what is history of research

History of Research

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Current clinical practice must be evidence-based. Evidence should, ideally, be based on research findings. A research process allows practitioners to justify existing practice and to develop new areas of practice. Practitioners involved in research must employ methodologies that are appropriate for the issue that they wish to address. They must also acknowledge the assumptions upon which their choice of methodology is based. Whatever research approach is chosen, the process must be transparent, rigorous, and systematic.

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Hall, J. (2020). History of Research. In: Ramlaul, A. (eds) Medical Imaging and Radiotherapy Research: Skills and Strategies. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37944-5_1

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This guide is an introduction to selected resources available for historical research.  It covers both primary sources (such as diaries, letters, newspaper articles, photographs, government documents and first-hand accounts) and secondary materials (such as books and articles written by historians and devoted to the analysis and interpretation of historical events and evidence).

"Research in history involves developing an understanding of the past through the examination and interpretation of evidence. Evidence may exist in the form of texts, physical remains of historic sites, recorded data, pictures, maps, artifacts, and so on. The historian’s job is to find evidence, analyze its content and biases, corroborate it with further evidence, and use that evidence to develop an interpretation of past events that holds some significance for the present.

Historians use libraries to

• locate primary sources (first-hand information such as diaries, letters, and original documents) for evidence
• find secondary sources (historians’ interpretations and analyses of historical evidence)
• verify factual material as inconsistencies arise"

( Research and Documentation in the Electronic Age, Fifth Edition, by Diana Hacker and Barbara Fister, Bedford/St. Martin, 2010)

This guide is meant to help you work through these steps.

Other helpful guides

This is a list of other historical research guides you may find helpful:

• Learning Historical Research Learning to Do Historical Research: A Primer for Environmental Historians and Others by William Cronon and his students, University of Wisconsin A website designed as a basic introduction to historical research for anyone and everyone who is interested in exploring the past.
• Reading, Writing, and Researching for History: A Guide for College Students by Patrick Rael, Bowdoin College Guide to all aspects of historical scholarship—from reading a history book to doing primary source research to writing a history paper.
• Writing Historical Essays: A Guide for Undergraduates Rutgers History Department guide to writing historical essays
• History Study Guides History study guides created by the Carleton College History Department

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This page reviews the history of research on Mesopotamian commentaries, from the earliest publications in the late 19 th century to the Cuneiform Commentaries Project . 1

Early History of Research

The first publications of cuneiform commentaries appeared in the foundational period of Assyriology. As early as 1866, E. Norris provided in 2 R , 44 (no. 7) CCP 3.1.u73 and 47 CCP 3.1.u72 autographs of two Nineveh commentaries, one astrological, the other commenting on several different texts. However, cuneiform studies were at that time still so much in their infancy that Norris, unaware of what the texts actually represented, characterized them simply as bilingual lists. Progress in the analysis of the genre was slow. But when C. Bezold, between 1889 and 1899, published his catalogue of cuneiform tablets found by the British excavators at Nineveh, he was already able to distinguish in his index a large number of “commentaries” from texts that were merely “explanatory lists” ( Bezold, 1889/1899 C. Bezold , Catalogue of the Cuneiform Tablets in the Kouyunjik Collection of the British Museum. Vol. I-V . British Museum Press, 1889. : 2098-2100). In an introductory work on Babylonian and Assyrian culture from 1903, Bezold C. Bezold , Ninive und Babylon . Velhagen & Klasing, 1903. “Besondere Hervorhebung verdienen ... die Kommentare ... Man hat solche Kommentare zu einigen Tafeln einer Serie von Omentexten und zu mehreren Stücken des großen alten astrologischen Werkes ... gefunden. Da von diesen Stücken selbst noch mehrere Fragmente in der Bibliothek [Assurbanipals] erhalten sind, so läßt sich nun Zeile für Zeile des Textes mit dem Kommentar vergleichen und ersehen, mit welchen Schwierigkeiten schon 2600 Jahre vor unserer Zeit die berufsmäßigen Erklärer jener alten astrologischen Sammlungen zu kämpfen hatten. Auch einige religiöse Texte wurden von den Assyrern mit erläuternden Bemerkungen versehen und zwar in der Weise, daß nur gelegentlich ein einzelnes Wort oder ein selteneres Wortzeichen eine Erklärung erhält, ähnlich wie das heute noch in den Bemerkungen zu unseren Schulausgaben der alten Klassiker geschieht” (Bezold, 1903: 136-37). also provided one of the earliest brief general descriptions of the genre. Another significant step forward was made when L. W. King, in his book on the Babylonian Epic of Creation, presented a full edition of an important text commentary alongside the text to which it referred ( King, 1902 L. W. King , The Seven Tablets of Creation. Or the Babylonian and Assyrian Legends Concerning the Creation of the World and of Mankind . Luzac, 1902. : 157-75). Additional autograph copies of commentaries, both from Nineveh and from Babylonian cities, were published in subsequent decades by C. Virolleaud ( ACh , 1905-1912 C. Virolleaud , L'Astrologie Chaldéenne: le livre intitulé "Enuma (Anu) ilu.Bel" . Librairie Paul Gauthner, 1910. ), T. Meek ( 1920 T. J. Meek , “ Some Explanatory Lists and Grammatical Texts ” , Revue d'Assyriologie , vol. 17, pp. 117-206, 1920. ), C. J. Gadd ( CT 41 = Gadd, 1931 C. J. Gadd , Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum. Part XLI . British Museum Press, 1931. : nos. 25-50), and many others.

Labat’s Commentaires

Gadd’s CT volume inspired what until 2011 remained the only monographic treatment of Mesopotamian text commentaries, R. Labat’s Commentaires assyro-babyloniens sur les presages ( Labat, 1933 R. Labat , Commentaires assyro-babyloniens sur les présages . Imprimerie-Librairie de l’Université, 1933. ), a book that offers editions of altogether twenty-two commentaries as well as an introduction that attempts to define the genre. Labat’s work deserves praise because of its pioneering character and many valuable insights, but its usefulness is limited by the small number of commentaries considered. Moreover, some of the author’s conclusions seem unjustified. When Labat claims, for example, that the commentaries “manifestent très rarement un effort intelligent d’interprétation” ( Labat, 1933 R. Labat , Commentaires assyro-babyloniens sur les présages . Imprimerie-Librairie de l’Université, 1933. : 22), his judgement may reflect more of the author’s own ability to understand the commentaries than their actual exegetical potential.

The Modern Era

With the exception of J. Krecher’s useful but brief entry on “Kommentare” in RlA 6 ( Krecher, 1980/1983 J. Krecher , “ Kommentare ” , Reallexikon der Assyriologie , vol. 6, pp. 188-191, 1980. Like Labat, Krecher pays comparatively little attention to the vast body of mukallimtu -commentaries on astrological and extispicy texts. ), there have been no comprehensive treatments of Mesopotamian commentaries since Labat’s book, but several important studies of individual commentaries and commentary groups have appeared. The number of commentaries available in form of autographs or editions has radically increased over the past decades, with the series Spätbabylonische Texte aus Uruk , authored by H. Hunger H. Hunger , Spätbabylonische Texte aus Uruk. Teil I . Gebr. Mann Verlag, 1976. and E. von Weiher E. von Weiher , Spätbabylonische Texte aus Uruk. Teil II . Gebr. Mann Verlag, 1983. E. von Weiher , Spätbabylonische Texte aus Uruk. Teil III . Gebr. Mann Verlag, 1988. E. von Weiher , Spätbabylonische Texte aus dem Planquadrat U 18 . Gebr. Mann Verlag, 1993. E. von Weiher , Spätbabylonische Texte aus dem Planquadrat U 18 . Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1998. and a number of publications by U. Koch(-Westenholz) ( 1999 U. Koch-Westenholz , “ The Astrological Commentary Šumma Sîn ina tāmartīšu Tablet 1 ” , Res Orientales , vol. 12, pp. 149-165, 1999. , 2000b U. Koch-Westenholz , Babylonian Liver Omens. The Chapters Manzāzu, Padānu and Pān Tākalti of the Babylonian Extispicy Series mainly from Aššurbanipal's Library . Museum Tusculanum, 2000. , 2005 U. S. Koch , Secrets of Extispicy. The Chapter Multābiltu of the Babylonian Extispicy Series and Niṣirti bārûti Texts mainly from Aššurbanipal's Library . Ugarit-Verlag, 2005. ) providing the bulk of the new material In addition, many astrological commentaries have been published in the BPO volumes authored by E. Reiner and D. Pingree: E. Reiner and Pingree, D. , Babylonian Planetary Omens. Part Two. Enūma Anu Enlil Tablets 50-51 . Undena Publications, 1985. E. Reiner and Pingree, D. , Babylonian Planetary Omens. Part Three . Styx, 1998. E. Reiner and Pingree, D. , Babylonian Planetary Omens. Part Four . Brill, Styx, 2005. . Particular attention has been paid to the hermeneutical techniques used in the commentaries ( Civil, 1974a M. Civil , “ Medical Commentaries from Nippur ” , Journal of Near Eastern Studies , vol. 33, pp. 329-338, 1974. , Cavigneaux, 1976 A. Cavigneaux , Die sumerisch-akkadischen Zeichenlisten. Überlieferungsprobleme . PhD thesis, 1976. : 151-160, Bottéro, 1977 J. Bottéro , “ Les noms de Marduk, l'écriture et la 'logique' en Mésopotamie Ancienne ” , in Essays on the Ancient Near East in memory of Jacob Joel Finkelstein , deJ. M. Ellis, Ed. Archon Books, 1977, pp. 5-28. , Cavigneaux, 1987 A. Cavigneaux , “ Aux sources du Midrash: L'herméneutique babylonienne ” , Aula Orientalis , vol. 5, pp. 243-255, 1987. , Limet, 1982 H. Limet , “ De la philologie à la mystique en Babylonie ” , in Studia Paulo Naster oblata II: Orientalia Antiqua , J. Quaergebeur, Ed. Peeters, 1982. , George, 1991 A. R. George , “ Babylonian Texts from the folios of Sidney Smith. Part Two: Prognostic and Diagnostic Omens, Tablet I ” , Revue d'Assyriologie , vol. 85, pp. 137-167, 1991. , Hunger, 1995 H. Hunger , “ Ein Kommentar zu Mond-Omina ” , in Vom Alten Orient zum Alten Testament. Festschrift für Wolfram Freiherrn von Soden zum 85. Geburtstag am 19. Juni 1993 , W. Dietrich and Loretz, O. , Eds. Butzon & Kevelaer, 1995, pp. 105-118. , Seminara, 2001 S. Seminara , La versione accadica del Lugal-e. La tecnica babilonese della traduzione dal sumerico e le sue "regole" . Dipartimento di Studi Orientali, 2001. : 546-48), and some authors have compared these techniques to those employed in rabbinical exegesis ( Lambert, 1954/1956 W. G. Lambert , “ An Address of Marduk to the Demons ” , Archiv für Orientforschung , vol. 17, pp. 310-321, 1954. : 311, Cavigneaux, 1987 A. Cavigneaux , “ Aux sources du Midrash: L'herméneutique babylonienne ” , Aula Orientalis , vol. 5, pp. 243-255, 1987. , Lieberman, 1987 S. J. Lieberman , “ A Mesopotamian Background for the So-Called Aggadic 'Measures' of Biblical Hermeneutics? ” , Hebrew Union College Annual , vol. 58, pp. 157-225, 1987. ). Less work has been done to illuminate the socio-cultural context of the commentaries ( Meier, 1937/1939b G. Meier , “ Kommentare aus dem Archiv der Tempelschule in Assur ” , Archiv für Orientforschung , vol. 12, pp. 237-246, 1937. and 1942 G. Meier , “ Ein Kommentar zu einer Selbstprädikation des Marduk aus Assur ” , Zeitschrift für Assyriologie , vol. 47, pp. 241-246, 1942. , George, 1991 A. R. George , “ Babylonian Texts from the folios of Sidney Smith. Part Two: Prognostic and Diagnostic Omens, Tablet I ” , Revue d'Assyriologie , vol. 85, pp. 137-167, 1991. , Frahm, 2004 E. Frahm , “ Royal Hermeneutics: Observations on the Commentaries from Ashurbanipal's Libraries at Nineveh ” , Iraq , vol. 66, pp. 45-50, 2004. ), but a number of studies of the milieu in which first millennium Babylonian and Assyrian scribes operated have paved the ground to tackle this issue in greater depth ( Parpola, 1983b S. Parpola , Letters from Assyrian Scholars to the Kings Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal, Part II: Commentary and Appendices . Butzon & Bercker, 1983. , Pongratz-Leisten, 1999 B. Pongratz-Leisten , Herrschaftwissen in Mesopotamien. Formen der Kommunikation zwischen Gott und König im 2. und 1. Jahrtausend v. Chr. The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, 1999. , Brown, 2000 D. Brown , Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology . Styx, 2000. , Frahm, 2002 E. Frahm , “ Zwischen Tradition und Neuerung: Babylonische Priestergelehrte im achämenidenzeitlichen Uruk ” , in Religion und Religionskontakte im Zeitalter der Achämeniden , R. G. Kratz, Ed. Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 2002, pp. 74-108. , Clancier, 2009 P. Clancier , Les bibliothèques en Babylonie dans le deuxième moitié du 1er millénaire av. J.-C. Ugarit-Verlag, 2009. ). Our understanding of the emergence of canonical texts in Mesopotamia, a phenomenon intimately linked to the birth of the commentary, has also received considerable attention in the past years ( Rochberg-Halton, 1984 F. Rochberg , “ Canonicity in Cuneiform Texts ” , Journal of Cuneiform Studies , vol. 36, pp. 127-144, 1984. , Finkel, 1988 I. L. Finkel , “ Adad-apla-iddina, Esagil-kin-apli, and the series SA.GIG ” , in A scientific humanist: studies in memory of Abraham Sachs , E. Liechty, Ellis, MdeJ. , Gerardi, P. , and Gingerich, O. , Eds. University Museum, 1988, pp. 143-159. , Veldhuis 2003 N. Veldhuis , “ Mesopotamian Canons ” , in Homer, the Bible, and Beyond. Literary and Religious Canons in the Ancient World , M. Finkelberg and Stroumsa, G. G. , Eds. Brill, 2003. , Heeßel, 2010a N. P. Heeßel , “ Neues von Esagil-kīn-apli. Die ältere Version der physiognomischen Omenserie alamdimmû ” , in Assur-Forschungen. Arbeiten aus der Forschungsstelle »Edition literarischer Keilschrifttexte aus Assur« der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften , S. M. Maul and Heeßel, N. P. , Eds. Harrassowitz, 2010, pp. 139-187. ).

Because no synthesis of the information gathered in these studies is available at present, recent works that analyze the history and typology of the commentary from a multi-disciplinary perspective have paid little attention to commentaries from Babylonia and Assyria. Assmann & Gladigow, 1995 J. Assmann and Gladigow, B. , Text und Kommentar . Fink, 1995. , the broadest and intellectually most stimulating recent treatment of the commentary tradition, with discussions of exegetical texts from Egypt, the classical world, Jewish, Christian, and Islamic tradition, India, China, and the West, ignores them altogether. Most, 1999 G. W. Most , Commentaries - Kommentare . 1999. includes an important article on cuneiform “etymography” by Maul S. M. Maul , “ Das Wort im Worte, Orthographie und Etymologie als hermeneutische Verfahren babylonischer Gelehrter ” , in Commentaries/Kommentare , G. W. Most, Ed. Göttingen: , 1999, pp. 1-18. , but it, too, fails to discuss the cuneiform commentaries.

Frahm’s Origins and the Cuneiform Commentaries Project

It took several more years, however, before the first comprehensive study of the corpus appeared. In 2011, Eckart Frahm, the Principal Investigator of the Cuneiform Commentaries Project , published his monograph Babylonian and Assyrian Text Commentaries: Origins of Interpretation , in the series Guides to the Mesopotamian Textual Record (Münster). The book, based on several years of research, provides a complete catalog of nearly 900 cuneiform commentaries scattered among museums and private collections around the world, discusses the scribes who copied and collected them, and analyzes the principal hermeneutical techniques, their self-designations, and their intertextual references.

Frahm’s study did not aim to publish large numbers of commentaries. In fact, it presents only two commentaries, one from Assyria ( Frahm, 2011 E. Frahm , Babylonian and Assyrian Text Commentaries. Origins of Interpretation . Ugarit-Verlag, 2011. : 384-396) and one from Babylonia ( Frahm, 2011 E. Frahm , Babylonian and Assyrian Text Commentaries. Origins of Interpretation . Ugarit-Verlag, 2011. : 396-404), in complete, annotated editions. But with its comprehensive catalog, the book provided a starting point for the more ambitious goal of editing all the commentaries in full, including those that have never been properly studied before. 2 Important studies on Mesopotamian commentaries have appeared after the publication of this monograph, especially Gabbay, 2012 U. Gabbay , “ Akkadian Commentaries from Ancient Mesopotamia and Their Relation to Early Hebrew Exegesis ” , Dead Sea Discoveries , vol. 19, pp. 267-312, 2012. and Gabbay, 2014 U. Gabbay , “ Actual Sense and Scriptural Intention: Literal Meaning and Its Terminology in Akkadian and Hebrew Commentaries ” , in Encounters by the Rivers of Babylon: Scholarly Conversations between Jews, Iranians, and Babylonians , U. Gabbay and Secunda, S. , Eds. Mohr Siebeck, 2014, pp. 335-370. .

The main goal of the Cuneiform Commentaries Project is to provide full editions of all known text commentaries from ancient Mesopotamia. As outlined in the section About the Project , the project started in Fall 2013. Eckart Frahm, Principal Investigator, and Enrique Jiménez, Postdoctoral Associate, have created an electronic database of all known commentaries and built a searchable website that makes the database available to a global audience. In cooperation with the Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus ( Oracc ), Frahm and Jiménez have also created online editions of several dozen commentary tablets and fragments. The available editions (50 as of January 2015) are accessible in the section Catalog of Commentaries . Editions of all remaining texts will be prepared and made available on the project’s website during the next few years.

• 1. The first paragraphs of this page have been adapted from E. Frahm , Babylonian and Assyrian Text Commentaries. Origins of Interpretation . Ugarit-Verlag, 2011. Pp. 4-6
• 2. Published reviews of E. Frahm’s Babylonian and Assyrian Text Commentaries: Origins of Interpretation include: Couto, 2013 É. Couto , “ Review of Frahm Babylonian and Assyrian Text Commentaries (GMTR 5) ” , Historiae , vol. 10, pp. 149-150, 2013. , Gertz, 2012 J. C. Gertz , “ Review of Frahm Babylonian and Assyrian Text Commentaries (GMTR 5) ” , Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft , vol. 124, pp. 137-138, 2012. , Glassner, In Press J. - J. Glassner , “ Review of Frahm Babylonian and Assyrian Text Commentaries (GMTR 5) ” , Archiv für Orientforschung , vol. 53, pp. 137-138, Submitted. , and Livingstone, 2012 A. Livingstone , “ Review of Frahm Babylonian and Assyrian Text Commentaries (GMTR 5) ” , Theologische Literaturzeitung , vol. 137, pp. 1179–1180, 2012. .

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Home » Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Historical Research

Definition:

Historical research is the process of investigating and studying past events, people, and societies using a variety of sources and methods. This type of research aims to reconstruct and interpret the past based on the available evidence.

Types of Historical Research

There are several types of historical research, including:

Descriptive Research

This type of historical research focuses on describing events, people, or cultures in detail. It can involve examining artifacts, documents, or other sources of information to create a detailed account of what happened or existed.

Analytical Research

This type of historical research aims to explain why events, people, or cultures occurred in a certain way. It involves analyzing data to identify patterns, causes, and effects, and making interpretations based on this analysis.

Comparative Research

This type of historical research involves comparing two or more events, people, or cultures to identify similarities and differences. This can help researchers understand the unique characteristics of each and how they interacted with each other.

Interpretive Research

This type of historical research focuses on interpreting the meaning of past events, people, or cultures. It can involve analyzing cultural symbols, beliefs, and practices to understand their significance in a particular historical context.

Quantitative Research

This type of historical research involves using statistical methods to analyze historical data. It can involve examining demographic information, economic indicators, or other quantitative data to identify patterns and trends.

Qualitative Research

This type of historical research involves examining non-numerical data such as personal accounts, letters, or diaries. It can provide insights into the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period.

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods are as follows:

• Archival research : This involves analyzing documents and records that have been preserved over time, such as government records, diaries, letters, newspapers, and photographs. Archival research is often conducted in libraries, archives, and museums.
• Oral history : This involves conducting interviews with individuals who have lived through a particular historical period or event. Oral history can provide a unique perspective on past events and can help to fill gaps in the historical record.
• Artifact analysis: This involves examining physical objects from the past, such as tools, clothing, and artwork, to gain insights into past cultures and practices.
• Secondary sources: This involves analyzing published works, such as books, articles, and academic papers, that discuss past events and cultures. Secondary sources can provide context and insights into the historical period being studied.
• Statistical analysis : This involves analyzing numerical data from the past, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends.
• Fieldwork : This involves conducting on-site research in a particular location, such as visiting a historical site or conducting ethnographic research in a particular community. Fieldwork can provide a firsthand understanding of the culture and environment being studied.
• Content analysis: This involves analyzing the content of media from the past, such as films, television programs, and advertisements, to gain insights into cultural attitudes and beliefs.

Data Analysis Methods

• Content analysis : This involves analyzing the content of written or visual material, such as books, newspapers, or photographs, to identify patterns and themes. Content analysis can be used to identify changes in cultural values and beliefs over time.
• Textual analysis : This involves analyzing written texts, such as letters or diaries, to understand the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period. Textual analysis can provide insights into how people lived and thought in the past.
• Discourse analysis : This involves analyzing how language is used to construct meaning and power relations in a particular historical period. Discourse analysis can help to identify how social and political ideologies were constructed and maintained over time.
• Statistical analysis: This involves using statistical methods to analyze numerical data, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends. Statistical analysis can help to identify changes in population demographics, economic conditions, and other factors over time.
• Comparative analysis : This involves comparing data from two or more historical periods or events to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can help to identify patterns and trends that may not be apparent from analyzing data from a single historical period.
• Qualitative analysis: This involves analyzing non-numerical data, such as oral history interviews or ethnographic field notes, to identify themes and patterns. Qualitative analysis can provide a rich understanding of the experiences and perspectives of individuals in the past.

Historical Research Methodology

Here are the general steps involved in historical research methodology:

• Define the research question: Start by identifying a research question that you want to answer through your historical research. This question should be focused, specific, and relevant to your research goals.
• Review the literature: Conduct a review of the existing literature on the topic of your research question. This can involve reading books, articles, and academic papers to gain a thorough understanding of the existing research.
• Develop a research design : Develop a research design that outlines the methods you will use to collect and analyze data. This design should be based on the research question and should be feasible given the resources and time available.
• Collect data: Use the methods outlined in your research design to collect data on past events, people, and cultures. This can involve archival research, oral history interviews, artifact analysis, and other data collection methods.
• Analyze data : Analyze the data you have collected using the methods outlined in your research design. This can involve content analysis, textual analysis, statistical analysis, and other data analysis methods.
• Interpret findings : Use the results of your data analysis to draw meaningful insights and conclusions related to your research question. These insights should be grounded in the data and should be relevant to the research goals.
• Communicate results: Communicate your findings through a research report, academic paper, or other means. This should be done in a clear, concise, and well-organized manner, with appropriate citations and references to the literature.

Applications of Historical Research

Historical research has a wide range of applications in various fields, including:

• Education : Historical research can be used to develop curriculum materials that reflect a more accurate and inclusive representation of history. It can also be used to provide students with a deeper understanding of past events and cultures.
• Museums : Historical research is used to develop exhibits, programs, and other materials for museums. It can provide a more accurate and engaging presentation of historical events and artifacts.
• Public policy : Historical research is used to inform public policy decisions by providing insights into the historical context of current issues. It can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of past policies and programs.
• Business : Historical research can be used by businesses to understand the evolution of their industry and to identify trends that may affect their future success. It can also be used to develop marketing strategies that resonate with customers’ historical interests and values.
• Law : Historical research is used in legal proceedings to provide evidence and context for cases involving historical events or practices. It can also be used to inform the development of new laws and policies.
• Genealogy : Historical research can be used by individuals to trace their family history and to understand their ancestral roots.
• Cultural preservation : Historical research is used to preserve cultural heritage by documenting and interpreting past events, practices, and traditions. It can also be used to identify and preserve historical landmarks and artifacts.

Examples of Historical Research

Examples of Historical Research are as follows:

• Examining the history of race relations in the United States: Historical research could be used to explore the historical roots of racial inequality and injustice in the United States. This could help inform current efforts to address systemic racism and promote social justice.
• Tracing the evolution of political ideologies: Historical research could be used to study the development of political ideologies over time. This could help to contextualize current political debates and provide insights into the origins and evolution of political beliefs and values.
• Analyzing the impact of technology on society : Historical research could be used to explore the impact of technology on society over time. This could include examining the impact of previous technological revolutions (such as the industrial revolution) on society, as well as studying the current impact of emerging technologies on society and the environment.
• Documenting the history of marginalized communities : Historical research could be used to document the history of marginalized communities (such as LGBTQ+ communities or indigenous communities). This could help to preserve cultural heritage, promote social justice, and promote a more inclusive understanding of history.

Purpose of Historical Research

The purpose of historical research is to study the past in order to gain a better understanding of the present and to inform future decision-making. Some specific purposes of historical research include:

• To understand the origins of current events, practices, and institutions : Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
• To develop a more accurate and inclusive understanding of history : Historical research can be used to correct inaccuracies and biases in historical narratives. By exploring different perspectives and sources of information, we can develop a more complete and nuanced understanding of history.
• To inform decision-making: Historical research can be used to inform decision-making in various fields, including education, public policy, business, and law. By understanding the historical context of current issues, we can make more informed decisions about how to address them.
• To preserve cultural heritage : Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage, including traditions, practices, and artifacts. By understanding the historical significance of these cultural elements, we can work to preserve them for future generations.
• To stimulate curiosity and critical thinking: Historical research can be used to stimulate curiosity and critical thinking about the past. By exploring different historical perspectives and interpretations, we can develop a more critical and reflective approach to understanding history and its relevance to the present.

When to use Historical Research

Historical research can be useful in a variety of contexts. Here are some examples of when historical research might be particularly appropriate:

• When examining the historical roots of current events: Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
• When examining the historical context of a particular topic : Historical research can be used to explore the historical context of a particular topic, such as a social issue, political debate, or scientific development. By understanding the historical context, we can gain a more nuanced understanding of the topic and its significance.
• When exploring the evolution of a particular field or discipline : Historical research can be used to explore the evolution of a particular field or discipline, such as medicine, law, or art. By understanding the historical development of the field, we can gain a better understanding of its current state and future directions.
• When examining the impact of past events on current society : Historical research can be used to examine the impact of past events (such as wars, revolutions, or social movements) on current society. By understanding the historical context and impact of these events, we can gain insights into current social and political issues.
• When studying the cultural heritage of a particular community or group : Historical research can be used to document and preserve the cultural heritage of a particular community or group. By understanding the historical significance of cultural practices, traditions, and artifacts, we can work to preserve them for future generations.

Characteristics of Historical Research

The following are some characteristics of historical research:

• Focus on the past : Historical research focuses on events, people, and phenomena of the past. It seeks to understand how things developed over time and how they relate to current events.
• Reliance on primary sources: Historical research relies on primary sources such as letters, diaries, newspapers, government documents, and other artifacts from the period being studied. These sources provide firsthand accounts of events and can help researchers gain a more accurate understanding of the past.
• Interpretation of data : Historical research involves interpretation of data from primary sources. Researchers analyze and interpret data to draw conclusions about the past.
• Use of multiple sources: Historical research often involves using multiple sources of data to gain a more complete understanding of the past. By examining a range of sources, researchers can cross-reference information and validate their findings.
• Importance of context: Historical research emphasizes the importance of context. Researchers analyze the historical context in which events occurred and consider how that context influenced people’s actions and decisions.
• Subjectivity : Historical research is inherently subjective, as researchers interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own perspectives and biases. Researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis.
• Importance of historical significance: Historical research emphasizes the importance of historical significance. Researchers consider the historical significance of events, people, and phenomena and their impact on the present and future.
• Use of qualitative methods : Historical research often uses qualitative methods such as content analysis, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis to analyze data and draw conclusions about the past.

Advantages of Historical Research

There are several advantages to historical research:

• Provides a deeper understanding of the past : Historical research can provide a more comprehensive understanding of past events and how they have shaped current social, political, and economic conditions. This can help individuals and organizations make informed decisions about the future.
• Helps preserve cultural heritage: Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage. By studying the history of a particular culture, researchers can gain insights into the cultural practices and beliefs that have shaped that culture over time.
• Provides insights into long-term trends : Historical research can provide insights into long-term trends and patterns. By studying historical data over time, researchers can identify patterns and trends that may be difficult to discern from short-term data.
• Facilitates the development of hypotheses: Historical research can facilitate the development of hypotheses about how past events have influenced current conditions. These hypotheses can be tested using other research methods, such as experiments or surveys.
• Helps identify root causes of social problems : Historical research can help identify the root causes of social problems. By studying the historical context in which these problems developed, researchers can gain a better understanding of how they emerged and what factors may have contributed to their development.
• Provides a source of inspiration: Historical research can provide a source of inspiration for individuals and organizations seeking to address current social, political, and economic challenges. By studying the accomplishments and struggles of past generations, researchers can gain insights into how to address current challenges.

Limitations of Historical Research

Some Limitations of Historical Research are as follows:

• Reliance on incomplete or biased data: Historical research is often limited by the availability and quality of data. Many primary sources have been lost, destroyed, or are inaccessible, making it difficult to get a complete picture of historical events. Additionally, some primary sources may be biased or represent only one perspective on an event.
• Difficulty in generalizing findings: Historical research is often specific to a particular time and place and may not be easily generalized to other contexts. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions about human behavior or social phenomena.
• Lack of control over variables : Historical research often lacks control over variables. Researchers cannot manipulate or control historical events, making it difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Subjectivity of interpretation : Historical research is often subjective because researchers must interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own biases and perspectives. Different researchers may interpret the same data differently, leading to different conclusions.
• Limited ability to test hypotheses: Historical research is often limited in its ability to test hypotheses. Because the events being studied have already occurred, researchers cannot manipulate variables or conduct experiments to test their hypotheses.
• Lack of objectivity: Historical research is often subjective, and researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis. However, it can be difficult to maintain objectivity when studying events that are emotionally charged or controversial.
• Limited generalizability: Historical research is often limited in its generalizability, as the events and conditions being studied may be specific to a particular time and place. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions that apply to other contexts or time periods.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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• Harvard Library
• Research Guides
• Faculty of Arts & Sciences Libraries

Library Research Guide for History

Getting what you need, general information.

• Newsletter February 2024
• Exploring Your Topic
• HOLLIS (and other) Catalogs
• Document Collections/Microfilm
• Outline of Primary Sources for History
• Finding Online Sources: Detailed Instructions
• Religious Periodicals
• Personal Writings/Speeches
• Oral History and Interviews
• News Sources
• Archives and Manuscripts
• Government Archives (U.S.)
• U.S. Government Documents
• Foreign Government & International Organization Documents
• French Legislative Debates/Documents
• State and City Documents
• Historical Statistics/Data
• GIS Mapping
• Public Opinion
• City Directories
• Policy Literature, Working Papers, Think Tank Reports (Grey Literature)
• Technical Reports (Grey Literature)
• Country Information
• Corporate Annual Reports
• US Elections
• Travel Writing/Guidebooks
• Missionary Records
• Reference Sources
• Harvard Museums
• Boston-Area Repositories
• Citing Sources & Organizing Research
• Newsletter January 2011
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• Newsletter October 2021
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• Exploring Special Collections at Harvard

Fred Burchsted & Anna Assogba

Research Librarians

We are always happy to give you a tour of Widener and an orientation to our catalog, HOLLIS, and our other resources. Our emails are below.

This guide is intended as a point of departure for research in history.  We also have a more selective guide with major resources only: Introductory Library Research Guide for History .

• Finding Primary Sources Online  offers methods for finding digital libraries and digital collections on the open Web   and for finding Digital Libraries/Collections by Region or Language .
• Online Primary Source Collections for History  lists digital collections at Harvard and beyond by topic

Please feel free to email us with questions. We can make an appointment for you to come in, and we can talk at length about your project.

• Anna Assogba ([email protected]) Research Librarian and Liaison to the Department of History, Lamont Library (With particular knowledge of Zotero and other citation management systems).
• Fred Burchsted  ([email protected]) Research Librarian and Liaison to the Department of History, Widener Library.

How can you get your hands/eyes on material?

HOLLIS is the center of the Library ecosystem. This is often the best first step to see if we have something. In HOLLIS, click on "Online Access" or open the record and scroll down to the "Access Options" section. Check the HOLLIS section of this guide for more guidance.

Browser Plugins for Library Access

Harvard Library Bookmark and Lean Library plugins can help you find out if we have access to books and articles online.

Off-Site Storage

Books and other materials stored in facilities not on Harvard's main campus. Request this material through HOLLIS:

• Select "Request Pick Up" in the Access section of the HOLLIS Record, then enter your Harvard Key.
• A drop down menu will allow you to choose delivery location. Sometimes there is a single delivery option. Submit your request.
• You will receive an email usually next business day (not weekends or holidays) morning. Item is usually ready for pick-up in mid-afternoon. 

Sometimes Offsite storage material is in-library use only. For Widener, this is the Widener secure reading room on the 1st floor (formerly the Periodicals Room). Most Offsite storage material is available for scanning via Scan & Deliver (see below). 

Scan & Deliver/Interlibrary Loan

Use Scan & Deliver/Interlibrary Loan to request PDFs of articles and book chapters from HOLLIS when you cannot get online access. Limit: 2 chapters from a book or 2 articles from a journal.

Interlibrary Loan

Request materials from other libraries via InterLibrary Loan :

• Some non-Harvard special collections may be willing and able to scan material (usually for a fee). Our Interlibrary Loan department will place the request and help with the cost (there is a cap).
• Contact the other repository to see if they're able to scan what you need. Get a price estimate for the material and the exact details (such as: Box 77 folder 4. This information is often available in Finding Aids).
• Fill in what you can (put in N/A if the field is inapplicable) with the price and other information in the Comments box.
• This will get the process going and ILL will get back to you if they need more information or to discuss the price.

BorrowDirect

Borrow Direct allows Harvard students, faculty, and staff to request items from other libraries for delivery to Harvard within 4 business days. If the item you need is not available, try searching our partner institutions' collections in BorrowDirect.

Purchase Request

If there are materials you'd like to see added to the library's collections, submit a purchase request and we will look into acquiring it. We can buy both physical and electronic copies of materials; specify if have a preference.

Special Collections

Special Collections are rare, unique, primary source materials in the library's collections. To access, look for "Request to Scan or Visit" in HOLLIS (to place a scanning request) or contact the repository directly. Most of our larger archival collections are able to provide scans.

Carrels at Widener Library

Graduate students and visiting scholars are eligible to have a carrel in the Widener Library stacks. Start the process with the  carrel request form . (If you do this right at the start of the semester, it may take a few weeks before you receive confirmation.) Materials from the Widener stacks, including non-circulating materials like bound periodicals, can be checked out to your carrel.

Ivy Plus Privileges

Our partnership with BorrowDirect allows physical access to libraries of fellow Ivy Plus institutions: Brown University, Columbia University, Cornell University, Dartmouth College, Duke University, Johns Hopkins University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Princeton University, Stanford University, University of Chicago, University of Pennsylvania, and Yale University.

Help with Digital Projects

The Digital Scholarship Group offers workshops and support to faculty, students, and staff interested in digital research methods.  See also   GIS Mapping Resources  and  Visualization Support .

• Other Subject Guides
• Current Awareness Resources

More guides are available via the  Harvard Library Research Guides site

Finding Book Reviews

Finding Dissertations and Theses

Finding Harvard Library's Unique or Distinctive Primary Sources: Original and Digital

Guide to Research in History of Art & Architecture

Library Research Guide for Book History

Library Research Guide for British Colonial and Foreign Relations Sources

Research Guide for Primary Sources on Civil Rights

Inter Libros: Research Guide for Classics, Byzantine, & Medieval Studies

Literary Research in Harvard Libraries

Library Research Guide for American Material Culture  (This is in an early stage of development)

Middle East and Islamic Studies Library Resources

Music 219r: American Music , Library Guide

Library Research Guide for HIST 1006: Native American and Indigenous Studies

Library Research Guide for the History of Science

Library Research Guide for History 97g: "What is Legal History ?"

Library Research Guide for U.S. Foreign Relations

Library Research Guide for Global History

Library Research Guide for HIST 2256: Digital Archives: Europe and European Empires

Library Research Guide for Educating for American Democracy

Library Research Guide for American Studies

Library Research Guide for Latin American Studies

Germanic Languages and Literatures

Slavic and Eurasian Studies at Harvard  (See Research Contacts at bottom of left hand column)

Library Research Guide for South Asian Studies

Library Research Guide for HIST 1037: Modern Southeast Asia

Research Guides at Other Institutions

Go to Google Advanced Search

• all of these words: Sociology library
• any of these words: guides research resources
• site or domain: edu  (or ac.uk for Britain, etc.)

To find new Harvard E-Resources.Go to  Cross-Search in Harvard Libraries E-Resources  and choose the Quick Set: New E-Resources. This operates oddly, you sometimes have to select one of the E-Resources displayed, then close the resulting page to see the whole list of new E-Resources. This list displays some but not all new E-Resources.

The following history library blogs list new history resources:

• Reviews in History
• University of Washington
• Next: Newsletter February 2024 >>
• Last Updated: May 13, 2024 1:49 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.harvard.edu/history

Harvard University Digital Accessibility Policy

•   [email protected]

Historical Associations

Professional associations and academic communities are often a good place to start for scholarly information and materials on methods and research.

• American Historical Association The professional and academic organization of academic historians, this organization has a wealth of information about careers in history as well as a directory of historians and historical programs
• H-Net: Humanities and Social Sciences Online H-Net "creates and coordinates Internet networks with the common objective of advancing teaching and research in the arts, humanities, and social sciences." Contains public discussion lists related to numerous disciplines.
• National Council on Public History The professional association for public historians, the NCPH serves practitioners by "building community among historians, expanding professional skills and tools, fostering critical reflection on historical practice, and publicly advocating for history and historians."
• Organization of American Historians Less focused on academic history, the OAH nonetheless provides quite a bit of information about the profession, jobs, and current topics in history.

Historical Research and Methods

Guides and major works.

The following is a list of works on Historical methods, philosophy, and subfields of history.

Writing Guide

A series of guides on reading, researching and writing history by Patrick Rael, professor of History at Bowdoin College can be found on this link

Source: Patrick Rael, Reading, Writing, and Researching for History: A Guide for College Students (Brunswick, ME: Bowdoin College, 2004).

Research Methods

The Shapiro Library subscribes to the SAGE Research Methods database, a resource designed for those who are doing research or who are learning how to do research. Methods and practices covered include writing research questions and literature reviews, choosing research methods, conducting oral histories, and more. 

• << Previous: Primary Sources
• Next: Citing Your Sources >>

Princeton Correspondents on Undergraduate Research

How to Write a History Research Paper

In my last post, I shared some tips on how to conduct research in history and emphasized that researchers should keep in mind a source’s category (transcript, court document, speech, etc.). This post is something of a sequel to that, as I will share some thoughts on what often follows primary-source research: a history research paper. 

1. Background Reading   The first step to a history research paper is of course, background reading and research. In the context of a class assignment, “background reading” might simply be course readings or lectures, but for independent work, this step will likely involve some quality time on your own in the library. During the background reading phase of your project, keep an eye out for intriguing angles to approach your topic from and any trends that you see across sources (both primary and secondary).

2. T hemes and Context Recounting the simple facts about your topic alone will not make for a successful research paper. One must grasp both the details of events as well as the larger, thematic context of the time period in which they occurred. What’s the scholarly consensus about these themes? Does that consensus seem right to you, after having done primary and secondary research of your own?

3. Develop an Argument  Grappling with answers to the above questions will get you thinking about your emerging argument. For shorter papers, you might identify a gap in the scholarship or come up with an argumentative response to a class prompt rather quickly. Remember: as an undergraduate, you don’t have to come up with (to borrow Philosophy Professor Gideon Rosen’s phrase) ‘a blindingly original theory of everything.’ In other words, finding a nuanced thesis does not mean you have to disprove some famous scholar’s work in its entirety. But, if you’re having trouble defining your thesis, I encourage you not to worry; talk to your professor, preceptor, or, if appropriate, a friend. These people can listen to your ideas, and the simple act of talking about your paper can often go a long way in helping you realize what you want to write about.

4. Outline Your Argument  With a history paper specifically, one is often writing about a sequence of events and trying to tell a story about what happened. Roughly speaking, your thesis is your interpretation of these events, or your take on some aspect of them (i.e. the role of women in New Deal programs). Before opening up Word, I suggest writing down the stages of your argument. Then, outline or organize your notes to know what evidence you’ll use in each of these various stages. If you think your evidence is solid, then you’re probably ready to start writing—and you now have a solid roadmap to work from! But, if this step is proving difficult, you might want to gather more evidence or go back to the thesis drawing board and look for a better angle. I often find myself somewhere between these two extremes (being 100% ready to write or staring at a sparse outline), but that’s also helpful, because it gives me a better idea of where my argument needs strengthening.

5. Prepare Yourself   Once you have some sort of direction for the paper (i.e. a working thesis), you’re getting close to the fun part—the writing itself. Gather your laptop, your research materials/notes, and some snacks, and get ready to settle in to write your paper, following your argument outline. As mentioned in the photo caption, I suggest utilizing large library tables to spread out your notes. This way, you don’t have to constantly flip through binders, notebooks, and printed drafts.

In addition to this step by step approach, I’ll leave you with a few last general tips for approaching a history research paper. Overall, set reasonable goals for your project, and remember that a seemingly daunting task can be broken down into the above constituent phases. And, if nothing else, know that you’ll end up with a nice Word document full of aesthetically pleasing footnotes!

— Shanon FitzGerald, Social Sciences Correspondent

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The Evolution of Nursing Research

Jacqueline m. stolley.

Trinity College of Nursing, Moline, Illinois

THE RESEARCH CULTURE in nursing has evolved in the last 150 years, beginning with Nightingale’s work in the mid-1850s and culminating in the creation of the National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR) at the National Institues of Health (NIH). This article highlights nursing’s efforts to facilitate the growth of the research culture by developing theory, establishing the importance of a research-based practice, advancing education, and providing avenues for dissemination of research. Similarities with the chiropractic profession are discussed, along with a commentary by Cheryl Hawk, D.C, Ph.D.

EVOLUTION OF NURSING RESEARCH

The development of a research culture in nursing in many ways parallels that of chiropractic, and by reviewing key aspects of the evolution of the science of nursing, there are lessons to be learned, and mistakes to be avoided. Nursing research has changed dramatically in the past 150 years, beginning with Florence Nightingale in the 19th century. Clearly, nursing research has not always had the influence and significance it holds today. In fact, for a number of years after Nightingale’s work, little is found in the literature concerning nursing research. This is perhaps due to the past perception of nursing as an apprenticeship in a task-oriented caring profession ( 1 ). Although research was conducted with respect to nursing education and administration in the first half of the 20th century, it was not until the 1950s that nursing research began the advancement that has been seen in the past three decades. This is due to many factors: an increase in the number of nurses with advanced academic preparation, the establishment of vehicles for dissemination of nursing research, federal funding and support for nursing research, and the upgrading of research skills in faculty and students. This article provides a brief review of the development of research in nursing, and along with it, the theory that has guided that process.

NURSING THEORY DEVELOPMENT

As with other practice professions, nursing requires a knowledge foundation that is based on theory and derived from systematic research. The first nursing theorist, Florence Nightingale, created detailed reports of both medical and nursing matters as chief nurse for the British in the Crimean War in the mid-1850s. Nightingale noted that “… apprehension, uncertainty, waiting, expectation, fear of surprise, do a patient more harm than any exertion” (p. 6) ( 2 ). As a result, Nightingale’s conceptualization of nursing included the need to have an understanding of the laws of nature, the prevention of disease, and the use of personal power. She viewed persons as both physical and spiritual beings, emphasizing the importance of the environment and the need to care for the patient, not the disease. With her emphasis on the environment, changes in nutrition, hydration, and sanitation resulted, and mortality rates dropped drastically during the Crimean War ( 3 ). In subsequent years, Nightingale developed “laws of nursing” that formed the basis for nursing science and guided nursing education in the United States from 1850 to the 1950s ( 4 ).

In the 1960s, nursing theory was used to guide teaching rather than research or practice. This was a natural outgrowth of nursing’s earlier focus on education and professional identity. Additionally, the National League for Nursing (the professional accrediting body) stipulated a conceptual framework for curriculum. Paradigmatic concepts integral to nursing were identified as person, environment, health , and nursing ( 5 – 7 ), and scientific energies were spent developing curriculum that corresponded to existing theories ( 7 ). At this point in time, nurse educators began to urge students to “care for the whole person” and textbooks underscored the importance of “holism” in nursing, with subtitles such as “The Biopsychosocial Approach.” Nurse authors acknowledged multiple causality in human illness, but all too often research, curricula, and textbooks reflected linear cause-and-effect models rather than multivariate approaches.

The 1950s and 1960s saw the development of theories explaining the art and science of nursing. Hildegard Peplau published Interpersonal Relations in Nursing ( 8 ) in 1952, based on her work as a psychiatric nurse. Other theories. included Levine’s Conservation Principles of Nursing ( 9 ) in, 1967; Roger’s Introduction to the Theoretical Basis of Nursing ( 10 ) in 1970, and The Science of Unitary Man ( 11 ) in 1980, followed by The Science of Unitary Human Beings, a Paradigm for Nursing ( 12 ) in 1983. Imogene King published A Theory for Nursing: Systems, Concepts, Process ( 13 ) in 1981, and Sister Calista Roy published her adaptation model ( 14 ) in 1980. These “grand” theories were complex and key concepts were hard to measure empirically. Thus it was difficult to test these early nursing theories through research. With the emphasis on clinical nursing research, the recent trend has been to develop and test midrange theories that describe patient problems and nursing practice.

NURSING RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT

In 1859, Nightingale used the battlefield hospitals of the Crimean War as her research laboratory, using an epidemiological process to describe the morbidity and mortality of sick and injured soldiers. Her pioneering epidemiological research and statistical methodology (documenting the relationship between the environment and health status of soldiers) was the hallmark of scientific investigation in nursing ( 4 , 15 ).

An historical review from 1900 to 1949 reveals that nursing research in the United States (see Table 1 ) was in its infancy, focusing on nursing education, nurses, nursing students, and ways to organize nurses’ work. As noted earlier, at this time, nursing theory was discussed solely as a means of developing and organizing educational curriculum. Early educators were unable to develop educational programs that both represented a nursing perspective and helped students focus on nursing concepts and problems rather than medical concepts and problems. In the first half of this century, groups were formed to answer such questions as: what is nursing, what do nurses do, and how unique is nursing from other health science disciplines? Professional debates raged as to whether nursing was merely a “poor stepsister” of medicine or whether it was part of the biological, natural, or physical sciences ( 4 ). Research during this period was essentially nonexistent in terms of nursing practice.

Nursing: Historical Developments in Nursing Theory and Research

It was not until the 1980s that nursing devoted a sizeable portion of its research effort to patients and patient behavior, an emphasis that emerged logically as nurses began to recognize the interplay between behavior and rehabilitation or recovery from illness. Historically, nurses searched for single causative agents when promoting health or preventing illness, even as they acknowledged the contributions of multiple other factors. Predominant modes of inquiry relied on early in the development of a culture of nursing research were empirical (logical positivist). Nurse researchers modeled themselves after colleagues in the basic and biomedical sciences, perhaps in an effort to seek scientific validation. Only during the 1980s and 1990s did nurses increasingly use qualitative research methods, such as phenomenology and ethnography, to explain complex human phenomena. Therefore, nurse researchers are just beginning to respond to the need to view human problems in less reductionistic terms when the research questions call for a holistic combination of quantitative and qualitative research methodologies ( 16 ). Over the past two decades, many nurses have pursued further education, consultation, or research to enhance their understanding and ability to respond constructively to patient behavior. For example, by the mid-1980s, there was a sizable increase in nursing studies of individuals and families experiencing developmental, environmental, or illness-generated crisis situations involving both acute and long-term stress responses ( 17 – 20 ).

During the 1990s, nursing practice underwent a clinical revolution in response to societal, medical, scientific, and technologic advances. Changes in nursing practice began to result from nursing research (e.g., research-based practice guidelines) as the efforts of individuals both in and outside of nursing (e.g., National Academy of Science, National Institute for Nursing Research, and major foundations) coalesced to stimulate and support clinical nursing research. Concurrently, there was a new surge of interest among nurses themselves in redefining the problems of their practice and delineating the gaps in knowledge underpinning their practice base. As noted earlier, the current decade has been marked by interest in multiple modes of inquiry (qualitative and quantitative) for a practice discipline which must address complex human phenomena. In the past, the type of research questions most often addressed through nursing research were of a descriptive or exploratory nature. However, nurse researchers are now going beyond “what is” and “how” questions and are addressing more explanatory or predictive-level questions using methodologically rigorous experimental and quasi-experimental designs as they redefine clinical problems and systematically address gaps in their knowledge base. After becoming established in the research arena, nursing researchers have expanded to incorporate and collaborate on interdisciplinary studies, health care systems and health services research, and taxonomies such as Nursing Intervention Classification (NIC) ( 21 ) and Nursing Outcomes Classification (NOC) ( 22 ). The taxonomies represent efforts to define what nurses do and outcomes sensitive to nursing interventions.

The culture of nursing research has now advanced to the point where consideration can be given not just to the conduct of research, but also to its application in practice. The conduct of research is not the end, but rather a means through which practice is improved by utilizing research findings. Research utilization is the process of conveying and applying research-based knowledge to impact or change existing practices in the health care system ( 23 ). The primary components of research utilization involve summarizing knowledge generated through research; imparting the research knowledge to nurses, other health professionals, policymakers, and consumers of health care; and accomplishing desired outcomes for patients, their families, and health care providers and agencies. Models for research utilization were developed in the 1970s, beginning with the Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education in Nursing (WCHEN) Regional Program for Nursing Development ( 24 ). Other models include the Conduct and Utilization of Research in Nursing (CURN) project ( 25 ), the Stetler/Marram model ( 26 ), the retrieval and application of research in nursing (RARIN) model ( 27 ) and the Iowa model of research in practice ( 28 ). The primary goal of research utilization programs is to make research findings an integral part of nursing practice, assuring research-based care delivery models. Research utilization is an excellent model for application of research findings to practice by advanced practice nurses.

An important trend is the use of research findings to serve as the basis for treatment decision making called evidence-based practice ( 29 ). Using this process, a question involving treatment is developed, and determination of the adequacy of current research is made. If the research base is adequate, it is synthesized, protocols are developed and applied, and evaluation is completed. Through these efforts, the nursing profession, in partnership with other professions, bridges the gap between research and practice to improve patient care.

EDUCATIONAL ADVANCEMENT

Early nursing education took place in hospital training programs (nursing diploma), modeled on Florence Nightingale’s work in the United Kingdom ( 30 ). In 1915, nursing’s educational accrediting body, the National League for Nursing (NLN) called for university-level education. Baccalaureate programs in nursing emerged in 1923 at Yale University and Western Reserve University, but the majority of nursing education took place in hospital-based diploma programs. In 1971, the first community college programs for nursing education opened, providing graduates with an associate degree in nursing. Today, entry into nursing practice takes place primarily in associate degree programs, with baccalaureate programs second. Gradually, diploma programs have decreased in number, and few exist today. Associate degree programs may introduce nursing students to research, but baccalaureate programs included nursing research in the upper division curriculum. From 1900 to the 1960s, most nursing leaders obtained their graduate-level preparation in schools of education ( 30 ). For many years, the Master’s degree was considered the terminal degree in nursing.

The number of nurses whose career was devoted to research was miniscule in the 1960s. Indeed, even by the 1970s only about 400 nurses in the United States held a doctoral degree ( 31 ). In 1955, the Nursing Research Grants and Fellowship Program of the Division of Nursing, United States Public Health Service (USPHS) was established. This program awarded grants for nursing research projects, nursing research fellowships, and nurse-scientist graduate training ( 32 ). Early funding was for nurses to obtain their doctorates in fields outside of nursing, because there were no nursing doctoral programs available. As a result, nurse-physiologists, nurse-anthropologists, and so forth emerged in the field. They were educated to conduct research, but often stayed in the field of their doctorate and did not apply their research efforts to nursing care problems.The emphasis during this period continued to be on establishing nursing’s rightful place in the academic setting of the university. As nursing became integrated into university life during the 1970s, nursing faculty became aware of their responsibility to develop new knowledge, and in many university-based schools of nursing, faculty members began to prepare both themselves and their students to become investigators ( 33 ).

Currently, three types of doctoral degrees in nursing are available. A Nursing Doctorate (ND), first established at Case Western Reserve University in 1979, was designed to be equivalent to the Doctor of Medicine degree, providing students preparation for the practice of generalized nursing and future leadership, but not for advanced practice. Professional doctorates, Doctor of Nursing Science (DNS, DNSc, DSN), emphasized advanced clinical, administrative, or policy-related practice and leadership. The Doctor of Nursing Science degree focuses on applied rather than basic research, and on applying and testing new knowledge in practice. Although the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) was first available to nurses at Teachers College at Columbia University in the 1920s, interest in doctoral education was rekindled in the 1970s. The number of doctoral programs in nursing has increased from zero in the 1950s to over 65 institutions, three-fourths of which are academic doctorates (PhD) that prepare graduates for a lifetime of scholarship and research ( 34 ). More recently, nurses in academic settings have been encouraged to obtain postdoctoral research training with support available through both individual (F32) and institutional (T32) traineeships through the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

RESEARCH FUNDING AND SUPPORT

Several factors stimulated the growth of nursing research in the 1980s and 1990s. Perhaps the most important factor was the creation in 1986 of the National Center for Nursing Research (NCNR) in the United States Public Health Service (USPHS). The development of this Center resulted from intense political action by the American Nurses’ Association (ANA) ( 23 ). The primary aim of the NCNR was “the conduct, support, and dissemination of information regarding basic and clinical nursing research, training and other programs in patient care research” (p. 2) ( 35 ). Prior to the establishment of the NCNR, most of the federal funds supporting research were designated for medical studies that concentrated on the diagnosis and cure of disease. Thus, creation of the NCNR was a major achievement for nurse researchers. In 1993, the NCNR became the National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR), strengthening nursing’s position by giving the Center institute status within the NIH. This advance served to put nursing into the mainstream of research activities and on more equal status with scientists and other health professions. With the establishment of the Center and then the Institute, federal funding for nursing research has grown. In 1986, the NCNR had a budget of $16.2 million. In 1996, the budget for the NINR was about $55 million ( 1 ), more than a threefold increase over a decade. The NINR elected to foster five research priorities for 1995 through 1999: community-based nursing models, effectiveness of nursing interventions in HIV/AIDS, cognitive impairment, living with chronic illness, and biobehavioral factors related to immunocompetence ( 22 ).

The NINR’s strategic plan for the next millenium includes funding nursing research on chronic illnesses (e.g., improving adherence to chemotherapy, pain relief), quality and cost effectiveness of care, health promotion and disease prevention, management of symptoms (e.g., gender differences in response to therapeutics, managing the pain cycle), health disparities (e.g., cultural sensitivity), adaptation to new technologies (e.g., transplants), and palliative care at the end of life. Special allocations and Requests for Applications (RFA) have facilitated research in these target areas, although investigator-initiated research topics are funded if they are significant to nursing or patient care. The projected budget for NINR for the year 2000 is over $70 million, which is approximately distributed as follows: 73% for extramural research project grants; 8% for pre- and postdoctoral training; 3.5% for career development; 3.5% for Core Centers in specialized areas of research inquiry; 3% for the intramural program. Planning research for the next 5 years and into the next century is a welcome challenge for the NINR and the scientific community ( 36 ).

RESEARCH DISSEMINATION

Significant milestones in the development of nursing science began in the mid-1950s (see Table 1 ). From 1950 to 1959, there was growing emphasis on the need to identify a body of knowledge for the developing profession of nursing in order to justify its presence in post-World War II universities ( 37 ). Not only was the first journal of Nursing Research established in 1952; several textbooks related to nursing research were also published. Another critical step in the evolution of the culture of nursing science was the establishment of the American Nurses Foundation by the American Nurses Association specifically to promote nursing research. During the 1950s, regional research conferences were instituted for the first time, and federal support of nursing research began ( 4 , 33 , 37 ). All these elements were essential to the development of a science of nursing.

Several new nursing research journals, including Applied Nursing Research (ANR), were instituted in the late 1980s. ANR publishes research reports of special significance to nurse clinicians ( 1 ). Increasingly, clinical specialty (i.e., Heart and Lung, Journal of Gerontological Nursing ) journals are publishing data-based articles as well.

Another important event in the development and dissemination of nursing theory and research was the creation of the Annual Review of Nursing Research in 1983. This publication includes critical analyses of research pertinent to nursing and health, including nursing practice, nursing care delivery, nursing education, and the nursing profession. Chapters systematically assess knowledge development in nursing, encourage the use of research findings in practice, and provide direction for future research ( 22 ). More recently, scholars have joined to create the Encyclopedia of Nursing Research ( 38 ), a publication that provides a comprehensive overview of research studies, the history of nursing research, and the evolution of theory development in nursing.

The next century challenges nursing research with critical imperatives for improving health care. Changes in our nation’s population and their needs and expectations will impact the direction of nursing research. Consumers are becoming more involved in managing their own health care, and practitioners are continually adjusting to new technologies as well as innovative health care systems. The broad spectrum of nursing research encompasses both clinical and basic investigations with the patient as the central focus. Nursing must concentrate on making certain that our valuable scientific findings are incorporated into practice and focus on developing the next generation of nurse researchers ( 36 ).

The research culture in chiropractic is similar to where nursing research was in its early years. To move chiropractic research forward will require many of the same changes that occurred in nursing, such as educational advancement, collaboration in academic settings, federal acknowledgement and support, and development of more avenues for research dissemination to practitioners. Just as nursing had to overcome significant barriers such as attitudes and low educational and professional status, so, too, will the chiropractic profession have to strive to develop a research tradition in order to integrate research as part of its practice culture.