the classroom.

You might also like: The Importance of Environmental Education for a Sustainable Future

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Current World Environment

An international research journal of environmental science.

ISSN:0973-4929, Online ISSN:2320-8031

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Environmental Issues and their Possible Solutions for Sustainable Development, India: A Review

1 Amity School of Earth and Environmental Science (ASEES), Amity University, Gurugram, Haryan, India 2 Centre of Advanced Study in Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh India 3 Department of Industrial Waste Management, Central University of Haryana, Mahendergarh, Haryana India 4 Department of Environmental Science, Shri Vishwakarma Skill University, Palwal, Haryan, India

Corresponding author Email: [email protected]

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.17.3.3

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Kumar S, Singh P, Verma K, Kumar P, Yadav A. Environmental Issues and their Possible Solutions for Sustainable Development, India: A Review. Curr World Environ 2022;17(3). DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.17.3.3

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Kumar S, Singh P, Verma K, Kumar P, Yadav A. Environmental Issues and their Possible Solutions for Sustainable Development, India: A Review. Curr World Environ 2022;17(3).

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Article Publishing History

Introduction 

Human activities are the main factors in the destruction of Earth's living conditions. Human impact has led to a rise in the amount of greenhouse gas emissions, global warming, soil contamination, natural resource depletion and contamination of the soil, water, and air, species extinction, the build-up of dangerous recalcitrant compounds, and other difficulties. Several conferences have emphasized the influence of environmental challenges in recent decades. However, the depth of understanding in order to define the term "environmental sustainability" is extremely poor, with disparities in the views considering the perspectives of distinct groups or individuals working in different occupations (Vezzoli and Manzini, 2008).The world's expanding environmental concerns are largely associated with increased human activity. The outlook for the availability of land, environmental health, and diversity has been steadily decreasing, with expectations of even worse conditions by 2050. To attain the aims of environmental sustainability that have so far been lacking, it is critical to incorporate the ecological and biological components. To rid the planet of anthropogenic concerns, an integrated strategy is essential on an urgent and ongoing basis. Biological techniques must be at the forefront and used to their full potential in order to accomplish environmental sustainability goals. This study discusses important environmental concerns, followed by remedies incorporating biological techniques to attain sustainable development, which has been researched and forecasted. Environmental challenges are a significant priority for all governments and scholars worldwide. The way things are going, a number of severe environmental concerns may even be dangerous to human civilization. Several significant environmental issues are currently afflicting the world, with grave consequences for living species. This section discusses the most prominent environmental concern (Rockstorm et al. 2018). 

Environmental deterioration is a global issue that has an impact on the entire world. All types of living things are affected by pollution in some way. Even species that live in the poles or at the bottom of the ocean are affected by pollution. Anthropogenic activity has led to the emergence of numerous pollutants in recent decades, which have a detrimental impact on the ecosystem (Rockström et al. 2018). Industrialization, urbanization, and deforestation rates are making conditions in developing countries worse. Green house gases continuously increasing day by day and adversely impact the environment. Greenhouse gases mainly consist nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbon, methane and carbon dioxide. 

 About 92 percent of all pollution-related deaths occur in developing countries (Landrigan et al. 2017). Urban pollution has a negative impact on the quality of the land, water, and air (Solé-Ribalta et al. 2016). By 2030, the UN predicts that the number of people living in cities will have quadrupled (UN 2014). Different types of pollution can raise the annual health-care budget in low- and high-income countries upto1.7 percent and 7 percent (Landrigan et al. 2017) (Table 1).

Table 1: Major air pollutants and their examples (Ileperuma, 2000).

Meanwhile, the true costs of restoring resources like air, soil, and water have yet to be calculated. Every year, a diverse spectrum of contaminants is discharged into water bodies as a result of industrial emissions. The effect of Chlorofluorocarbons on the depletion of the ozone layer is widely understood. Researchers now assume that chemicals used in the paint industry are to blame for the thinning of the ozone layer in non-polar zones (Carrington 2018). The globe utilizes a staggering amount of fossil fuels to meet its energy needs, which is one of the major contributors to atmospheric pollution. Plastics also have a negative effect on the environment. Wieczorek et al. (2018) and Borrelle et al. (2017) did similar research, showing the effects of plastic on aquatic vegetation in the seas. Despite the horrifying repercussions of plastics, their manufacturing is expanding and the planet is becoming a dumping ground for these non-biodegradable creatures. Heavy metals have been damaging land and water as a result of rapid urbanization, industrialization, and other human activities (Yadav, 2010). Although heavy metals are naturally present, dangerous concentrations are being reached due to anthropogenic activity (Mishra et al. 2017). 

Heavy metals in soil are primarily caused by agricultural and industrial wastewater, household sewage, oil spills, mining, industrial activities like processing of metal, nuclear power, combustion of fossil fuels, metal corrosion, polymers, and fabrics (WHO 2010; Yan et al. 2018). Both water and soil have been found to contain heavy metal contamination across the world. Because of lead poisoning in the lake, the supply of water in Michigan, North America, was transferred through the Flint River and Lake Huron in 2014. The issue damaged the water supply further, Moreover, the President of the United States declared an emergency due to serious lead pollution of drinking water (Wendling et al. 2018). Over 89 percent of drinking water samples in Karachi, Pakistan, were determined to be lead-polluted. Latin America has some of the most polluted cities in the world, owing to poor heavy metal mining practices. Arctic surface soils have been shown to be contaminated with traces of mercury (Hg) and other elements. Mining activity in parts of the Arctic and Siberia contributes to heavy metal poisoning of soils. The paper's primary goal is to show serious environmental issues and sustainability challenges in the most intensively cultivated nation, such as India. The first half of the article in this review discusses the main environmental problems, and then the remedies, which involve biological methods to attain environmental sustainability, have been investigated and anticipated (Fig. 1).

Location of the study area

In this study we try to highlight the environmental issues and there possible solutions in India. The global phenomena of environmental deterioration brought on by development activities are not unique to India. As a result of industrialization, urbanization, transportation, the burning of fossil fuels, and deforestation, which have all contributed to economic growth and development at the expense of environmental degradation, greenhouse gas emissions that have contributed to global warming and climate change have been released. Deforestation has increased significantly as a result of urbanization and a growing human population. Water reservoirs' lifespan is shortened by soil erosion and sedimentation brought on by deforestation. Many plants and animals are in danger of going extinct because of habitat degradation. Environmental degradation, pollution from industrial effluents and vehicle emissions, indoor air pollution and air quality, water pollution from raw sewage, inadequate sanitation, depletion of potable water resources, soil pollution, sound pollution, deforestation, agricultural land degradation, habitat destruction, loss of biodiversity, resource depletion, and others are all a result of India's rapidly growing population and economic development (Kumar, 2019).

Materials and Methods

Based on our recent research and other literatures concerning environmental issues and solutions in India, this review aims to provide an overview of environmental issues and solutions to suggest research trends in future work.

Agricultural Residues Burning 

An additional environmental risk in India is the open burning of crop waste in rural areas, especially during the rice harvesting season. The topic of burning agricultural trash in fields makes the front pages of newspapers in Delhi NCR twice a year, in the months of October and December. The region's ambient air quality has deteriorated due to the results of a static atmosphere state above Delhi during the Kharif agricultural harvest time (Kanawade et al., 2019). Due to year-round crop farming, India, the second-largest agrarian economy in the world, produces a substantial amount of agricultural waste, including leftover crops. Many different forms of surplus crop leftovers are burned depending on the agro-climatic zone, particularly in the northern regions of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan; nonetheless, rice crop residues account for over half of all crop residues burned in the nation. Farmer’s burn crop remnants left in the field after using combine harvesters to prepare the soil for the next crop in the simplest way feasible. There are around 178 million tones of surplus agricultural byproducts in the nation. The burning of these trashes worsens air quality and raises pollution levels. Burning agricultural wastes significantly increases PM 2.5 concentrations. The amount of residue burned in a short period of time (a few weeks) makes a considerable contribution to pollutant levels like PM 2.5. The following crop wastes were burned, Maize (11.2), Cotton (9.8), Rice (9.3), Wheat (8.5), and Sugarcane (12.0%). According to several studies, the concentration of organic carbon and its fertility are negatively impacted by open burning of agricultural waste (Hesammi et al. 2014). 

Water Pollution 

Another significant issue in India is water contamination. About 60% of sewage in urban areas is untreated sewage, which regularly enters various bodies of water. As a result, the water becomes contaminated and unfit for human consumption. Farmers also routinely use contaminated river water to cultivate their crops, endangering their health and compromising the food supply in India. Numerous waterways have high levels of heavy metal pollution, including the Ganges, the country's main river and a holy river to Hindus, where thousands of people wash daily and congregate for the Kumbh Mela, the biggest religious festival in the world. 

According to a NITI Aayog assessment (2018), India has witnessed the worst water problem, with 600 million Indians enduring severe water deficit stress and more than 100000 people dying each year due to a lack of safe drinking water. According to the report, India ranks at the bottom of the water quality index. The government intends to reroute 30 rivers to alleviate the country's catastrophic water problem, raising environmental worries. The Central Water Commission (CWC) investigated 67 rivers throughout 20 river basins. The results of the third edition of an exercise undertaken by the Central Water Commission (CWC) from May 2014 to April 2018 revealed that just one-third of water quality stations' samples were safe. Heavy metals contaminated the remaining 287 (65%) of the samples collected. Two metals contaminated samples from 101 stations, and three metals contaminated samples from six stations. Heavy metals like Pb, Ni, Cr, Cd, and Cu were among the other main pollutants discovered in the samples and Contamination from Pb, Cd, Ni, Cr, and Cu was more common during non-monsoon seasons, whereas Fe, Pb, Cr, and Cu often exceeded 'tolerance levels' during monsoon periods. Ar and Zn are metals whose concentrations were always within the study's limitations.

Desertification 

India is the second-largest manufacturer of agricultural goods in the global despite having a little amount of land. Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries make for 17% of the country's GDP and employ around 50% of the entire labour force. Soil deterioration is caused by both natural and man-made factors (Bhattacharyya et al., 2015). Anthropogenically induced soil degradation outcomes from land clearing and forest destruction, inappropriate farming techniques, inefficient management of industrial wastes and over-grazing ( Osman, 2014) . Excessive tillage and machinery use, use of inorganic fertilizers, pesticide usage and organic carbon inputs are examples of inappropriate agricultural practices (Karlen and Rice, 2015).

Sustainable solutions 

The aforementioned environmental concerns generated debate over what actions should be done to prevent further environmental damage. Regardless of the fact that scientists have been researching the extent and significance of these environmental challenges for years, little progress was made in fulfilling the objectives. Aside from that, environmentally friendly solutions are sometimes overlooked in favour of technical solutions. As a result, in order to build a sustainable ecosystem, a repair plan that incorporates biological treatments or more environmentally friendly methods must be implemented (Fig. 3). This section explores long-term remedies, mostly biological methods, to the problems caused by man-made activity.

Achieving environmental sustainability through microbes 

Microbes are ubiquitous and may be found in all parts of the environment. Microbes in nature are exceedingly varied, and their vast dispersion implies that they might play a vital role in ecosystem preservation. Because of their adaptability microbes can be exploited because of their genetic makeup and diverse metabolic capabilities to solve a wide range of environmental issues (Ahmad et al. 2011; Mishra et al. 2017; Akinsemolu, 2018). According to Khatoon et al. (2017), biodegradation is a critical method for eliminating different polymeric pollutants employing microbial applications. Microorganisms can be used to solve problems in a straightforward and cost-effective manner, with few inputs and complications. Microbes can be an important instrument in the fight against pollution. Microorganisms are outstanding cleaners (Gupta et al. 2018). The process of eliminating toxins from the environment by biological processes, mostly microorganisms, is known as biodegradation. Microbial treatments are used as acceptable replacements for many traditional waste disposal procedures. To detoxify a broad variety of microorganisms can be utilized. Microorganisms or other biological systems are used in bioremediation to convert contaminants into less dangerous ones (Coelho et al. 2015).  Positive, environmentally responsible, and successful technique for removing dangerous pollutants from the surroundings is bioremediation (Lal et al. 2018; Abhilash et al. 2016; Kotoky et al. 2018). Human health is put at risk by contaminated soil, which also causes numerous environmental issues such as nutrient loss and groundwater contamination (Fredua 2014; Panagos et al. 2018). Long-term tools for removing contaminants from agricultural areas and assisting in soil repair include microbes (Verma et al. 2017). A cheap method for decontaminating places that have been affected by pollutants is microbial bioremediation. Because of the increasing severity of pollutants, ocean and coastal region pollution is a significant issue on a global scale. Both Sakthipriya et al. (2015) and Parthipan et al. (2017) successfully used microorganisms that develop bio-surfactants to bio-remediate petroleum pollutants. An article on the microorganisms used in the oil spill bioremediation in saltwater and along the coast was published in 2016 by Tanzadeh and Ghasemi. In order to maintain environmental sustainability, microbes recycle thermal, agricultural, and industrial waste and remediate wastewater (Sharma et al. 2013). A significant worry is the release of industrial effluents. 

Role in sustainable agriculture 

Soil fertility is a term that refers to the availability of nutrients as well as the microbial communities that thrive in the soil (Lazcano et al. 2013). Soil bacteria make agro-ecosystems fertile and crop productivity high by maintaining ecological equilibrium. However, as a result of high chemical input into agricultural ecosystems, many of these useful bacteria are becoming reduced or extinct in the soil. Aside from that, as previously said, there are a number of other downsides of using chemical fertilizers and pesticides (Helsel, 1992; Popp et al, 2013). As a result, beneficial soil bacteria must be introduced into both impacted and unaffected agro-ecosystems in order to increase yields in an environmentally friendly way. The rhizosphere is an elevated zone that contains a wide diversity of microorganisms that are primarily mutualistic with the host organism and provide assistance in several ways (Hartmann et al. 2008). Among the many microbes that inhabit the rhizosphere, are the most efficient contributors to sustaining agro-ecosystem production. PGPR are crucial plant root colonizers that may be found in huge numbers in the rhizosphere (Spaepen et al. 2008). The capacity of microbe’s boosts their levels in plants makes them great candidates for eco-friendly crop biofortification (Vessey, 2003). Microbes have successfully chelated micronutrients. Biofortified crops are becoming more popular in order to satisfy the population's dietary needs (Nooria et al. 2014). 

Table 2: Examples of substantial contaminated site remediation employing microorganisms.

Conclusion 

The long-term sustainability of the environment is vital to humanity's survival. In any event, we must conserve our ecosystem and habitats in order to sustain life on the blue planet, particularly human life. The current pace of the amount of destruction is substantially greater than the ability of ecosystems to recover or heal, and this must be reversed as quickly as feasible. We should switch to green substitutes if we want to rehabilitate the environment and deliver things ahead to normal since anthropogenic activities are destabilizing the globe. Microorganisms and plants, among other biological tools and entities, can aid in the restoration of polluted ecosystems and the reduction of the effects of global warming and climate change. Sustainability is the buzzword of the day, and if we don't get to work and start paying attention immediately, things can get out of hand. Using environmentally friendly and low-input biotechnological technologies, many of the issues highlighted and discovered in this study can be resolved. We have only begun to scrape the surface; further work and study are necessary. The Earth is diverse and, despite tremendous destruction, the majority of it is still undamaged, making it possible to solve environmental challenges with cutting-edge biotechnology technologies and methodologies.

Conflict of Interest

The authors do not have any conflicts of interest.

Funding Sources

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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India faces record-breaking heatwave worsened by climate change

Climate change, predominantly caused by burning fossil fuels and exacerbated by human interference, is making heatwaves hotter and more likely to happen everywhere in the world..

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• Extreme heat forced schools to close early for the summer in India
• Temperatures in at least 37 cities exceeded 45ºC
• Nighttime temperatures remained as high as 36ºC in some locations

India is being hit by one of its worst heatwaves streaks ever, with many parts of the country experiencing consistent temperatures of over 50ºC.

On Wednesday, an outlier temperature above 52ºC was reported in Delhi, but this is still being evaluated and rechecked. City authorities have also warned of a risk of water shortages and the power grid tripping.

Delhi’s city record of 49.2ºC from 2002 had been broken the day before, with temperatures reaching 49.9ºC on May 27, 2024.

Climate change, predominantly caused by burning fossil fuels and exacerbated by human interference, is making heatwaves hotter and more likely to happen everywhere in the world, according to scientists who study how extreme events are changing. Cities are more vulnerable to the compounding effects of urbanisation and climate change.

The dangerous impact

Heat in India and South Asia is characterised by being extremely humid, which makes it more dangerous for human health. High humidity levels prevent the body from cooling itself through sweating, raising the risk of heat strokes and other life-threatening conditions. The combination of intense heat and humidity poses life-threatening risks to the population, exposing them to conditions that exceed human tolerance. This risk is further increased in cities, as they are often warmer than rural areas.

Aarti Khosla, Director, Climate Trends, says, "Heatwaves are clearly the single largest threat to India's well-being today. Record-breaking heat of over 48ºC across north, west, and central India shows that the climate crisis is a nice-to-push rhetoric as long as one hasn't experienced a 50ºC heatwave. Temperatures in Delhi and neighboring National Capital Region (NCR) states since the last two days are proof that the issue is now about survivability, and it’s no longer a problem 'elsewhere'. As more and more Indian cities develop faster, climate resilience needs to be incorporated immediately to reduce the compounding impacts of extreme heat on human health, the economy, and livelihoods."

Dr. Friederike Otto, Imperial College London and Director of World Weather Attribution, says, "This devastating heat is not a natural disaster. The suffering India is facing this week is worse because of climate change caused by burning coal, oil, and gas, and deforestation. What we are seeing in India is exactly what scientists said would happen if we didn’t stop heating the planet. To avoid making the problem worse, the world needs to end fossil fuel use. Unless we do it, terrible heat like this will happen more and more often, and it will get even hotter. The heat will become worse, and the death toll will continue to rise fast.”

Mahesh Palawat, Vice President of Meteorology and Climate Change at Skymet Weather, says, “Since last week, the entire Northwest India, especially parts of Rajasthan and the Delhi National Capital Region (NCR), have been under the grip of severe heat waves. Maximum temperatures have been constantly above the 45ºC mark, which has made the current heatwave a prolonged one.

“We saw a similar spike in temperatures in 2016 on account of El Niño, which is a natural and temporary driver of global warming. However, climate change has made things worse for India. El Niño will continue to form in the Pacific Ocean, but we need to limit average global temperatures at any cost; otherwise, similar situations will arise again and again.

Dr. Akshay Deoras, Research Scientist at the National Centre for Atmospheric Science, University of Reading, UK, says, “This year’s summer season in India is very unique. While frequent thunderstorms and cloud cover prevented the onset of high temperatures and heat waves over most of the country between March and mid-May, a stable weather pattern has been instigating heat waves for the last couple of days. With a persistent maximum temperature above 45ºC, a crunched summer season is turning out to be deadly across northwestern India, and El Niño is playing an important role in boosting temperatures this year.

“We already have clear evidence of global warming increasing the frequency, intensity, and duration of heat waves across the globe, and El Niño is adding more to this effect.”

Prof. Vidhya Venugopal, Country Director at Sri Ram Institute of Higher Education & Research, Chennai, says, “The unequal impacts of heat waves, especially with temperatures beyond 50ºC in dry environments like Delhi, will affect the most vulnerable, such as the elderly, young children, workers exerting outdoors, people with comorbidities, and the poor with minimal cooling interventions.

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Long COVID or Post-COVID Conditions

Some people who have been infected with the virus that causes COVID-19 can experience long-term effects from their infection, known as Long COVID or Post-COVID Conditions (PCC). Long COVID is broadly defined as signs, symptoms, and conditions that continue or develop after acute COVID-19 infection. This definition  of Long COVID was developed by the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) in collaboration with CDC and other partners.

People call Long COVID by many names, including Post-COVID Conditions, long-haul COVID, post-acute COVID-19, long-term effects of COVID, and chronic COVID. The term post-acute sequelae of SARS CoV-2 infection (PASC) is also used to refer to a subset of Long COVID.

What You Need to Know

• Long COVID is a real illness and can result in chronic conditions that require comprehensive care. There are resources available .
• Long COVID can include a wide range of ongoing health problems; these conditions can last weeks, months, or years.
• Long COVID occurs more often in people who had severe COVID-19 illness, but anyone who has been infected with the virus that causes COVID-19 can experience it.
• People who are not vaccinated against COVID-19 and become infected may have a higher risk of developing Long COVID compared to people who have been vaccinated.
• People can be reinfected with SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, multiple times. Each time a person is infected or reinfected with SARS-CoV-2, they have a risk of developing Long COVID.
• While most people with Long COVID have evidence of infection or COVID-19 illness, in some cases, a person with Long COVID may not have tested positive for the virus or known they were infected.
• CDC and partners are working to understand more about who experiences Long COVID and why, including whether groups disproportionately impacted by COVID-19 are at higher risk.

In July 2021, Long COVID was added as a recognized condition that could result in a disability under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Learn more: Guidance on “Long COVID” as a Disability Under the ADA .

About Long COVID

Long COVID is a wide range of new, returning, or ongoing health problems that people experience after being infected with the virus that causes COVID-19. Most people with COVID-19 get better within a few days to a few weeks after infection, so at least 4 weeks after infection is the start of when Long COVID could first be identified. Anyone who was infected can experience Long COVID. Most people with Long COVID experienced symptoms days after first learning they had COVID-19, but some people who later experienced Long COVID did not know when they got infected.

There is no test that determines if your symptoms or condition is due to COVID-19. Long COVID is not one illness. Your healthcare provider considers a diagnosis of Long COVID based on your health history, including if you had a diagnosis of COVID-19 either by a positive test or by symptoms or exposure, as well as based on a health examination.

Science behind Long COVID

RECOVER: Researching COVID to Enhance Recovery

People with Long COVID may experience many symptoms.

People with Long COVID can have a wide range of symptoms that can last weeks, months, or even years after infection. Sometimes the symptoms can even go away and come back again. For some people, Long COVID can last weeks, months, or years after COVID-19 illness and can sometimes result in disability.

Long COVID may not affect everyone the same way. People with Long COVID may experience health problems from different types and combinations of symptoms that may emerge, persist, resolve, and reemerge over different lengths of time. Though most patients’ symptoms slowly improve with time, speaking with your healthcare provider about the symptoms you are experiencing after having COVID-19 could help determine if you might have Long COVID.

People who experience Long COVID most commonly report:

General symptoms ( Not a Comprehensive List)

• Tiredness or fatigue that interferes with daily life
• Symptoms that get worse after physical or mental effort (also known as “ post-exertional malaise ”)

Respiratory and heart symptoms

• Difficulty breathing or shortness of breath
• Fast-beating or pounding heart (also known as heart palpitations)

Neurological symptoms

• Difficulty thinking or concentrating (sometimes referred to as “brain fog”)
• Sleep problems
• Dizziness when you stand up (lightheadedness)
• Pins-and-needles feelings
• Change in smell or taste
• Depression or anxiety

Digestive symptoms

• Stomach pain

Other symptoms

• Joint or muscle pain
• Changes in menstrual cycles

Symptoms that are hard to explain and manage

Some people with Long COVID have symptoms that are not explained by tests or easy to manage.

People with Long COVID may develop or continue to have symptoms that are hard to explain and manage. Clinical evaluations and results of routine blood tests, chest X-rays, and electrocardiograms may be normal. The symptoms are similar to those reported by people with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) and other poorly understood chronic illnesses that may occur after other infections. People with these unexplained symptoms may be misunderstood by their healthcare providers, which can result in a delay in diagnosis and receiving the appropriate care or treatment.

Review these tips to help prepare for a healthcare provider appointment for Long COVID.

Health conditions

Some people experience new health conditions after COVID-19 illness.

Some people, especially those who had severe COVID-19, experience multiorgan effects or autoimmune conditions with symptoms lasting weeks, months, or even years after COVID-19 illness. Multi-organ effects can involve many body systems, including the heart, lung, kidney, skin, and brain. As a result of these effects, people who have had COVID-19 may be more likely to develop new health conditions such as diabetes, heart conditions, blood clots, or neurological conditions compared with people who have not had COVID-19.

People experiencing any severe illness may develop health problems

People experiencing any severe illness, hospitalization, or treatment may develop problems such as post-intensive care syndrome (PICS).

PICS refers to the health effects that may begin when a person is in an intensive care unit (ICU), and which may persist after a person returns home. These effects can include muscle weakness, problems with thinking and judgment, and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder  (PTSD), a long-term reaction to a very stressful event. While PICS is not specific to infection with SARS-CoV-2, it may occur and contribute to the person’s experience of Long COVID. For people who experience PICS following a COVID-19 diagnosis, it is difficult to determine whether these health problems are caused by a severe illness, the virus itself, or a combination of both.

People More Likely to Develop Long COVID

Some people may be more at risk for developing Long COVID.

Researchers are working to understand which people or groups of people are more likely to have Long COVID, and why. Studies have shown that some groups of people may be affected more by Long COVID. These are examples and not a comprehensive list of people or groups who might be more at risk than other groups for developing Long COVID:

• People who have experienced more severe COVID-19 illness, especially those who were hospitalized or needed intensive care.
• People who had underlying health conditions prior to COVID-19.
• People who did not get a COVID-19 vaccine.

Health Inequities May Affect Populations at Risk for Long COVID

Some people are at increased risk of getting sick from COVID-19 because of where they live or work, or because they can’t get health care. Health inequities may put some people from racial or ethnic minority groups and some people with disabilities at greater risk for developing Long COVID. Scientists are researching some of those factors that may place these communities at higher risk of getting infected or developing Long COVID.

Preventing Long COVID

The best way to prevent Long COVID is to protect yourself and others from becoming infected. For people who are eligible, CDC recommends staying up to date on COVID-19 vaccination , along with improving ventilation, getting tested for COVID-19 if needed, and seeking treatment for COVID-19 if eligible. Additional preventative measures include avoiding close contact with people who have a confirmed or suspected COVID-19 illness and washing hands  or using alcohol-based hand sanitizer.

Research suggests that people who get a COVID-19 infection after vaccination are less likely to report Long COVID, compared to people who are unvaccinated.

CDC, other federal agencies, and non-federal partners are working to identify further measures to lessen a person’s risk of developing Long COVID. Learn more about protecting yourself and others from COVID-19 .

Living with Long COVID

Living with Long COVID can be hard, especially when there are no immediate answers or solutions.

People experiencing Long COVID can seek care from a healthcare provider to come up with a personal medical management plan that can help improve their symptoms and quality of life. Review these tips  to help prepare for a healthcare provider appointment for Long COVID. In addition, there are many support groups being organized that can help patients and their caregivers.

Although Long COVID appears to be less common in children and adolescents than in adults, long-term effects after COVID-19 do occur in children and adolescents .

Talk to your doctor if you think you or your child has Long COVID. Learn more: Tips for Talking to Your Healthcare Provider about Post-COVID Conditions

Data for Long COVID

Studies are in progress to better understand Long COVID and how many people experience them.

CDC is using multiple approaches to estimate how many people experience Long COVID. Each approach can provide a piece of the puzzle to give us a better picture of who is experiencing Long COVID. For example, some studies look for the presence of Long COVID based on self-reported symptoms, while others collect symptoms and conditions recorded in medical records. Some studies focus only on people who have been hospitalized, while others include people who were not hospitalized. The estimates for how many people experience Long COVID can be quite different depending on who was included in the study, as well as how and when the study collected information.  Estimates of the proportion of people who had COVID-19 that go on to experience Long COVID can vary.

CDC posts data on Long COVID and provides analyses, the most recent of which can be found on the U.S. Census Bureau’s Household Pulse Survey .

CDC and other federal agencies, as well as academic institutions and research organizations, are working to learn more about the short- and long-term health effects associated with COVID-19 , who gets them and why.

Scientists are also learning more about how new variants could potentially affect Long COVID. We are still learning to what extent certain groups are at higher risk, and if different groups of people tend to experience different types of Long COVID. CDC has several studies that will help us better understand Long COVID and how healthcare providers can treat or support patients with these long-term effects. CDC will continue to share information with healthcare providers to help them evaluate and manage these conditions.

CDC is working to:

• Better identify the most frequent symptoms and diagnoses experienced by patients with Long COVID.
• Better understand how many people are affected by Long COVID, and how often people who are infected with COVID-19 develop Long COVID
• Better understand risk factors and protective factors, including which groups might be more at risk, and if different groups experience different symptoms.
• Help understand how Long COVID limit or restrict people’s daily activity.
• Help identify groups that have been more affected by Long COVID, lack access to care and treatment for Long COVID, or experience stigma.
• Better understand the role vaccination plays in preventing Long COVID.
• Collaborate with professional medical groups to develop and offer clinical guidance and other educational materials for healthcare providers, patients, and the public.

Related Pages

• Caring for People with Post-COVID Conditions
• Preparing for Appointments for Post-COVID Conditions
• Researching COVID to Enhance Recovery
• Guidance on “Long COVID” as a Disability Under the ADA

For Healthcare Professionals

• Post-COVID Conditions: Healthcare Providers

Search for and find historical COVID-19 pages and files. Please note the content on these pages and files is no longer being updated and may be out of date.

• Visit archive.cdc.gov for a historical snapshot of the COVID-19 website, capturing the end of the Federal Public Health Emergency on June 28, 2023.
• Visit the dynamic COVID-19 collection  to search the COVID-19 website as far back as July 30, 2021.

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• Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by CDC or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website.
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