research on criminal behavior

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• HHS Author Manuscripts

Biological explanations of criminal behavior

Shichun ling.

a Department of Criminology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA

Rebecca Umbach

b Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

c Behavioral Sciences Training in Drug Abuse Research, NYU Rory Meyers College of Nursing, New York, NY, USA

Adrian Raine

d Departments of Criminology, Psychiatry, and Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA

There is a growing literature on biological explanations of antisocial and criminal behavior. This paper provides a selective review of three specific biological factors – psychophysiology (with the focus on blunted heart rate and skin conductance), brain mechanisms (with a focus on structural and functional aberrations of the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and striatum), and genetics (with an emphasis on gene-environment and gene-gene interactions). Overall, understanding the role of biology in antisocial and criminal behavior may help increase the explanatory power of current research and theories, as well as inform policy and treatment options.

A growing body of literature has indicated the importance of considering neurobiological factors in the etiology of antisocial and criminal behavior. Behaviors, including criminality, are the result of complex, reciprocally influential interactions between an individual’s biology, psychology, and the social environment ( Focquaert, 2018 ). As research progresses, the misconception that biology can predetermine criminality is being rectified. Elucidating the biological underpinnings of criminal behavior and broader, related outcomes such as antisocial behavior can provide insights into relevant etiological mechanisms. This selective review discusses three biological factors that have been examined in relation to antisocial and criminal behavior: psychophysiology, brain, and genetics.

Psychophysiology, or the levels of arousal within individuals, has become an important biological explanation for antisocial and criminal behavior. Two common psychophysiological measures are heart rate and skin conductance (i.e. sweat rate). Both capture autonomic nervous system functioning; skin conductance reflects sympathetic nervous system functioning while heart rate reflects both sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system activity. Blunted autonomic functioning has been associated with increased antisocial behavior, including violence ( Baker et al., 2009 ; Choy, Farrington, & Raine, 2015 ; Gao, Raine, Venables, Dawson, & Mednick, 2010 ; Portnoy & Farrington, 2015 ). Longitudinal studies have found low resting heart rate in adolescence to be associated with increased risk for criminality in adulthood ( Latvala, Kuja-Halkola, Almqvist, Larsson, & Lichtenstein, 2015 ; Raine, Venables, & Williams, 1990 ). However, there is likely a positive feedback loop whereby blunted autonomic functioning may lead to increased antisocial/criminal behavior, which in turn may reinforce disrupted physiological activity. For example, males and females who exhibited high rates of proactive aggression (an instrumental, predatory form of aggression elicited to obtain a goal or reward) in early adolescence were found to have poorer skin conductance fear conditioning in late adolescence ( Gao, Tuvblad, Schell, Baker, & Raine, 2015 ; Vitiello & Stoff, 1997 ).

Theories have been proposed to explain how blunted autonomic functioning could increase antisociality. The fearlessness hypothesis suggests that antisocial individuals, due to their blunted autonomic functioning, are not deterred from criminal behavior because they do not experience appropriate physiological responses to risky or stressful situations nor potential aversive consequences ( Portnoy et al., 2014 ; Raine, 2002 ). Alternatively, the sensation-seeking hypothesis suggests that blunted psychophysiology is an uncomfortable state of being, and in order to achieve homeostasis, individuals engage in antisocial behavior to raise their arousal levels ( Portnoy et al., 2014 ; Raine, 2002 ).

Another mechanism that could connect disrupted autonomic functioning to antisocial behavior is the failure to cognitively associate physiology responses with emotional states. Appropriately linking autonomic conditions to emotional states is important in socialization processes such as fear conditioning, which is thought to contribute to the development of a conscience. The somatic marker hypothesis ( Bechara & Damasio, 2005 ) suggests that ‘somatic markers’ (e.g. sweaty palms) may reflect emotional states (e.g. anxiety) that can inform decision-making processes. Impairments in autonomic functioning could lead to risky or inappropriate behavior if individuals are unable to experience or label somatic changes and connect them to relevant emotional experiences. Indeed, psychopathic individuals exhibit somatic aphasia (i.e. the inaccurate identification and recognition of one’s bodily state; Gao, Raine, & Schug, 2012 ). Moreover, blunted autonomic functioning impairs emotional intelligence, subsequently increasing psychopathic traits ( Ling, Raine, Gao, & Schug, 2018a ). Impaired autonomic functioning and reduced emotional intelligence may impede the treatment of psychopathy ( Polaschek & Skeem, 2018 ) and disrupt development of moral emotions such as shame, guilt, and empathy ( Eisenberg, 2000 ). Such moral dysfunction, a strong characteristic of psychopaths, may contribute to their disproportionate impact on the criminal justice system ( Kiehl & Hoffman, 2011 ).

While there is evidence that antisocial/criminal individuals typically exhibit abnormal psychophysiological functioning, it is important to acknowledge that there are different antisocial/criminal subtypes, and they may not share the same deficits. Whereas individuals who are high on proactive aggression may be more likely to exhibit blunted autonomic functioning, individuals who are high on reactive aggression (an affective form of aggression that is elicited as a response to perceived provocation) may be more likely to exhibit hyperactive autonomic functioning ( Hubbard, McAuliffe, Morrow, & Romano, 2010 ; Vitiello & Stoff, 1997 ). This may have implications for different types of offenders, with elevated autonomic functioning presenting in reactively aggressive individuals who engage in impulsive crimes and blunted autonomic functioning presenting in proactively aggressive offenders engaging in more premediated crimes. Similarly, psychopaths who are ‘unsuccessful’ (i.e. convicted criminal psychopaths) exhibit reduced heart rate during stress while those who are ‘successful’ (i.e. non-convicted criminal psychopaths) exhibit autonomic functioning similar to non-psychopathic controls ( Ishikawa, Raine, Lencz, Bihrle, & LaCasse, 2001 ). Despite differences among subgroups, dysfunctional autonomic functioning generally remains a reasonably well-replicated and robust correlate of antisocial and criminal behavior.

There has been increasing interest in the role of the brain in antisocial/criminal behavior. In general, research suggests that antisocial/criminal individuals tend to exhibit reduced brain volumes as well as impaired functioning and connectivity in key areas related to executive functions ( Alvarez & Emory, 2006 ; Meijers, Harte, Meynen, & Cuijpers, 2017 ; Morgan & Lilienfeld, 2000 ), emotion regulation ( Banks, Eddy, Angstadt, Nathan, & Phan, 2007 ; Eisenberg, 2000 ), decision-making ( Coutlee & Huettel, 2012 ; Yechiam et al., 2008 ), and morality ( Raine & Yang, 2006 ) while also exhibiting increased volumes and functional abnormalities in reward regions of the brain ( Glenn & Yang, 2012 ; Korponay et al., 2017 ). These prefrontal and subcortical regions that have been implicated in antisocial/criminal behavior are the selective focus of this review.

Conventional criminal behavior has typically been associated with prefrontal cortex (PFC) structural aberrations and functional impairments ( Brower & Price, 2001 ; Yang & Raine, 2009 ). The PFC is considered the seat of higher-level cognitive processes such as decision-making, attention, emotion regulation, impulse control, and moral reasoning ( Sapolsky, 2004 ). In healthy adults, larger prefrontal structures have been associated with better executive functioning ( Yuan & Raz, 2014 ). However, structural deficits and functional impairments of the PFC have been observed in antisocial and criminal individuals, suggesting that PFC aberrations may underlie some of the observed behaviors.

While many studies on brain differences related to criminal behavior have consisted of correlational analyses, lesion studies have provided some insight into causal neural mechanisms of antisocial/criminal behavior. The most well-known example of the effects of prefrontal lobe lesions is the case of Phineas Gage, who was reported to have a dramatic personality change after an iron rod was shot through his skull and damaged his left and right prefrontal cortices ( Damasio, Grabowski, Frank, Galaburda, & Damasio, 1994 ; Harlow, 1848 , 1868 ). Empirical studies suggest that prefrontal lesions acquired earlier in life disrupt moral and social development ( Anderson, Bechara, Damasio, Tranel, & Damasio, 1999 ; Taber-Thomas et al., 2014 ). A study of 17 patients who developed criminal behavior following a brain lesion documented that while these lesions were in different locations, they were all connected functionally to regions activated by moral decisionmaking ( Darby, Horn, Cushman, & Fox, 2018 ), suggesting that disruption of a neuromoral network is associated with criminality. Nevertheless, while lesion studies have implicated specific brain regions in various psychological processes such as moral development, generalizability is limited because of the heterogeneity of lesion characteristics, as well as subjects’ characteristics that may moderate the behavioral effects of the lesion.

In recent years, non-invasive neural interventions such as transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial electric stimulation have been used to manipulate activity within the brain to provide more direct causal evidence of the functions of specific brain regions with regard to behavior. These techniques involve subthreshold modulation of neuronal resting membrane potential ( Nitsche & Paulus, 2000 ; Woods et al., 2016 ). Using transcranial electric stimulation, upregulation of the PFC has been found to decrease criminal intentions and increase perceptions of moral wrongfulness of aggressive acts ( Choy, Raine, & Hamilton, 2018 ), providing support for the causal influence of the PFC on criminal behavior.

Importantly, there is evidence of heterogeneity within criminal subgroups. Successful psychopaths and white-collar offenders do not seem to display these prefrontal deficits ( Raine et al., 2012 ; Yang et al., 2005 ). While unsuccessful psychopaths exhibit reduced PFC gray matter volume compared to successful psychopaths and non-offender controls, there are no prefrontal gray matter volume differences between successful psychopaths and non-offender controls ( Yang et al., 2005 ). Similarly, while prefrontal volume deficits have been found in conventional criminals (i.e. blue-collar offenders), white-collar offenders do not exhibit frontal lobe reductions ( Brower & Price, 2001 ; Ling et al., 2018b ; Raine et al., 2012 ) and in fact may exhibit increased executive functioning compared to blue-collar controls ( Raine et al., 2012 ). Lastly, antisocial offenders with psychopathy exhibited reduced gray matter volumes in the prefrontal and temporal poles compared to antisocial offenders without psychopathy and non-offenders ( Gregory et al., 2012 ). It is therefore important to acknowledge that there are various types of antisocial and criminal behavior that may have different neurobiological etiologies.

The amygdala is an important brain region that has been implicated in emotional processes such as recognition of facial and auditory expressions of emotion, especially for negative emotions such as fear ( Fine & Blair, 2000 ; Murphy, Nimmo-Smith, & Lawrence, 2003 ; Sergerie, Chochol, & Armony, 2008 ). Normative amygdala functioning has been thought to be key in the development of fear conditioning ( Knight, Smith, Cheng, Stein, & Helmstetter, 2004 ; LaBar, Gatenby, Gore, LeDoux, & Phelps, 1998 ; Maren, 2001 ), and appropriate integration of the amygdala and PFC has been argued to underlie the development of morality ( Blair, 2007 ). The amygdala is thought to be involved in stimulus-reinforcement learning that associates actions that harm others with the aversive reinforcement of the victims’ distress and in recognizing threat cues that typically deter individuals from risky behavior. However, amygdala maldevelopment can lead to a diminished ability to recognize distress or threat cues; disrupting the stimulus-reinforcement learning that discourages antisocial/criminal behavior ( Blair, 2007 ; Sterzer, 2010 ). Indeed, while reduced amygdala volume in adulthood has been associated with increased aggressive and psychopathic characteristics from childhood to early adulthood, it is also associated with increased risk for future antisocial and psychopathic behavior ( Pardini, Raine, Erickson, & Loeber, 2014 ).

Although the amygdala has been implicated in criminal behavior, there may be important differences between subtypes of offenders. Whereas psychopathic antisocial individuals may be more likely to exhibit cold, calculating forms of aggression, non-psychopathic antisocial individuals may be more likely to engage in impulsive, emotionally-reactive aggression ( Glenn & Raine, 2014 ). Research suggests the former may exhibit amygdala hypoactivity and the latter, amygdala hyperactivity ( Raine, 2018a ). Indeed, violent offenders have been found to exhibit increased amygdala reactivity in response to provocations ( da Cunha-Bang et al., 2017 ). Spousal abusers have also been found to exhibit increased amygdala activation when responding to aggressive words compared to nonabusers ( Lee, Chan, & Raine, 2008 ). In a community sample of healthy adults, psychopathy scores were negatively related to amygdala reactivity while antisocial personality disorder scores were positively associated with amygdala reactivity after adjusting for overlapping variance between psychopathy and antisocial personality disorder ( Hyde, Byrd, Votruba-Brzal, Hariri, & Manuck, 2014 ). Nevertheless, more research is needed to determine whether the presence of callous-unemotional traits (e.g. lack of guilt; Lozier, Cardinale, VanMeter, & Marsh, 2014 ; Viding et al., 2012 ) or severity of antisocial behavioral traits ( Dotterer, Hyde, Swartz, Hariri, & Williamson, 2017 ; Hyde et al., 2016 ) are most relevant to the observed amygdala hypo-reactivity.

The striatum has recently garnered more attention as a region that could be implicated in the etiology of criminal behavior because of its involvement in reward and emotional processing ( Davidson & Irwin, 1999 ; Glenn & Yang, 2012 ). Dysfunction in the striatum has been hypothesized to be a neural mechanism that underlies the impulsive/antisocial behavior of criminals. Indeed, individuals with higher impulsive/antisocial personality traits have been found to exhibit increased activity in the striatum ( Bjork, Chen, & Hommer, 2012 ; Buckholtz et al., 2010 ; Geurts et al., 2016 ). Psychopathic individuals, compared to non-psychopathic individuals, demonstrate a 9.6% increase in striatal volumes ( Glenn, Raine, Yaralian, & Yang, 2010 ). Moreover, striatal enlargement and abnormal functional connectivity of the striatum has specifically been associated with the impulsive/antisocial dimension of psychopathy ( Korponay et al., 2017 ), suggesting this dimension of psychopathy is related to reward processes ( Hare, 2017 ).

While much of the literature on striatal abnormalities in antisocial individuals has focused on psychopathic individuals, there is some evidence that offenders in general exhibit striatal abnormalities. Increased volume ( Schiffer et al., 2011 ) and increased reactivity to provocations ( da Cunha-Bang et al., 2017 ) have both been found in violent offenders as compared to non-offendersMoreover, weak cortico-striatal connectivity has been associated with increased frequency of criminal convictions ( Hosking et al., 2017 ). In contrast, one study found reduced striatal activity to be associated with antisocial behavior ( Murray, Shaw, Forbes, & Hyde, 2017 ). While more research is needed, current literature suggests that striatal deviations are linked to criminal behavior. One important consideration for future studies is to determine a consistent operationalization for the striatum, as some studies examine the dorsal striatum (i.e. putamen and caudate; Yang et al., 2015 ), others assess the corpus striatum (i.e. putamen, caudate, and globus pallidus; Glenn et al., 2010 ), and still others analyze the role of the ventral striatum (i.e. nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle; Glenn & Yang, 2012 ) in relation to antisocial/criminal behavior.

Abnormalities in brain regions other than the PFC, amygdala, and striatum are also associated with antisocial behavior. The neuromoral theory of antisocial behavior, first proposed by Raine and Yang (2006) , argued that the diverse brain regions impaired in offenders overlap significantly with brain regions involved in moral decision-making. A recent update of this theory ( Raine, 2018b ) argues that key areas implicated in both moral decision-making and the spectrum of antisocial behaviors include frontopolar, medial, and ventral PFC regions, and the anterior cingulate, amygdala, insula, superior temporal gyrus, and angular gyrus/temporoparietal junction. It was further hypothesized that different manifestations of antisocial behavior exist on a spectrum of neuromoral dysfunction, with primary psychopathy, proactive aggression, and life-course persistent offending being more affected, and secondary psychopathy, reactive aggression, and crimes involving drugs relatively less affected. Whether the striatum is part of the neural circuit involved in moral decision-making is currently unclear, making its inclusion in the neuromoral model debatable. Despite limitations, the neuromoral model provides a way of understanding how impairments to different brain regions can converge on one concept – impaired morality – that is a common core to many different forms of antisocial behaviors.

One implication of the model is that significant impairment to the neuromoral circuit could constitute diminished criminal responsibility. Given the importance of a fully developed emotional moral capacity for lawful behavior, moral responsibility would appear to require intactness of neuromoral circuity. To argue that the brain basis to moral thinking and feeling are compromised in an offender comes dangerously close to challenging moral responsibility, a concept which in itself may be just a short step removed from criminal responsibility.

There is increasing evidence fora genetic basis of antisocial/criminal behavior. Behavioral genetic studies of twins and adoptees have been advantageous because such designs can differentiate the effects of genetics and environment within the context of explaining variance within a population ( Glenn & Raine, 2014 ). Additionally, a variety of psychological and psychiatric constructs associated with antisociality/criminality, such as intelligence, personality, and mental health disorders, have been found to be heritable ( Baker, Bezdjian, & Raine, 2006 ). While individual study estimates vary, meta-analyses have suggested the level of heritability of antisocial behavior is approximately 40–60% ( Raine, 2013 ). Shared environmental factors have been estimated to explain approximately 11–14% of the variance in antisocial/criminal behavior and non-shared environmental influences approximately 31–37% ( Ferguson, 2010 ; Gard, Dotterer, & Hyde, 2019 ). However, the heritability of antisocial/criminal behaviors vary in part based upon the specific behaviors examined ( Burt, 2009 ; Gard et al., 2019 ).

Inspired by prominent theories of the neurobiology of aggression, there have been several candidate genes implicated in the serotonergic and catecholaminergic neurobiological systems that have been examined in relation to antisocial/criminal behavior ( Tiihonen et al., 2015 ). However, a meta-analysis of genetic variants related to antisocial/criminal behavior yielded null results at the 5% significance level ( Vassos, Collier, & Fazel, 2014 ). Nevertheless, genes do not operate in isolation, thus it is important to consider the context in which genes are activated.

Gene-environment (G x E) interactions have garnered increasing attention over the years, as these can increase risk for antisocial behavior and/or produce epigenetic changes within individuals. Longitudinal studies and meta-analyses have documented the moderating effect of the monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene on the relationship between maltreatment and antisocial behaviors, with the maltreatment-antisocial behavior relationship being stronger for individuals with low MAOA than high MAOA ( Byrd & Manuck, 2014 ; Caspi et al., 2002 ; Fergusson, Boden, & Horwood, 2011 ; Kim-Cohen et al.,2006 ). Similarly, in a large study of African-American females, having the A1 allele of the DRD2 gene or a criminal father did not individually predict antisocial outcomes, but having both factors increased risk for serious delinquency, violent delinquency, and police contacts ( Delisi, Beaver, Vaughn, & Wright, 2009 ). This type of G x E interaction reflects how genotypes can influence individuals’ sensitivity to environmental stressors. However, there may be important subgroup differences to consider when examining genetic risk for criminal behavior. For example, low-MAOA has been associated with higher risk for violent crime in incarcerated Caucasian offenders but not incarcerated non-Caucasian offenders ( Stetler et al., 2014 ). Additionally, high-MAOA may protect abused and neglected Caucasians from increased risk of becoming violent or antisocial, but this buffering effect was not found for abused and neglected non-Caucasians ( Widom & Brzustowicz, 2006 ). Thus, while the MAOA gene has been associated with antisocial/criminal behavior, there are still nuances of this relationship that should be considered ( Goldman & Rosser, 2014 ).

Another way in which G x E interactions manifest themselves is when environmental stressors result in epigenetic changes, thus becoming embedded in biology that result in long-term symptomatic consequences. For example, females exposed to childhood sex abuse have exhibited alterations in the methylation of the 5HTT promoter region, which in turn has been linked to subsequent antisocial personality disorder symptoms ( Beach, Brody, Todorov, Gunter, & Philibert, 2011 ). There has been a growing body of work on such epigenetic mechanisms involved in the biological embedding of early life stressors and transgenerational trauma ( Kellermann, 2013 ; Provencal & Binder, 2015 ). Thus, just as biological mechanisms can influence environmental responses, environmental stressors can affect biological expressions.

While genes may interact with the environment to produce antisocial/criminal outcomes, they can also interact with other genes. There is evidence that dopamine genes DRD2 and DRD4 may interact to increase criminogenic risk ( Beaver et al., 2007 ; Boutwell et al., 2014 ). The effect of the 7-repeat allele DRD4 is strengthened in the presence of the A1 allele of DRD2, and has been associated with increased odds of committing major theft, burglary, gang fighting, and conduct disorder ( Beaver et al., 2007 ; Boutwell et al., 2014 ). However, there is some evidence that DRD2 and DRD4 do not significantly affect delinquency abstention for females ( Boutwell & Beaver, 2008 ). Thus there may be demographic differences that moderate the effect of genetic interactions on various antisocial outcomes ( Dick, Adkins, & Kuo, 2016 ; Ficks & Waldman, 2014 ; Rhee & Waldman, 2002 ; Salvatore & Dick, 2018 ), and such differences warrant further research.

Importantly, biological correlates of antisocial and criminal behavior are inextricably linked in dynamical systems, in which certain processes influence others through feedback loops. While a detailed summary is beyond the scope of this review, some interactions between biological mechanisms are briefly illustrated here. Within the brain, the PFC and amygdala have reciprocal connections, with the PFC often conceptualized as monitoring and regulating amygdala activity ( Gillespie, Brzozowski, & Mitchell, 2018 ). Disruption of PFC-amygdala connectivity has been linked to increased antisocial/criminal behavior, typically thought to be due to the impaired top-down regulation of amygdala functioning by the PFC. Similarly, the brain and autonomic functioning are linked ( Critchley, 2005 ; Wager et al., 2009 ); output from the brain can generate changes in autonomic functioning by affecting the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, but autonomic functions also provide input to the brain that is essential for influencing behavioral judgments and maintaining coordinated regulation of bodily functions ( Critchley, 2005 ). While not comprehensive, these examples illustrate that biological systems work together to produce behavior.

While biological processes can contribute to antisocial/criminal behavior, these do not guarantee negative outcomes. Considering that many of the aforementioned biological risk factors are significantly influenced by social environment, interventions in multiple spheres may help mitigate biological risks for antisocial behavior.

With regard to psychophysiological correlates of antisocial behavior, research suggests differential profiles of arousal impairment depending on the type of antisocial behavior ( Hubbard et al., 2010 ; Vitiello & Stoff, 1997 ). Treatments designed to address the issues associated with psychophysiological differences are typically behavioral in nature, targeted at associated symptoms. Studies of mindfulness have suggested its utility in improving autonomic functioning ( Delgado-Pastor, Perakakis, Subramanya, Telles, & Vila, 2013 ) and emotion regulation ( Umbach, Raine, & Leonard, 2018 ), which may better help individuals with reactive aggression and hyperarousal. Hypo-arousal has been associated with impaired emotional intelligence ( Ling et al., 2018a ), but emotional intelligence training programs have shown some promise in reducing aggression and increasing empathy among adolescents and increasing emotional intelligence among adults ( Castillo, Salguero, Fernandez-Berrocal, & Balluerka, 2013 ; Hodzic, Scharfen, Ropoll, Holling, & Zenasni, 2018 ), and in reducing recidivism ( Megreya, 2015 ; Sharma, Prakash, Sengar, Chaudhury, & Singh, 2015 ).

Regarding healthy neurodevelopment, research has supported a number of areas to target. Poor nutrition, both in utero and in early childhood, have been associated with negative and criminal outcomes ( Neugebauer, Hoek, & Susser, 1999 ). Deficits of omega-3 fatty acids have been linked with impaired neurocognition and externalizing behavior ( Liu & Raine, 2006 ; McNamara & Carlson, 2006 ). The opposite relationship is also supported; increased intake of omega-3 fatty acids has been associated with a variety of positive physical and mental health outcomes ( Ruxton, Reed, Simpson, & Millington, 2004 ), increased brain volume in regions related to memory and emotion regulation ( Conklin et al.,2007 ), and reduction in behavioral problems in children ( Raine, Portnoy, Liu, Mahoomed, & Hibbeln, 2015 ). Studies examining the effect of nutritional supplements have suggested that reducing the amount of sugar consumed by offenders can significantly reduce offending during incarceration ( Gesch, Hammond, Hampson, Eves, & Crowder, 2002 ; Schoenthaler, 1983 ). Thus, nutritional programs show some promise in reducing antisocial and criminal behavior.

A healthy social environment is also crucial for normative brain development and function. Early adversity and childhood maltreatment have been identified as significant risk factors for both neurobiological and behavioral problems ( Mehta et al., 2009 ; Teicher et al., 2003 ; Tottenham et al., 2011 ). A review of maltreatment prevention programs supports the efficacy of nurse-family partnerships and programs that integrate early preschool with parent resources in reducing childhood maltreatment ( Reynolds, Mathieson, & Topitzes, 2009 ). Promoting healthy brain development in utero and in crucial neurodevelopmental periods is likely to reduce externalizing behaviors, as well as other psychopathology.

Knowing that the social context could help to buffer biological risks is promising because it suggests that changing an individual’s environment could mitigate biological criminogenic risk. Rather than providing a reductionist and deterministic perspective of the etiology of criminal behavior, incorporating biological factors in explanations of antisocial/criminal behaviors can highlight the plasticity of the human genome ( Walsh & Yun, 2014 ). They can also provide a more holistic understanding of the etiologies of such behavior. For example, sex differences in heart rate have been found to partially explain the gender gap in crime ( Choy, Raine, Venables, & Farrington, 2017 ). Social interventions that aim to provide an enriched environment can be beneficial for all, but may be particularly important for individuals at higher biological risk for antisocial behavior. While biological explanations of antisocial and criminal behavior are growing, they are best thought of as complementary to current research and theories, and a potential new avenue to target with treatment options.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

• Alvarez JA, & Emory E (2006). Executive function and the frontal lobes: A meta-analytic review . Neuropsychology Review , 16 ,17–42. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Anderson SW, Bechara A, Damasio H, Tranel D, & Damasio AR (1999). Impairment of social and moral behavior related to early damage in human prefrontal cortex . Nature Neuroscience , 2 , 1032–1037. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Baker LA, Bezdjian S, & Raine A (2006). Behavioral genetics: The science of antisocial behavior . Law and Contemporary Problems , 69 , 7–46. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Baker LA, Tuvblad C, Reynolds C, Zheng M, Lozano DI, & Raine A (2009). Resting heart rate and the development of antisocial behavior from age 9–14: Genetic and environmental influences . Development and Psychopathology , 21 , 939–960. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Banks SJ, Eddy KT, Angstadt M, Nathan PJ, & Phan KL (2007). Amygdala–frontal connectivity during emotion regulation . Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience , 2 , 303–312. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Beach SRH, Brody GH, Todorov AA, Gunter TD, & Philibert RA (2011). Methylation at 5HTT mediates the impact of child sex abuse on women’s antisocial behavior: An examination of the Iowa adoptee sample . Psychosomatic Medicine , 73 , 83–87. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Beaver KM, Wright JP, DeLisi M, Walsh A, Vaughn MG, Boisvert D, & Vaske J (2007). A gene x gene interaction between DRD2 and DRD4 is associated with conduct disorder and antisocial behavior in males . Behavioral and Brain Functions , 3 , 30. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bechara A, & Damasio AR (2005). The somatic marker hypothesis: A neural theory of economic decision . Games and Economic Behavior , 52 , 336–372. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bjork JM, Chen G, & Hommer DW (2012). Psychopathic tendencies and mesolimbic recruitment by cues for instrumental and passively obtained rewards . Biological Psychology , 89 , 408–415. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Blair RJ (2007). The amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex in morality and psychopathy . Trends in Cognitive Sciences , 11 , 387–392. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Boutwell BB, & Beaver KM (2008). A biosocial explanation of delinquency abstention . Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health , 18 , 59–74. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Boutwell BB, Menard S, Barnes JC, Beaver KM, Armstrong TA, & Boisvert D (2014). The role of gene-gene interaction in the prediction of criminal behavior . Comprehensive Psychiatry , 55 , 483–488. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Brower MC, & Price BH (2001). Advances in neuropsychiatry: Neuropsychiatry of frontal lobe dysfunction in violent and criminal behaviour: A critical review . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry , 71 , 720–726. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Buckholtz JW, Treadway MT, Cowan RL, Woodward ND, Benning SD, Li R,... Smith CE (2010). Mesolimbic dopamine reward system hypersensitivity in individuals with psychopathic traits . Nature Neuroscience , 13 , 419–421. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Burt SA (2009). Are there meaningful etiological differences within antisocial behavior? A metaanalysis . Clinical Psychology Review , 29 ,163–178. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Byrd AL, & Manuck SB (2014). MAOA, childhood maltreatment, and antisocial behavior: Metaanalysis of a gene-environment interaction . Biological Psychiatry , 75 , 9–17. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Caspi A, McClay J, Moffitt TE, Mill J, Martin J, Craig IW,... Poulton R (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children . Science , 297 , 851–854. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Castillo R, Salguero JM, Fernandez-Berrocal P, & Balluerka N (2013). Effects of an emotional intelligence intervention on aggression and empathy among adolescents . Journal of Adolescence , 36 , 883–892. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Choy O, Farrington DP, & Raine A (2015). The need to incorporate autonomic arousal in developmental and life-course research and theories . Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology , 1 , 189–207. [ Google Scholar ]
• Choy O, Raine A, & Hamilton RH (2018). Stimulation of the prefrontal cortex reduces intentions to commit aggression: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, stratified, parallel-group trial . The Journal of Neuroscience , 38 , 6505–6512. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Choy O, Raine A, Venables PH, & Farrington DP (2017). Explaining the gender gap in crime: The role of heart rate . Criminology , 55 , 465–487. [ Google Scholar ]
• Conklin SM, Gianaros PJ, Brown SM, Yao JK, Hariri AR, Manuck SB, & Muldoon MF (2007). Long-chain omega-3 fatty acid intake is associated positively with corticolimbic gray matter volume in healthy adults . Neuroscience Letters , 421 , 209–212. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Coutlee CG, & Huettel SA (2012). The functional neuroanatomy of decision making: Prefrontal control of thought and action . Brain Research , 1428C , 3–12. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Critchley HD (2005). Neural mechanisms of autonomic, affective, and cognitive integration . The Journal of Comparative Neurology , 493 , 154–166. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• da Cunha-Bang S, Fisher PM, Hjordt LV, Perfalk E, Persson Skibsted A, Bock C,... Knudsen GM (2017). Violent offenders respond to provocations with high amygdala and striatal reactivity . Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience , 12 ( 5 ), 802–810. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Damasio H, Grabowski T, Frank R, Galaburda AM, & Damasio AR (1994). The return of Phineas Gage: Clues about the brain from the skull of a famous patient . Science , 264 , 1102–1105. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Darby RR, Horn A, Cushman F, & Fox MD (2018). Lesion network localization of criminal behavior . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 115 ,601–606. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Davidson RJ, & Irwin W (1999). The functional neuroanatomy of emotion and affective style . Trends in Cognitive Sciences , 3 , 11–21. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Delgado-Pastor LC, Perakakis P, Subramanya P, Telles S, & Vila J (2013). Mindfulness (Vipassana) meditation: Effects on P3b event-related potential and heart rate variability . InternationalJournal of Psychophysiology , 90 , 207–214. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Delisi M, Beaver KM, Vaughn MG, & Wright JP (2009). All in the family . Criminal Justice and Behavior , 36 , 1187–1197. [ Google Scholar ]
• Dick DM, Adkins AE, & Kuo SI-C (2016). Genetic influences on adolescent behavior . Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews , 70 , 198–205. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dotterer HL, Hyde LW, Swartz JR, Hariri AR, & Williamson DE (2017). Amygdala reactivity predicts adolescent antisocial behavior but not callous-unemotional traits . Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience , 24 , 84–92. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Eisenberg N (2000). Emotion, regulation, and moral development . Annual Review of Psychology , 51 , 665–697. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ferguson CJ (2010). Genetic contributions to antisocial personality and behavior: A meta-analytic review from an evolutionary perspective . The Journal of Social Psychology , 150 , 160–180. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fergusson DM, Boden JM, & Horwood LJ (2011). MAOA, abuse exposure and antisocial behavior: 30-year longitudinal study . British Journal of Psychiatry , 198 , 457–463. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ficks CA, & Waldman ID (2014). Candidate genes for aggression and antisocial behavior: A metaanalysis of association studies of the 5HTTLPR and MAOA- uVNTR . Behavior Genetics , 44 , 427–444. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fine C, & Blair RJR (2000). The cognitive and emotional effects of amygdala damage . Neurocase , 6 , 435–450. [ Google Scholar ]
• Focquaert F (2018). Neurobiology and crime: A neuro-ethical perspective . Journal of Criminal Justice . doi: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2018.01.001 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gao Y, Raine A, & Schug R (2012). Somatic aphasia: Mismatch of body sensations with autonomic stress reactivity in psychopathy . Biological Psychology , 90 , 228–233. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gao Y, Raine A, Venables PH, Dawson ME, & Mednick SA (2010). Association of poor childhood fear conditioning and adult crime . American Journal of Psychiatry , 167 , 56–60. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gao Y,Tuvblad C, Schell A, Baker L, & Raine A (2015). Skin conductance fear conditioning impairments and aggression: A longitudinal study . Psychophysiology , 52 , 288–295. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gard AM, Dotterer HL, & Hyde LW (2019). Genetic influences on antisocial behavior: Recent advances and future directions . Current Opinion in Psychology , 27 , 46–55. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gesch CB, Hammond SM, Hampson SE, Eves A, & Crowder MJ (2002). Influence of supplementary vitamins, minerals and essential fatty acids on the antisocial behaviour of young adult prisoners: Randomised, placebo-controlled trial . British Journal of Psychiatry , 181 , 22–28. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Geurts DEM, von Borries K, Volman I, Bulten BH, Cools R, &Verkes R-J (2016). Neural connectivity during reward expectation dissociates psychopathic criminals from non-criminal individuals with high impulsive/antisocial psychopathic traits . Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience , 11 , 1326–1334. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gillespie SM, Brzozowski A, & Mitchell IJ (2018). Self-regulation and aggressive antisocial behaviour: Insights from amygdala-prefrontal and heart-brain interactions . Psychology, Crime & Law , 24 , 243–257. [ Google Scholar ]
• Glenn AL, & Raine A (2014). Neurocriminology: Implications for the punishment, prediction and prevention of criminal behaviour . Nature Reviews Neuroscience , 15 , 54–63. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Glenn AL, Raine A, Yaralian PS, & Yang Y (2010). Increased volume of the striatum in psychopathic individuals . Biological Psychiatry , 67 , 52–58. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Glenn AL, & Yang Y (2012). The potential role of the striatum in antisocial behavior and psychopathy . Biological Psychiatry , 72 , 817–822. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Goldman D, & Rosser AA (2014). MAOA-environment interactions: Results may vary . Biological Psychiatry , 75 , 2–3. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gregory S, ffytche D, Simmons A, Kumari V, Howard M, Hodgins S, & Blackwood N (2012). The antisocial brain: Psychopathy matters . Archives of General Psychiatry , 69 , 962–972. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hare RD (2017). A person-centered approach to research on the nature and meaning of psychopathy-brain relations . Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging , 2 ,111–112. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Harlow JM (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head . The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal , 39 , 389–393. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Harlow JM (1868). Recovery from the passage of an iron bar through the head . Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society , 2 , 327–347. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hodzic S, Scharfen J, Ropoll P, Holling H, & Zenasni F (2018). How efficient are emotional intelligence trainings; A meta-analysis . Emotion Review , 10 , 138–148. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hosking JG, Kastman EK, Dorfman HM, Samanez-Larkin GR, Baskin-Sommers A, Kiehl KA, ... Buckholtz JW (2017). Disrupted prefrontal regulation of striatal subjective value signals in psychopathy . Neuron , 95 , 221–231.e4. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hubbard JA, McAuliffe MD, Morrow MT, & Romano LJ (2010). Reactive and proactive aggression in childhood and adolescence: Precursors, outcomes, processes, experiences, and measurement . Journal of Personality , 78 , 95–118. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hyde LW, Byrd AL, Votruba-Brzal E, Hariri AR, & Manuck SB (2014). Amygdala reactivity and negative emotionality: Divergent correlates of antisocial personality and psychopathy traits in a community sample . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 123 , 214–224. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hyde LW, Shaw DS, Murray L, Gard A, Hariri AR, & Forbes EE (2016). Dissecting the role of amygdala reactivity in antisocial behavior in a sample of young, low-income, urban men . Clinical Psychological Science , 4 , 527–544. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ishikawa SS, Raine A, Lencz T, Bihrle S, & LaCasse L (2001). Autonomic stress reactivity and executive functions in successful and unsuccessful criminal psychopaths from the community . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 110 , 423–432. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kellermann NP (2013). Epigenetic transmission of Holocaust trauma: Can nightmares be inherited? Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences , 50 , 33–39. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kiehl KA, & Hoffman MB (2011). The criminal psychopath: History, neuroscience, treatment, and economics . Jurimetrics , 51 , 355–397. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kim-Cohen J, Caspi A, Taylor A, Williams B, Newcombe R, Craig IW, & Moffitt TE (2006). Molecular Psychiatry , 11 , 903–913. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Knight DC, Smith CN, Cheng DT, Stein EA, & Helmstetter FJ (2004). Amygdala and hippocampal activity during acquisition and extinction of human fear conditioning . Cognitive, affective. & Behavioral Neuroscience , 4 , 317–325. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Korponay C, Pujara M, Deming P, Philippi C, Decety J, Kosson DS,... Koenigs M (2017). Impulsive-antisocial dimension of psychopathy linked to enlargement and abnormal functional connectivity of the striatum . Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging , 2 , 149–157. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• LaBar KS, Gatenby JC, Gore JC, LeDoux JE, & Phelps EA (1998). Human amygdala activation during conditioned fear acquisition and extinction: A mixed-trial fMRI study . Neuron , 20 , 937–945. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Latvala A, Kuja-Halkola R, Almqvist C, Larsson H, & Lichtenstein P (2015). A longitudinal study of resting heart rate and violent criminality in more than 700000 men . JAMA Psychiatry , 72 ,971–978. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lee TMC, Chan SC, & Raine A (2008). Strong limbic and weak frontal activation in aggressive stimuli in spouse abusers . Molecular Psychiatry , 13 , 655–656. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ling S, Raine A, Gao Y, & Schug R (2018a). The mediating role of emotional intelligence on the autonomic functioning-psychopathy relationship . Biological Psychology , 136 , 136–143. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ling S, Raine A, Yang Y, Schug R, Portnoy J, & Ho M-HR (2018b). Increased frontal lobe volume as a neural correlate of gray-collar offending . Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency . doi: 10.1177/0022427818802337 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Liu J, & Raine A (2006). The effect of childhood malnutrition on externalizing behavior . Current Opinion in Pediatrics , 18 , 565–570. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lozier LM, Cardinale EM, VanMeter JW, & Marsh AA (2014). Mediation of the relationship between callous-unemotional traits and proactive aggression by amygdala response to fear among children with conduct problems . JAMA Psychiatry , 71 , 627–636. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Maren S (2001). Neurobiology of Pavlovian fear conditioning . Annual Review of Neuroscience , 24 , 897–931. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McNamara RK, & Carlson SE (2006). Role of omega-3 fatty acids in brain development and function: Potential implications for the pathogenesis and prevention of psychopathology . Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids , 75 , 329–349. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Megreya AM (2015). Emotional intelligence and criminal behavior . Journal of Forensic Sciences , 60 , 84–88. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mehta MA,Golembo NI, Nosarti C,Colvert E, Mota A, Williams SCR,... Sonuga-Barke EJS (2009). Amygdala, hippocampal and corpus callosum size following severe early institutional deprivation: The English and Romanian adoptees study pilot . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 50 , 943–951. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Meijers J, Harte JM, Meynen G, &Cuijpers P (2017). Differences in executive functioning between violent and non-violent offenders . Psychological Medicine , 47 ,1784–1793. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Morgan AB, & Lilienfeld SO (2000). A meta-analytic review of the relation between antisocial behavior and neuropsychological measures of executive function . Clinical Psychology Review , 20 , 113–136. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Murphy FC, Nimmo-Smith I, & Lawrence AD (2003). Functional neuroanatomy of emotions: A meta-analysis . Cognitive, affective. & Behavioral Neuroscience , 3 , 207–233. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Murray L, Shaw DS, Forbes EE, & Hyde LW (2017). Reward-related neural correlates of antisocial behavior and callous-unemotional traits in young men . Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging , 2 , 346–354. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Neugebauer R, Hoek HW, & Susser E (1999). Prenatal exposure to wartime famine and development of antisocial personality disorder in early adulthood . Jama , 282 , 455–462. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nitsche MA, & Paulus W (2000). Excitability changes induced in the human motor cortex by weak transcranial direct current stimulation . The Journal of Physiology , 527 , 633–639. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pardini DA, Raine A, Erickson K, & Loeber R (2014). Lower amygdala volume in men is associated with childhood aggression, early psychopathic traits, and future violence . Biological Psychiatry , 75 , 73–80. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Polaschek DLL, & Skeem JL (2018). Treatment of adults and juveniles with psychopathy In Patrick CJ (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy , Second Edition (pp. 710–731). New York: Guilford Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Portnoy J,& Farrington DP (2015). Resting heart rate and antisocial behavior: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis . Aggression and Violent Behavior , 22 , 33–45. [ Google Scholar ]
• Portnoy J, Raine A, Chen FR, Pardini D, Loeber R, & Jennings JR (2014). Heart rate and antisocial behavior: The mediating role of impulsive sensation seeking . Criminology; An interdisciplinary Journal , 52 , 292–311. [ Google Scholar ]
• Provencal N, & Binder EB (2015). The effects of early life stress on the epigenome: From the womb to adulthood and even before . Experimental Neurology , 268 ,10–20. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Raine A (2002). Annotation: The role of prefrontal deficits, low autonomic arousal, and early health factors in the development of antisocial and aggressive behavior in children . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 43 , 417–434. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Raine A (2013). The anatomy of violence: The biological roots of crime . New York: Pantheon. [ Google Scholar ]
• Raine A (2018a). Antisocial personality as a neurodevelopmental disorder . Annual Review of Clinical Psychology , 14 , 259–289. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Raine A (2018b). The neuromoral theory of antisocial, violent, and psychopathic behavior . Psychiatry Research . doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2018.11.025 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Raine A, Laufer WS, Yang Y, Narr KL, Thompson P, & Toga AW (2012). Increased executive functioning, attention, and cortical thickness in white-collar criminals . Human Brain Mapping , 33 , 2932–2940. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Raine A, Portnoy J, Liu J, Mahoomed T, & Hibbeln JR (2015). Reduction in behavior problems with omega-3 supplementation in children aged 8–16 years: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, stratified, parallel-group trial . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 56 , 509–520. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Raine A, Venables PH, & Williams M (1990). Relationships between central and autonomic measures of arousal at age 15 years and criminality at age 24 years . Archives of General Psychiatry , 47 , 1003–1007. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Raine A, & Yang Y (2006). Neural foundations to moral reasoning and antisocial behavior . Social, Cognitive, and Affective Neuroscience , 1 , 203–213. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Reynolds AJ, Mathieson LC, & Topitzes JW (2009). Do early childhood interventions prevent child maltreatment? Child Maltreatment , 14 ,182–206. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rhee SH, & Waldman ID (2002). Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies . Psychological Bulletin , 128 , 490–529. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ruxton CHS, Reed SC, Simpson MJA, & Millington KJ (2004). The health benefits of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: A review of the evidence . Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics , 17 , 449–459. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Salvatore JE, & Dick DM (2018). Genetic influences on conduct disorder . Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews , 91 ,91–101. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sapolsky RM (2004). The frontal cortex and the criminal justice system . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences , 359 , 1787–1796. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schiffer B, Muller BW, Scherbaum N, Hodgins S, Forsting M, Wiltfang J,... Leygraf N (2011). Disentangling structural brain alterations associated with violent behavior from those associated with substance use disorders . Archives of General Psychiatry , 68 , 1039–1049. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schoenthaler SJ (1983). Diet and crime: An empirical examination of the value of nutrition in the control and treatment of incarcerated juvenile offenders . International Journal of Biosocial Research , 4 , 25–39. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sergerie K, Chochol C, & Armony JL (2008). The role of the amygdala in emotional processing: A quantitative meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies . Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews , 32 , 811–830. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sharma N, Prakash O, Sengar KS, Chaudhury S, & Singh AR (2015). The relation between emotional intelligence and criminal behavior: A study among convicted criminals . Industrial Psychiatry Journal , 24 , 54–58. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sterzer P (2010). Born to be criminal? What to make of early biological risk factors for criminal behavior . American Journal of Psychiatry , 167 , 1–3. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Stetler DA, Davis C, Leavitt K,Schriger I, Benson K, Bhakta S,... Bortolato M (2014). Association of low-activity MAOA allelic variants with violent crime in incarcerated offenders . Journal of Psychiatric Research , 58 , 69–75. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Taber-Thomas BC, Asp EW, Koenigs M, Sutterer M, Anderson SW, &Tranel D (2014). Arrested development: Early prefrontal lesions impair the maturation of moral judgement . Brain , 137 ,1254–1261. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Teicher MH, Andersen SL, Polcari A, Anderson CM, Navalta CP, & Kim DM (2003). The neu- robiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment . Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews , 27 , 33–44. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tiihonen J, Rautiainen M-R, Ollila HM, Repo-Tiihonen E, Virkkunen M, Palotie A ... Paunio T (2015). Genetic background of extreme violent behavior . Molecular Psychiatry , 20 , 786–792. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tottenham N, Hare TA, Millner A, Gilhooly T, Zevin JD, & Casey BJ (2011). Elevated amygdala response to faces following early deprivation . Developmental Science , 14 , 190–204. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Umbach R, Raine A, & Leonard NR (2018). Cognitive decline as a result of incarceration and the effects of a CBT/MT intervention: A cluster-randomized controlled trial . Criminal Justice and Behavior , 45 , 31–55. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Vassos E, Collier DA, & Fazel S (2014). Systematic meta-analyses and field synopsis of genetic association studies of violence and aggression . Molecular Psychiatry , 19 , 471–477. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Viding E, Sebastian CL, Dadds MR, Lockwood PL, Cecil CA, De Brito SA, & McCrory EJ (2012). Amygdala response to preattentive masked fear in children with conduct problems: The role of callous-unemotional traits . American Journal of Psychiatry , 169 ,1109–1116. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Vitiello B, & Stoff DM (1997). Subtypes of aggression and their relevance to child psychiatry . Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry , 36 , 307–315. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wager TD, Waugh CE, Lindquist M, Noll DC, Fredrickson BL, & Taylor SF (2009). Brain mediators of cardiovascular responses to social threat . Neuroimage , 47 , 821–835. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Walsh A, & Yun I (2014). Epigenetics and allostasis: Implications for criminology . Criminal Justice Review , 39 , 411–431. [ Google Scholar ]
• Widom CS, & Brzustowicz LM (2006). MAOA and the “cycle of violence”: childhood abuse and neglect, MAOA genotype, and risk for violent and antisocial behavior . Biological Psychiatry , 60 , 684–689. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Woods AJ, Antal A, Bikson M, Boggio PS, Brunoni AR,Celnik P,... Knotkova H (2016). A technical guide to tDCS, and related non-invasive brain stimulation tools . Clinical Neurophysiology , 127 , 1031–1048. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yang Y, Narr KL, Baker LA, Joshi SH, Jahanshad N, Raine A, & Thompson PM (2015). Frontal and striatal alterations associated with psychopathic traits in adolescents . Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging , 231 , 333–340. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yang Y, & Raine A (2009). Prefrontal structural and functional brain imaging findings in anti-social, violent, and psychopathic individuals: A meta-analysis . Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging , 174 ,81–88. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yang Y, Raine A, Lencz T, Bihrle S, LaCasse L, & Colletti P (2005). Volume reduction in prefrontal gray matter in unsuccessful criminal psychopaths . Biological Psychiatry , 57 ,1103–1108. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yechiam E, Kanz JE, Bechara A, Stout JC, Busemeyer JR, Almaier EM, & Paulsen JS (2008). Neurocognitive deficits related to poor decision-making in people behind bars . Psychonomic Bulletin & Review , 15 , 44–51. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yuan P, & Raz N (2014). Prefrontal cortex and executive functions in healthy adults: A meta-analysis of structural neuroimaging studies . Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews , 42 , 180–192. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]

• Technical Support
• Find My Rep

You are here

Current Perspectives in Forensic Psychology and Criminal Behavior

• Curt R. Bartol
• Anne M. Bartol
• Description

See what’s new to this edition by selecting the Features tab on this page. Should you need additional information or have questions regarding the HEOA information provided for this title, including what is new to this edition, please email [email protected] . Please include your name, contact information, and the name of the title for which you would like more information. For information on the HEOA, please go to http://ed.gov/policy/highered/leg/hea08/index.html .

For assistance with your order: Please email us at [email protected] or connect with your SAGE representative.

SAGE 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, CA 91320 www.sagepub.com

Did not receive this inspection copy at all.

This book contains a range of contemporary articles to supplement and extend students' knowledge and understanding of issues relating to Forensic Psychology.

This book provides Foundation Degree learners that are new to criminology and forensic psychology a broad overview of the topic. It is a good introductory text to the links between criminology, psychology, forensics and the law. It demonstrates how psychological research and theory contribute to the understanding of criminal behaviour. it will support modules that critically examine criminal psychology

This is one of the books that provide beginners with a through introduction to the field of psychology and law. It offers a unique overview of the filed of forensic psychology. It synthesizes a wide variety of empirical studies and in so doing provides an evidence-based view of the subject matter.

NEW TO THIS EDITION:

• Thirty articles—new to this edition— provide cutting-edge research in police, legal and correctional psychology, as well as the psychology of criminal behavior and victimization.
• An introductory section opens the book with two articles that offer discussions of undergraduate and graduate training in forensic psychology along with a suggested list of core competences for education in the field.
• Police and public safety section focuses on current controversies such as false confessions, interrogation tactics, and eyewitness identification.
• Concise summaries of current research relating to violence risk assessment, child abduction, and correctional assessment and treatment are featured throughout.
• Articles specifically relating to juveniles offer discussions around the teenage brain, risk taking, and treatment for juvenile offenders.
• An updated victimology section includes topics of great interest to young adults such as hate crimes, intimate partner violence, and dating violence.
• References have been moved to the end of each article so that readers can easily locate sources for further research.

KEY FEATURES:

• The book's readings are edited journal articles published after 2000, most within the past five years.
• High-interest topics include false confessions, the reliability of children’s evidence, divorce and children’s adjustment, adolescent risk taking, on-line sex offenders, evaluating sex offenders, campus hate crimes, intimate partner violence, and correctional treatment.
• The importance of ethnic and racial sensitivity to successful practice and research is emphasized throughout the book.
• First-hand, research-based reports help readers understand the contributions of forensic psychology to civil and criminal justice.

Sample Materials & Chapters

Table of Contents

For instructors

Select a purchasing option.

• Skip to main content
• Skip to primary sidebar

IResearchNet

Criminal Behavior

When crime is genuinely driven by rational choice, the perpetrator commits the act for personal gain or satisfaction, with their behavior entirely under their control. However, the extent to which external factors may interfere with and undermine their capacity for free will becomes a critical question. This query has led to the development of numerous theories, each aiming to elucidate criminal behavior through specific factors. These theories generally fall into three categories: psychological, biological, and social. In reality, human behavior is the outcome of intricate interplays among numerous elements. Instead of providing an exhaustive summary of countless theories, this research paper concentrates on the principal factors influencing the manifestation and inhibition of criminal behaviors.

Social Factors in Criminal Behavior

The criminological literature offers an extensive array of environmental factors that are causally associated with criminal behavior. These factors encompass various aspects of development, society, and economics. For instance, poverty is frequently identified as a socioeconomic condition linked to criminal activity. The stress, frustration, and strain experienced by individuals lacking the financial means to fulfill their needs and desires through legitimate avenues can incline them toward criminal acts, unlike their affluent counterparts who have access to lawful resources. Notably, poverty can also entail nutritional deficiencies, which can exacerbate issues like learning disabilities and poor impulse control. These cognitive dysfunctions have been recognized as precursors to delinquency and eventual criminality. Consequently, one’s position in the social hierarchy, often measured by income level, can significantly contribute to criminal behavior by influencing brain function.

Growing up in an environment where parental violence is commonplace can mold children’s behavior, making them more prone to responding to their problems through violent means. While aggression and violence are distinct concepts, their correlation is evident. Psychologist Albert Bandura has underscored the role of social learning in the development of aggressive behavior. Exposure to a violent role model may serve as a catalyst for preexisting psychological and biological factors that predispose an individual to aggressive conduct. This phenomenon may elucidate why, in cases where a father assaults their mother, only one of the two sons grows up to exhibit similar behavior—additional factors render him more susceptible to the influence of the violent model. Conversely, the nonviolent son may exhibit resistance to this influence, possibly due to individual “protective” factors like a high IQ.

Extensive literature delves into the concept of a “cycle of violence,” where individuals who have experienced childhood abuse and neglect are predisposed to engage in violent behaviors in adulthood, perpetuating violence across generations. Similarly, research has explored the repercussions of childhood bullying, revealing that victims may later become aggressors themselves. Animal experiments have shown that exposure to inescapable threats can alter specific brain chemicals related to aggression and its inhibition. Consequently, once-docile animals may exhibit inappropriate and excessive aggression, often victimizing smaller, weaker animals, akin to becoming “playground bullies.” In essence, changes in the environment, such as exposure to inescapable threats, lead to biological changes that subsequently drive alterations in behavior. Empirical studies on child maltreatment have unveiled not only psychological problems but also structural and functional damage to the developing brain, potentially serving as an adaptive mechanism in dangerous environments. Nevertheless, these neurobiological effects tend to predispose individuals to various psychiatric conditions, aggressive behaviors, and stress-related illnesses. Resilient children, who thrive in high-risk conditions, often possess cognitive abilities, notably higher verbal intelligence, enabling them to adapt to stressful environments. Understanding the mechanisms underpinning resilience may reveal deficits in those who succumb to the adverse effects of disadvantaged or abusive childhoods, frequently resulting in delinquency and criminality.

It is important to note that the majority of impoverished individuals are not involved in criminal activities, and most individuals growing up in abusive households or experiencing bullying do not become criminals. This raises pertinent questions: What distinguishes those who engage in criminal behavior from others facing similar circumstances but remaining law-abiding? Furthermore, why do individuals who do not encounter such adversity commit crimes? The answers to these inquiries lie in the fact that social factors impact individuals differently. The psychological and biological constitution of an individual largely determines how external forces influence their behavior. While social factors undeniably play a significant role in criminal behavior, their effects depend on an individual’s psychological and biological makeup. This perspective does not downplay the influence of social factors but underscores that their impact varies based on individual differences. Ultimately, it is the individual who makes the choice to act, whether criminally or otherwise.

Psychological Factors in Criminal Behavior

Criminal courts place significant emphasis on the psychological aspects underpinning criminal behavior, primarily through the requirement of mens rea. However, research highlights the intricate relationship between an individual’s psychology and their biological foundation. The mind and brain share an inseparable connection, where an individual’s psychological state or mental status, whether at a crime scene or in a courtroom, involves intricate biological mechanisms.

Forensic psychologists often delve into the study of psychopathology, focusing on diseases and disorders of the mind. It’s crucial to note that the majority of individuals with mental disorders do not engage in criminal activities. Nevertheless, research indicates that rates of serious mental disorders among prison inmates are three to four times higher than those in the general population. While this disparity doesn’t necessarily imply a direct causative link between psychopathology and criminal behavior, it underscores the significance of mental disorders as potential contributing factors to criminal conduct.

The link between criminal behavior and mental disorders is intricate and multifaceted. Major mental disorders, such as psychosis, are characterized by false perceptions (hallucinations) and erroneous beliefs (delusions). Recent research has established a connection between schizophrenia, a type of psychosis, and an elevated risk of engaging in violent criminal activities. It’s important to note that individuals with psychosis are not typically prone to committing random acts of violence against strangers, as often portrayed in popular media. Instead, the violence is usually directed towards significant individuals in their lives.

Studies on hallucinations in individuals with schizophrenia have unveiled the neurological basis for these false perceptions. Auditory hallucinations, for instance, coincide with abnormal neuron activity in brain regions responsible for processing sound, even in the absence of external auditory stimuli. This neurological perspective enables researchers to ask more focused questions, such as why specific brain regions misfire without external stimuli, rather than vague inquiries like, “Why do schizophrenics hear voices?” Consequently, the impetus for violence in a person with schizophrenia, when driven by voices commanding harm, seems to stem from aberrant neural activity.

Among the various mental disorders recognized by clinicians and researchers, the majority do not fall under the category of psychoses. Instead, they encompass disorders related to personality, impulse control, and similar traits. Psychopathy, a subtype of personality disorder, manifests as a combination of specific affective, interpersonal, and socially deviant behaviors. While psychopaths constitute only around 1% of the general population, they are estimated to represent approximately 25% of the prison population. The nature of psychopathy, marked by a lack of remorse for antisocial actions and a deficit in emotional empathy for those whose rights are violated, makes psychopaths particularly well-suited for criminal activities. While not all psychopaths engage in criminal behavior (many still exhibit behaviors disregarding consideration for others), those who do tend to have significantly higher rates of recidivism compared to non-psychopathic offenders.

Despite the distinction between psychopathy and psychosis, psychopaths exhibit dysfunctional neurobiological mechanisms related to emotions, cognitions, thoughts, and attitudes. According to psychologist Robert Hare, genetic and other biological factors contribute to the deviant personality structure of psychopaths, while environmental influences may shape how the disorder manifests in their behavior. Advanced imaging techniques like positron emission tomography and single-photon-emission computed tomography scans have identified specific brain regions that function abnormally in violent psychopaths. Notably, the prefrontal cortex, a part of the frontal lobes responsible for rational decision-making and impulse control, often appears underaroused in psychopaths, rendering it ineffective in managing emotional impulses. This underarousal of the prefrontal cortex can lead to impulsive behaviors, including criminal acts.

Cognitive abilities play a substantial role in criminal behavior. When IQ is used as a measure of intelligence, research consistently shows that offenders tend to have lower scores compared to non-offenders. Individuals with lower intellectual abilities often struggle with delaying gratification, controlling their impulses, and understanding alternative ways to achieve their desires. Significant intellectual impairment can reduce inhibitions against causing harm because individuals may lack an understanding of the wrongfulness of their actions. While environmental factors can influence the development and expression of cognitive abilities, research indicates that there is a significant hereditary component to these traits.

The concept of emotional intelligence holds promise for a more comprehensive understanding of chronic criminality. Individuals with low emotional intelligence, who have limited insight into their own behavior and lack empathy toward others, are less inhibited when it comes to violating the rights of others. Brain injury, particularly to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, has been associated with the onset of reckless and antisocial behavior, including violence, without experiencing remorse. This suggests that specific frontal lobe functions related to moral judgment are impaired in chronic offenders.

A psychoanalytic perspective highlights the often-neglected role of traumatic events during early childhood in the mainstream literature on criminal behavior. In the context of twenty-first-century technology, Freudian constructs can be reexamined and recast as specific neurobiological factors. For instance, Freud’s concept of the id, responsible for generating unconscious and primitive urges, may correspond to the limbic system, which includes brain structures involved in basic emotions, motivation, and memory. The ego, representing the rational aspect of personality that mediates the self-centered demands of the id, could be associated with the development of the frontal lobes during childhood. This rational component negotiates with the emotional and impulsive id.

Furthermore, Freud’s superego, representing the moral aspect of personality, may partially reside in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Damage to this brain region has been linked to remorseless antisocial behavior. Reinterpreting Freudian constructs in this neurobiological manner does not negate their validity but rather provides them with the potential for empirical validation.

It is essential to recognize that when discussing disordered mental states or mental diseases, we must also consider the underlying neurobiological processes. Regardless of the psychological issue at hand, it is no longer possible to discuss the psychological factors associated with criminal behavior without simultaneously addressing the biological factors. These elements are inextricably intertwined and must be considered together in understanding criminal behavior.

Biological Factors in Criminal Behavior

Biological factors play a crucial role in mediating the numerous social and psychological factors that increase the risk of criminal behavior.

Optimal brain function relies on a proper diet. Complex carbohydrates are broken down into glucose, which serves as the brain’s fundamental fuel. Various nutrients are involved in converting glucose into energy, and a deficiency in any of these essential nutrients compromises brain function, reducing available energy. The frontal lobes of the brain, responsible for rational thinking, behavior organization, and emotional impulse moderation, require twice the energy compared to more primitive brain regions. Depletion of energy levels impairs higher functions, allowing uninhibited lower brain activity. Consequently, emotions can dominate our behavior when energy levels are low. Malnutrition can impair cognitive function, making antisocial and aggressive behaviors more likely.

Among diagnosed illnesses associated with violent behavior, substance abuse ranks highest. Alcohol, for example, disinhibits individuals, leading to domestic violence, aggravated assault, murder, and rape, as evident in police reports. Substance abuse has a particularly detrimental impact on individuals with preexisting mental disorders, exacerbating their dysfunction. Alcohol itself does not cause violent behavior but can trigger violence in those already prone to it due to other factors.

Exposure to environmental toxic agents such as pesticides and lead can delay or impair intellectual development, affecting behavior and its regulation. Teratogens, which interfere with normal embryonic development, play a crucial role in predisposing some individuals to a life of crime. The consequences of cognitive deficits and behavioral issues resulting from factors like prenatal exposure to drugs and alcohol are well-documented in the literature.

Neurotransmitters play a critical role in conducting electrochemical impulses within and between regions of the brain, as well as throughout the body. Imbalances in neurotransmitter systems have been linked to numerous psychiatric disorders. One such neurotransmitter, serotonin, plays a vital role in regulating emotional states. Laboratory experiments have shown that lowering serotonin levels can lead to impulsive and aggressive behavior. The observation that childhood abuse and neglect can result in permanently reduced serotonin levels is significant for understanding the origins of violence.

Hormones, like neurotransmitters, function in a similar manner but are released into the bloodstream rather than between neurons. Abnormally high levels of circulating testosterone, a sex hormone associated with the drive to dominate and compete, have been linked to excessive aggression. Instances of “roid rage” in bodybuilders who use anabolic steroids and exhibit extreme and uncontrollable violence illustrate this effect. Research on stress hormones, such as low levels of salivary cortisol correlating with severe and persistent aggression, underscores the importance of hormonal contributions to criminal behavior.

Studies on skin conductance, heart rate, and brainwave activity have connected low arousal to criminal behavior. In fact, in young children, these psychophysiological conditions have been reported to accurately predict later delinquency. Collectively, these studies suggest that the brains of chronic offenders function differently. As we continue to identify factors associated with criminal behavior, we grapple with a critical question: To what extent are these factors genetically determined?

A range of methodologies, including studies involving twins and adoptees, chromosomal abnormalities, and DNA polymorphisms, have been utilized to investigate the role of genetic factors in criminal behavior and aggression. While the discovery of a “crime gene” is not expected, it is evident that certain genes code for neurochemicals associated with various behaviors. For instance, a specific, though rare, mutation has been identified in a gene responsible for an enzyme affecting the levels of specific neurotransmitters in the brain. This mutation has been linked to a predisposition toward impulsive and excessive aggression and violence in affected individuals within a family.

Behavioral genetics studies provide support for the notion that aggressive behavior has a moderate heritable component. Aggressive behaviors are advantageous for males of a species as they compete for territory and mates. Evolutionary psychology suggests that traits promoting reproductive success are selected and passed down through generations. Primatologist Ronald Nadler argues that sexual aggression is inherent in the behavioral repertoire of great apes, our close biological relatives. Human males, driven by their procreative instincts, may have a natural inclination to seek multiple partners, increasing the chances of species survival and gene transmission. However, most males do not engage in rape, largely due to socialization. Rapists are individuals who have not been effectively socialized against such behavior. This example illustrates how specific psychosocial risk factors, such as low intelligence, can elevate the likelihood of criminal and violent conduct, such as rape.

The long-standing tradition of viewing crime as a product of voluntary actions, unaffected by aberrant psychological or biological processes, is being challenged. Ultimately, it may be psychologist Adrian Raine’s bold conceptualization of criminality as a clinical disorder that aligns best with emerging knowledge. Embracing this perspective would necessitate a reevaluation of our concepts of crime, punishment, and treatment. If criminal behavior, particularly impulsive violent behavior, is inherently pathological, it holds far-reaching implications. Courts are wise to exercise caution in their determinations of culpability. As behavioral science research and technology advance, it is likely that the growing body of data will, over time, provide persuasive insights.

References:

• Hare, R. D. (1993). Without conscience: The disturbing world of the psychopaths among us. New York: Pocket Books.
• Raine, A. (1993). The psychopathology of crime: Criminal behavior as a clinical disorder. New York: Academic Press.
• Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9(3), 185-211.
• Strueber, D., Lueck, M., & Roth, G. (2006, December). The violent brain. Scientific American, 20-27.
• Teicher, M. H. (2002, March). Scars that won’t heal: The neurobiology of child abuse. Scientific American, 68-75.
• Widom, C. S. (1989). The cycle of violence. Science, 244, 160-166.

Real Policing: An Exploration In Police Legitimacy

• Published: 14 May 2024

Cite this article

• George Charles Klein   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4024-6844 1  

32 Accesses

Explore all metrics

The police require legitimacy in order to function. It is argued that this legitimacy can be attained through procedural justice; that is, fairness. An ethnographic study of street-level policing was undertaken to explore this idea. From this study issues embedded in policing emerged (discretion, threat, and cynicism). Broader issues also emerged. For example, officers function as street-level bureaucrats. However, officers suffer from extreme stress and suicide. Also, officers feel they handle society’s “dirty work.” In employing procedural justice, officers do not usually impose their will on citizens. Rather, they negotiate an acceptable outcome in most situations. However, outside influences impinge on the police.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Legitimacy and Its Critiques – A Cautionary Note

Introduction: Twenty-First-Century Policing—Between Evidence-Based Practice and Reflexivity

Policing the Gaps: Legitimacy, Special Obligations, and Omissions in Law Enforcement

The researcher collected this data while serving as a part-time police officer. The researcher observed, or was involved in, all of these incidents. Therefore, one might say that this is a study of “real policing.”

The author was not present when the incident occurred. However, afterwards, the author discussed it with those who were involved. It is described below.

Much of the police literature focuses on “police culture.” The author, who was originally trained as an anthropologist, finds such a notion to be wrong-headed. Police researchers, who are trained social scientists, should know better. Culture can be defined as the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, and customs acquired by member of a society. Or, simply, the lifeway of a people (Voget 1973 , p. 2-3; Durbin 1973 , p. 449). The Inuit (Eskimo) of the Arctic, are a culture or a people. The Zulu of southern Africa, are a culture or a people. The Gururumba of New Guinea, are a culture or a people. The police, however, are not a culture or a people. Rather, they are a subculture of American (U.S.) society.

Early in his career, an officer was in a quandary about when to issue traffic citations for speeding. He asked his training officer for advice. The training officer said: “If they are going 5 miles over the limit, I usually give them a pass. If they are 10 miles over the limit, I listen to their story. If they are 15 miles over, I write everybody.”.

“I like that,” the officer said, “it’s fair .”.

Van Maanen ( 1978 ) quotes one officer as saying that his job consists of “asshole control.”.

Van Maanen ( 1978 ) describes patrol officers as “clerks in a patrol car.” They deal with an “infinite set of activities.” This includes dog catching, first-aid, assisting elderly citizens, breaking up family fights, finding lost children, directing traffic, and pursuing fleeing felons. In interacting with civilians, officers place people into three categories:

“suspicious persons” (who may have committed serious offenses);

“know nothings” (in Belleville, these people were derisively called, “citizens”);

“assholes” (those people who defy police authority).

These are the officer’s words, but the author’s acronym (Klein 2006 , p. 152).

Critics of the police, including the author, point out that from 2014 until 2023, police officers killed between 1,000 and 1,250 persons per year. However, this is in response to an estimated 240 million calls (NENA  2023 ; The Washington Post 2019 ; Mapping Police Violence 2023 ; Klein 2019 , 2023 ).

Abdollahi M (2002) Understanding Police Stress Research. J Forensic Psychol Pract 2:1–24. https://doi.org/10.1300/J158v02n02-01

Article   Google Scholar  

ACLED (2020) US Crisis Monitor Release Full Data for Summer 2020. https://acledata.com/2020/08/31/us-crisis-monitor-release-full-data-for-summer-2020/

Bailey H (2021) Former Police Officer Derek Chauvin Found Guilty of Murder in George Floyd Death. In: The Washington Post . April 20. Accessed 21 Apr 2021. washingtonpost.com. https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/ex-police-officer-derek-chauvin-found-guilty-of-georgefloyd-murder/2021/04/20/1dbd3ba-a21d-11eb-a7ee-949c574a09cc_story.html

Baker A (2015a) A Trip Abroad to Study Policing Without Guns. In: The New York Times .  December 12.  https://www.nytimes.com

Baker A (2015b) On Patrol Scottish Officers Rely on Important Tool: Banter. In: The New York Times. December 11. https://www.nytimes.com

Baker A (2015c) U.S. Police Leaders, Visiting Scotland, Get Lessons on Avoiding Deadly Force. In: The New York Times. December 11.  https://www.nytimes.com

Ballenger J et al (2010) Patterns and Predictors of Alcohol Use in Male and Female Urban Police. American Journal of Addiction 20:21–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.15210391.2010.00092.x

Banton M (1964) The Policeman in the Community. Basic

Google Scholar  

Barker J (1999) Danger, Duty, and Disillusion. Waveland

Bartone P (2013) A New Taxonomy for Understanding Factors Leading to Suicide in the Military. Int J Emerg Ment Health 15:299–305

PubMed   Google Scholar  

Baumgartner F, Epp D (2018) What 20 Million Traffic Stops Reveal About Policing and Race in America. Scholars Strategy Network

Bayley D (1994) Police For The Future. Oxford University Press

Book   Google Scholar  

Bittner E (1967a) Police Discretion in Emergency Apprehension of Mentally Ill Persons. Soc Probl 14:278–292. https://doi.org/10.2307/799150

Bittner E (1967b) Police on Skid Row: A Study of Peace Keeping. Am Sociol Rev 32(5):699–715. https://doi.org/10.2307/2092019

Bittner E (1970) The Functions of Police in Modern Society. GPO

Blue H.E.L.P. (2019) Law Enforcement Suicides. Accessed 1 Apr 2020. bluehelp.org. https://bluehelp.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/2016-to-2019.pdf

Bogel-Burroughs N (2021) Prosecutors Say Derek Chauvin Knelt on George Floyd’s Neck for 9 Minutes 29 Seconds, Longer Than Initially Reported. In: The New York Times .  March 30. nytimes.com. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/30/us/derek-chauvin-george-floyd-kneel-9-minutes-29-seconds.html

Boxerman A (2023) U.K. Police Officers to Be Charged With Murder in Shooting of Black Man. In: The New York Times .  September 20. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/20/world/europe/uk-police-murder-charges-chris-kaba.html

Bradford B et al (2013a) What Price Fairness When Security is at Stake? Police Legitimacy in South Africa. Regul Gov 8(2). https://doi.org/10.1111/rego.12012

Bradford B, Jackson J, Hough M (2013b) Police Legitimacy in Actions: Lessons from Theory and Practice. In: Reisig M, Kane K (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Police and Policing. Oxford University Press

Chopko B, Palmieri P, Adams R (2015) Critical incident history questionnaire replication: frequency and severity of trauma exposure among officers from small and midsize police agencies. J Trauma Stress 28(2). https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21996

Clay-Williams R et al (2018) Collaboration in a Competitive Healthcare System: Negotiation 101 for Clinicians. J Health Organ Manag 32:262–278. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHOM-12-2017-0333

Crank J (2004) Understanding Police Culture, 2nd Ed. Anderson

Cumming E, Cumming I, Eddell L (1965) Policeman as philosopher, guide, and friend. Soc Forces 12:276–286. https://doi.org/10.2307/798933

Dai M, Frank J, Sun I (2011) Procedural justice during police-citizen encounters: the effects of process-based policing on citizen compliance and demeanor. J Crim Just 39:159–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crimjus.2011.01.004

Davey J et al (2001) It Goes with the Job. Drugs 8(2):141–149. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/096876301300101889

Devlin K (2023) Less Than Half of Public Trust Police in Wake of Scandal, New Poll Shows-and It’s Not Just Scandal-Hit Met. In: Independent .  April 6. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/public-trust-police-scandals-poll-b2315537.html

Durbin M (1973) Cognitive Anthropology. In: Honigman J (ed) Handbook of Social and Cultural Anthropology. Rand McNally, pp 447–478

Fassin D (2013) Enforcing Order. Polity/Wiley

Gersons B (1989) Patterns of PTSD among police officers following shooting incidents: a two-dimensional model and treatment implications. J Trauma Stress 2:247–257. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00976230

Gilson L (2015) Lipsky’s Street Level Bureaucracy. In: Page E, Lodge M, Ballor S (eds) Oxford Handbook of the Classics of Public Policy. Oxford University Press

Glaser B, Strauss A (1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Aldine

Grillo I (2011) El Narco. Bloomsbury

Hammersley M (2006) Ethnography: Problems and Prospects. Ethnogr Educ 1(1):3–14. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17457820500512697

Heyman M, Dill J, Douglas R (2018) The Ruderman White Paper on Mental Health and Suicide of First Responders. Ruderman Family Foundation.  https://rudermanfoundation.org/advocacy-media/white-papers

Hill E et al (2020) Updated. How George Floyd Was Killed in Police Custody. In: The New York Times .  November 5. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/31/us/george-floyd-investigation.html

Jackson J, Bradford B (2010) Police Legitimacy: A Conceptual Review. September 30. ssrn.com. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1684507

Klein GC (2006) You Can Not Negotiate Everything: Or the Times They Are A Changin’. Journal of Police Crisis Negotiations 6(2):17–48. https://doi.org/10.1300/j173v06n02_03

Klein GC (2023) Street Cop. Routledge

Klein GC (2009) Law and the Disordered. University Press of America

Klein GC (2019) The Militarization of the Police? Cognella

Klinger D (2002) Police Responses to Officer-Involved Shootings . In: National Criminal Justice Reference Service. https://ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/192285.pdf

Klinger D (2006) Police Response to Officer-Involved Shootings. NIJ Journal 253:21–24 . https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/police-responses-officer-involved-shootings

Leiter M, Maslach C (2016) Latent Burnout Profiles: A New Approach to Understanding the Burnout Experience. Burn Res 3(4):89–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burn.2016.09.001

Lewis-Schroeder N et al (2018) Conceptualization, assessment, and treatment of traumatic stress in first responders: a review of critical issues. Harv Rev Psychiatry 26:216227. https://doi.org/10.1097/HRP.0176

Lindsay V, Shelley K (2009) Social and stress-related influences of police officers’ alcohol consumption. J Police Crim Psychol 24:87–92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-009-9048-9

Lipsky M (1969) Toward A Theory of Street-Level Bureaucracy. University of Wisconsin-Madison, Institute for Research on Poverty

Lipsky M (2010) Street-Level Bureaucracy, 2nd Edition. Russell Sage

Lloyd N (2023) Police Legitimacy “Hanging by a Thread” After Carrick Rape Case, Say Chiefs. In: Independent .  January 19. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/mark/rowley/dna-metropolitan-police-btp-police-officers-b2265124.html

Loftus B (2010) Police occupational culture: classic themes, Altered Times. Polic Soc 20(1):1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439460903281547

Lum CK, Wu X (2022) can we really defund the police? a nine-agency study of police response to calls for service. Police Q 25(3):255–270. https://doi.org/10.1177/10986111211035002

Maanen V (1974) Working the Street: A Developmental View of Police Behavior. In: Jacob H (ed) The Potential for Reform of Criminal Justice. Sage, pp 83–128

Mapping Police Violence (2023) Police Have Killed 1,191 People in the U.S. So far in 2023. https://mappingpoliceviolence.org

Maslach C, Leiter M (2016) Understanding the Burnout Experience: Recent Research and Its Implications for Psychiatry. World Psychiatry 15(2):103–111

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Maynard-Moody S, Musheno M (2003) Cops, Teachers, Counselors. University of Michigan Presss

Murphy E (2023) How Cocaine Is Made. Recovered .   https://recovered.org/stimulants/cocaine/how-cocaine-is-made

Nader L, Yngvesson B (1973) On Studying the Ethnography of Law. In: Honigman J (ed) Handbook of Social and Cultural Anthropology. Rand McNally, pp 883–922

NAMI (2019). Law Enforcement Officers. https://www.nami.org/Blogs/NAMI-Blog/April.2019

National Law Enforcement Memorial and Museum (2020) Causes of Law Enforcement Deaths. September 30. https://nieomf.org/memorial/facts-figures/officer-fatality-data/causesof-law-enforcement-deaths/

NENA (National Emergency Number Association) (2023) 911 Statistics. https://nena.org/page/911statistics#:~:text=An . estimated 240 million calls, more are from wireless devices

Niederhoffer A (1967) Behind the Shield. Doubleday

NYPD (New York City Police Department) (2023) Use of Force Report, NYPD

Paoline E III, Terrill W (2014) Police Culture. Carolina Academic Press

Police Executive Research Forum (2019a) An Occupational Risk: What every Police Agency Should Do To Prevent Suicide Among Its Officers

Police Executive Research Forum (2019b) Suicide By Cop: Protocol and Training Guide

Reiner R (1992) The Politics of the Police. University of Toronto Press

Rubenstein J (1973) City Police. Farrar, Strauss, and Giroux

Seeman M (1983) Alienation motifs in contemporary theorizing: the hidden continuity of classic themes. Soc Psychol Q 46:171–184. https://doi.org/10.2307/3033789

Strauss A et al (1964) Psychiatric Ideologies and Institutions. Free Press

Strauss A et al (1963) The Hospital and Its Negotiated Order. In: Friedson E (ed) The Hospital I Modern Society. Free Press

Swatt M, Gibson C, Piquero N (2007) Exploring the utility of general strain theory in explaining problematic alcohol consumption by police officers. J Crim Just 35:596–611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crimjus.207.09.005

Tucker J (2015) Police officer willingness to use stress intervention services: the role of perceived organizational support (POS). Confidentiality and Stigma, International Journal of Emergency Mental Health and Human Resilience 17:304–314. https://doi.org/10.4172/15224821.1000163

Tyler T (2011) Trust and Legitimacy: Police in the USA and Europe. Eur J Criminol 8:254–266

Tyler T, Mentovich A (2011) Mechanisms of Legal Effect: Theories of Procedural Justice. Public Health Research Program. Beasley School of Law, Temple University

Tyler T (2003) Procedural Justice, Legitimacy, and the Effective Rule of Law. In: Tonry M (ed) Crime and Justice, vol 30. pp 4331–4505

Tyler T (2006) Psychological perspectives on legitimacy and legitimation. In: Annu Rev Psychol 57:375–400. Annual Reviews Press. https://doi.org/10.1146/annure.psych.57.102904.190038

Ungoed-Thomas J (2005) Executed: Anatomy of a police killing. In: Dispatch .  August 23. https://www.dispatch.co.za:80/2005/08/23/Foreign/amendez.html

UNODC (United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime) (2023) data UNODC: Drug Trafficking and Cultivation. https://dataunodc.un.org/sites/dataunodc.un.org/files/metadata_drug_trafficking_and_cultivation.pdf

Van Maanen JJE (1973) Working the Street: A Developmental View of Police Behavior. In: Working Paper #681–73. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1(1873)SWP0681–144511000.pdf

Van Maanen J (1978) The Asshole. In: Manning P, Van Maanen J (eds) Policing. Goodyear, pp 221–238

Violanti J et al (2019) Law enforcement suicide: a review. Policing 41(2):215–232. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-05-2017-0061

Violanti J et al (2012) Police suicide in small departments: a comparative analysis. Int J Emerg Ment Health 14:157–162. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4536806/

Violanti J et al (2017) Police stressors and health: a state-of-the-art review. Policing 40 : 642–656. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6400077/ . https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-062016-0097

Voget F (1973) The History of Cultural Anthropology. In: Honigman J (ed) Handbook of Social and Cultural Anthropology. Rand McNally, pp 1–88

Wacquant L (2009) Punishing the Poor. Duke University Press

Washington Post (2019) Fatal Force. https://www.washngtonpost.com/graphics/2019/national/police-shootings-2019/?nid=top_pb_signin

Weitzer R (2017) Theorizing racial discord over policing before and after ferguson. Justice Q 34(7):1129–1153. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2017.1362461

Willis P (1977) Learning to Labor. Columbia University Press

Wilson OW, McLaren RC (1992) Police Administration, 3rd edn. McGraw-Hill

Download references

The author received no funding for this research or the publication of this paper.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Oakton Community College, Des Plaines, Illinois, USA

George Charles Klein

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to George Charles Klein .

Ethics declarations

Informed consent.

This research was conducted while the author served as a police officer. Therefore, informed consent is not applicable.

Competing Interest

There are no competing interests in this research or in this publication.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Klein, G.C. Real Policing: An Exploration In Police Legitimacy. J Police Crim Psych (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-024-09676-9

Download citation

Accepted : 08 April 2024

Published : 14 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-024-09676-9

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Street-level policing
• Street-level bureaucracy
• Negotiation
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

by Michael Friedrich

As part of a new series profiling participants in SSRC’s Criminal Justice Innovation Fellowship program, Romaine Campbell talks about his research on police and prison policies. This is a cross-posting with  Arnold Ventures .

Recently, the Social Science Research Council (SSRC), with support from Arnold Ventures (AV), launched the Criminal Justice Innovation (CJI) Fellowship program , which supports early-career researchers who are exploring what works to make communities safer and the criminal justice system fairer and more effective. 

“These CJI fellows will spend the next three years investing in their own policy-relevant research, as well as conducting policy analyses for AV that will directly inform our work,” Jennifer Doleac , executive vice president of criminal justice at AV, says. “We are eager to know if particular policies and programs are working, and this group of researchers will figure that out. I’m thrilled to get to work with these brilliant, talented scholars.”

According to Anna Harvey , president of the SSRC, this new fellowship program will uniquely foster innovative and rigorous causal research on criminal justice policies. “By supporting ‘people, not projects,’ the CJI fellowships will give these exceptional young researchers the time and freedom to pursue novel and creative approaches to evaluating criminal justice policies and practices. We can’t wait to see what they produce,” she says. 

In part one of a new series profiling the CJI fellows, AV spoke with Romaine Campbell, a Ph.D candidate in economics at Harvard University whose work addresses racial disparities in the criminal justice system.

Romaine Campbell: Police Behavior and Community Safety

A labor economist by training, Campbell will produce research as a fellow through the CJI fellowship program over the next two years before joining the faculty at Cornell University’s Brooks School of Public Policy. His research will focus on how federal scrutiny impacts police behavior and community safety, as well as the effects of higher education in prison on the outcomes of people who are incarcerated, among other topics. 

Campbell, who is originally from the Caribbean, says that he has seen how rigorous empirical research can help to explain the things that are important for his community. “A lot of my work looks at how we can improve law enforcement in the United States,” he says. “Policing serves an important role in ensuring the public safety of communities, but increasingly we’re aware of the social costs that can sometimes come with policing. My work examines policies that can help balance the important work that officers do with trying to mitigate the harms that come out of the excesses of policing.”

In 2023, Campbell published a working paper on the results of federal oversight of policing in Seattle. Using administrative data from the Seattle Police Department, the paper found that federal oversight resulted in a 26% reduction in police stops in the city — mostly by reducing stop-and-frisk style stops. Importantly, that reduction had no impact on the rates of serious crime or other community safety measures. 

As part of the new fellowship, Campbell expects to expand his work on the impacts of police oversight. By working with other police departments across the country, he will explore how officers respond to federal investigations, how it affects their behavior, and what types of policing are actually effective for crime reduction. Some policymakers, Campbell notes, have expressed concerns that adding oversight to police departments causes them to pull back from policing, which can damage community safety. As such, policies are needed that reduce the harms of policing while also allowing officers to address serious crime and build trust with the communities they serve. “As our society considers the best ways to improve policing,” he says, “it’s going to be important to document the types of policies that can achieve this without having deleterious effects for communities.” 

Additionally, working in partnership with the Philadelphia District Attorney’s Office, Campbell and colleagues intend to explore the impact of Brady Lists — public-facing records of information about police misconduct, decertification, use-of-force reports, and other metrics — to understand how prosecutors use such information in charging decisions in their cases. 

Separately, Campbell and colleagues plan to launch a project to understand how the provision of higher education in prison affects short- and long-term outcomes of people who are incarcerated, especially their social and economic mobility. He will focus on Iowa, where agreements with the state’s department of corrections, department of education, and workforce development agency will provide him with the necessary data. 

Campbell says that rigorous research is important for decision-making about public policy in the criminal justice system. “When you operate in public policy spaces, you really want to build out evidence-based policy,” he explains. “We can all have our feelings and intuitions about what will happen when a policy goes into effect, but the gold standard should be to implement policies that are supported by data.”

Privacy Overview