language barrier in education essay

Language Barrier in Education and Social Life Research Paper

Immigration causes differences in language and lifestyle. Language barriers refer to challenges experienced when one tries to communicate with an individual or people who speak a different language. This phenomenon is common in areas where there is a conglomeration of people from diverse backgrounds like culture and nationality. The term is also used to refer to problems encountered by immigrants when learning a foreign language (Kim & Mattila, 2011).

Due to these challenges, there have been efforts to eliminate or reduce the impact of these differences especially in international learning institutions. Differences in language cause difficulties in education and even social life and can be solved in many ways to become less problematic. Consequently, immigrants should be aware of language differences before moving, and this problem can be solved in a short period of time.

Language differences cause a major barrier in communication. Under normal circumstances, communication can only take place if there is a common language to be used as a link between the communicating parties.

It is quite common among immigrants, who find themselves in a foreign country, which uses a different language from his or her home language (Kim & Mattila, 2011). Because of this barrier, affected immigrants are prone to misunderstanding, since the information passed across cannot be accurately interpreted. What are some of these language differences?

As an element of cultural identity, human language is diverse and unique. For instance, English speakers are likely to encounter communication problems when interacting with Frenchmen because of the disjoint nature of the languages being used. Besides language uniqueness, the difference in accent affects the attainment of effective communication.

It is not surprising that some English-speaking students find the American accent to be a barrier to effective communication (Kim & Mattila, 2011). This problem arises from the fact that British English is more preferred by most international students and other immigrants. While this is the case, there are distinctive features, which define language accent.

These include pronunciations, stress and intonations. For the case of these immigrants, the problem of accent is usually complicated because of the diverse nature of the American culture. This is to mean that people from certain regions within the country may not understand one another, and the problem worsens when a third party from a different country is included (Green, 2009).

Another language difference that acts as a communication barrier is the presence of phrases and idioms. In the case of American English, communication involves the usage of an array of phrases and idioms, which carry meanings that are different from the literal meaning of the root words used (Green, 2009).

This can be a major communication problem, especially when immigrants do not have exposure to the phrases and idioms, which are commonly used. Many would get confused and misunderstood because of these distinctive differences.

Language structure also creates differences among world languages, thus affecting immigrants. A good example is the universally recognized sentence structure of subject-verb-object in English (Green, 2009). This broadly differs from Japanese sentence structure, subject-object-verb. Additionally, some international languages contain suffixes, which cannot be converted into another language, say English.

As a result, immigrants from such language backgrounds are likely to experience communication difficulties. Other factors include but not limited to culture, slang and language style. However, these barriers shouldn’t be problems when adapting new environments. This can be realized through familiarization of another country’s language before immigrating (Cronjé, 2009).

Language differences shouldn’t be a barrier in education because of the essence of learning, language is one of the things people learn. As an immigrant, it is important to have the willingness to learn new culture, which includes language, behavior and even lifestyle. While one may decide not to conform to a new country’s behavior, it is never optional to learn a new language in a foreign country (Cronjé, 2009).

In fact, it is believed that the process of learning a new language ought to be considered as an adaptive approach in overcoming a wide range of barriers encountered by immigrants. For one to be comfortable with learning a new language, it is essential to understand the pronunciation. As mentioned before, people from different countries pronounce words differently.

It is therefore, crucial for foreign students to identify difficult sounds for daily practice until confidence is gained. Additionally, learning preference should be given to words that are commonly used together with short phrases. For this to be successful, the learner needs to have an educated speaker who can help in correcting pronunciation mistakes (Cronjé, 2009).

Besides pronunciation, immigrants need to understand rhythm, intonation and stress, commonly used by native speakers of the foreign language. The simplest way of learning these elements is through imitation of native people that are educated. One can listen to some statements repetitively using audio and video tools (Cronjé, 2009).

This can be followed by trying to say the same phrases using a recording machine. In order for this to work, one has to repeat the process severally with an educated speaker for corrections. Skills gained from pronunciation lessons are essential in eliminating chances of misunderstandings during communication. Another way of learning a foreign language with ease is through borrowing or purchasing relevant materials, which are used by language learners.

These may include but not limited to dictionaries, audio textbooks and translation dictionaries (Sherry, Thomas & Wing, 2010). These tools help in minimizing language differences and communication barriers within a short period of time.

Although language differences could be a communication barrier, there are several methods of communication, which have been developed to overcome these challenges. In other words, there are numerous ways of conversing smoothly without acquiring foreign language proficiency (Sherry, Thomas & Wing, 2010).

For instance, it is possible to pass across information through written communication, which is a common method applied when dealing with figures and facts. Additionally, this method of communication is the most preferred when making presentations. Although it may have limitations to a person learning a new language, it is easy to keep record and make corrections where necessary.

Another commonly used method of communication today by language learners is nonverbal communication. This does not make use of oral communication skills and one may find it relevant, especially when he or she is still new in a foreign country. Nonverbal communication is also referred to as body language. It encompasses an array of elements, including gestures, actions and facial expressions (Smitherman, 2003).

With this approach, it is possible to communicate without necessarily speaking. In cases where both oral and nonverbal communication is used, harmony is essential to avoid misunderstanding and confusion. Nonetheless, variation and understanding of the sign language may pose a challenge, especially when the other party is new to it.

Although some people view language differences lightly, it is regarded as a major communication issue. This is based on the fact that poor communication has a wide range of negative effects, which are experienced in schools, health centers and in other settings (Smitherman, 2003). The most detrimental effect of language barriers is misunderstandings, arising from communication gaps.

Misunderstandings emanate from several instances, including, the use of slang or jargons, which are not universally recognized. Additionally, misunderstandings may arise from variation in accents due to diverse backgrounds and culture. It is doubtless that most conflicts in schools, families and even offices arise from misunderstandings. In essence, misunderstandings can breed frustrations and stress when a person is new in a foreign country.

In some cases, these misunderstandings have been closely linked to emerging cases of stress among foreign students (Smitherman, 2003). One may feel out of place when he or she can neither get what is being communicated nor share ideas effectively. As a result of stress and disconnection from the surrounding immigrants, they may opt to be alone by excluding themselves from joint activities like playing and academic group discussions.

Language barriers are also a major problem in written communication. Foreign students who do not understand the native language used in learning institutions find hardships in understanding lecture notes and other study materials (Roush, 2008). This is also experienced in written exams where students may have a correct idea, expressed wrongly due to ineffective communication.

In extreme cases of such misunderstandings in written communications, students may end up failing their exams or scoring low grades. The negative impact of language barriers can also be experienced in the corporate world. Oftentimes, immigrants looking for employment in foreign countries fail interview tests because of language barriers.

Due to communication gaps, employers might not see the value in a foreign applicant. This may emanate from language mistakes or wrong answering of questions caused by poor understanding of the language being used (Roush, 2008). Foreign students seeking admissions in learning institutions may also be less considered because of their ineffective communication skills.

Language barriers may also trigger cultural conflicts. For instance, different cultures have different ways of greeting each other or expressing gratitude. Based on such variations, it is possible for miscommunications to arise when certain things are not done the way they have been done before in one’s home country (Sherry, Thomas & Wing, 2010). This is therefore, a major challenge, which immigrants need to beware of before going to study or work a foreign country.

As globalization takes center stage and countries get smaller every day, there are new ways of communication that are being adopted. One of these approaches is language. The role played by any language, whether local or international is always immeasurable (Green, 2009). As discussed above, the purpose of a language gets undermined when there are differences, which breed communication barriers.

These barriers are common in settings, which have immigrants, who do not understand the native language of the foreign country. In fact, it is believed that poor communication stems from a plethora of issues, language barrier being one of them. It is highly advisable for immigrants to beware of language differences before moving, and this problem can be solved in a short period of time.

Cronjé, J. C. (2009). Qualitative assessment across language barriers: An action research study. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 12 (2), 69-85.

Green, D. A. (2009). New academics’ perceptions of the language of teaching and learning: identifying and overcoming linguistic barriers. International Journal for Academic Development, 14 (1), 33-45.

Kim, E. & Mattila, A. (2011). The Impact of Language Barrier & Cultural Differences on Restaurant Experiences: A Grounded Theory Approach. University of Massachusetts Amherst . Web.

Roush, V. (2008). A Rational Approach to Race Relations: A Guide to Talking Straight about Contemporary Race Issues . Indiana: iUniverse.

Sherry, M., Thomas, P., & Wing, C. (2010). International students: a vulnerable student population. Higher Education, 60 (1), 33-46.

Smitherman, G. (2003). Talking that Talk: Language, Culture and Education in African America. London: Routledge.

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Language barriers in the classroom: From mother tongue to national language

Sep 23, 2019 | By: Kieran McConville

Back to school has a whole new meaning when it’s not taking place in your mother tongue. We're working to break down language barriers in the classroom. One solution? Give children more time to transition from their mother tongue to their national language.

Picture it: You show up for your first day at school, and the teacher starts talking to you in a language you don’t understand. You’re now expected to learn to read and write in this language. Imagine if there were two new languages for you to learn. One more thing: You're only 4 years old.

For most kids in Kenya , that’s exactly the scenario they face when starting school. Language barriers in the classroom are ubiquitous in a country that has 2 official languages and 66 local languages. In Marsabit, the first language for most children is Borana. Once they start school, they must learn two new languages to understand their teachers: Swahili and English..

From an educational perspective, the results are disastrous. UNESCO estimates that 40% of school-aged children don’t have access to education in a language that they understand.

If all students had basic literacy skills, UNESCO estimates that 171 million people could escape extreme poverty. Language barriers mean that, despite years of schooling, many students end up essentially illiterate.

Language Barriers In The Classroom Leave Kids Behind From The Start

Despite years of schooling, many language minority students end up essentially illiterate.

“What we learned [from carrying out assessments] is that, by the time they’re in grades six, seven, and eight, children still can’t read and can’t write,” said Concern Kenya Country Director Wendy Erasmus. “They can recite what’s in a book — but they don’t understand it.”

Of course, it’s not just a Kenyan problem. Thousands of miles across the Atlantic in Haiti, classes are taught in French and Haitian Creole. However, either or both of these are foreign languages for many Haitian children. A World Bank-supported study showed that 76% of first graders, 49% of second graders, and 29% of third graders could not read a single word of Haitian Creole. Similar results were found when the same students were tested in French.

How Language Barriers Keep Language Minority Families In Poverty

For any student, basic literacy and numeracy skills are key to building a quality education. Even with just basic reading skills in place, UNESCO estimates that 171 million people could escape extreme poverty. Imagine the waste of going through an entire childhood worth of schooling, and still be unable to read.

Students learning a second language often struggle to express themselves if they don’t have a full command of that language, notes John Schumann of UCLA’s Department of Applied Linguistics. This can lead to emotional stress and affect their ability to learn.

Parents may also not speak the language used in school. This hinders progress even further when they can't understand their children’s homework in order to help them complete it.

As UNESCO notes, language is a double-edged sword. “While it strengthens an ethnic group’s social ties and sense of belonging, it can also become a basis for their marginalization.”

Rewriting The Rules — In The Mother Tongue

One solution to these language barriers is the concept of teachers leading earlier grades in the students’ first language. Tests in both Kenya and Haiti , as well as Liberia and Niger , showed promising results.

“Children can get comfortable with reading and writing in a language that they know,” explains Wendy Erasmus in Kenya. “Then over year three and four they phase into English and Swahili.What we’ve seen is terribly exciting… an impressive increase in these children’s ability to read and write.”

This method is in line with UNESCO’s recommendation for early teaching in the mother tongue. Gains from this early education will be sustained as students transition into classes taught in a national language. Bilingual training for teachers is also a critical element for success.

Concern has been supporting these initiatives with curriculum design, training classroom teachers, and providing learning materials.

“A Continuation Of What They Have Learned At Home.”

Meanwhile, in the second grade classroom of St. Peter’s Primary School in Sagante, Kenya, teacher Mr. Sode asks a question in Borana. In response, 6–year-old Daki Guyo enthusiastically leaps to her feet. It’s plain to see that she knows the topic and is eager to show off her knowledge.

Watching on, Concern’s Benson Thuku remarks, “This really enables children to learn in school more effectively, because it is a continuation of what they have learned at home… and what they learn in school is also reinforced at home.”

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Language and communication in international students’ adaptation: a bibliometric and content analysis review

• Open access
• Published: 12 July 2022
• Volume 85 , pages 1235–1256, ( 2023 )

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• Michał Wilczewski   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7650-5759 1 &
• Ilan Alon   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6927-593X 2 , 3  

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This article systematically reviews the literature (313 articles) on language and communication in international students’ cross-cultural adaptation in institutions of higher education for 1994–2021. We used bibliometric analysis to identify the most impactful journals and articles, and the intellectual structure of the field. We used content analysis to synthesize the results within each research stream and suggest future research directions. We established two major research streams: second-language proficiency and interactions in the host country. We found inconclusive results about the role of communication with co-nationals in students’ adaptation, which contradicts the major adaptation theories. New contextualized research and the use of other theories could help explain the contradictory results and develop the existing theories. Our review suggests the need to theoretically refine the interrelationships between the interactional variables and different adaptation domains. Moreover, to create a better fit between the empirical data and the adaptation models, research should test the mediating effects of second-language proficiency and the willingness to communicate with locals. Finally, research should focus on students in non-Anglophone countries and explore the effects of remote communication in online learning on students’ adaptation. We document the intellectual structure of the research on the role of language and communication in international students’ adaptation and suggest a future research agenda.

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Introduction

One of the consequences of globalization is the changing landscape of international higher education. Over the past two decades, there has been a major increase in the number of international students, that is, those who have crossed borders for the purpose of study (OECD, 2021a ), from 1.9 million in 1997 to over 6.1 million in 2019 (UIS Statistics, 2021 ). Even students who are motivated to develop intercultural competence by studying abroad (Jackson, 2015 ) face several challenges that prevent them from benefitting fully from that experience. Examples of these challenges include language and communication difficulties, cultural and educational obstacles affecting their adaptation, socialization, and learning experiences (Andrade, 2006 ), psychological distress (Smith & Khawaja, 2011 ), or social isolation and immigration and visa extension issues caused by Covid-19 travel restrictions (Hope, 2020 ).

Cross-cultural adaptation theories and empirical research (for reviews, see Andrade, 2006 ; Smith & Khawaja, 2011 ) confirm the critical importance of foreign-language and communication skills and transitioning to the host culture for a successful academic and social life. Improving our understanding of the role of foreign-language proficiency and communication in students’ adaptation is important as the number of international students in higher education worldwide is on the rise. This increase has been accompanied by a growing number of publications on this topic over the last decade (see Fig.  1 ). Previous reviews of the literature have identified foreign-language proficiency and communication as predictors of students’ adaptation and well-being in various countries (Smith & Khawaja, 2011 ). The most recent reviews (Jing et al., 2020 ) list second-language acquisition and cross-cultural adaptation as among the most commonly studied topics in international student research. However, to date, there are no studies specifically examining the role of language and communication in international students’ adaptation (henceforth “language and communication in student adaptation”). This gap is especially important given recent research promoting students’ self-formation (Marginson, 2014 ) and reciprocity between international and domestic students (Volet & Jones, 2012 ). The results challenge the traditional “adjustment to the host culture” paradigm whereby international students are treated as being out of sync with the host country’s norms (Marginson, 2014 ). Thus, this article differs from prior research by offering a systematic and in-depth review of the literature on language and communication in student adaptation using bibliometric co-citation analysis and qualitative content analysis. Our research has a methodological advantage in using various bibliometric tools, which should improve the validity of the results.

Source: HistCite). Note . TLC, total local citations received; TGC, total global citations received; Articles, number of articles published in the field; International Students, number (in millions) of international students worldwide (UIS Statistics, 2021 )

Yearly publication of articles on language and communication in student adaptation (

We focus on several questions:

What are the most impactful journals and articles about the role of language and communication in student adaptation?

What is the thematic structure of the research in the field?

What are the leading research streams investigating language and communication in student adaptation?

What are the effects of language and communication on student adaptation?

What are the future research directions?

After introducing the major concepts related to language and communication in student adaptation and the theoretical underpinnings of the field, we present our methodology. Using bibliometric and content analysis, we track the development of the field and identify the major themes, research streams, and studies that have shaped the state-of-the art and our current knowledge about the role of language and communication in student adaptation. Finally, we suggest avenues for future research.

Defining the concepts and theories related to language and communication in student adaptation

Concepts related to language and communication.

Culture is a socially constructed reality in which language and social practices interact to construct meanings (Burr, 2006 ). In this social constructionist perspective, language is viewed as a form of social action. Intertwined with culture, it allows individuals to communicate their knowledge about the world, as well as the assumptions, opinions, and viewpoints they share with other people (Kramsch, 1998 ). In this sense, people identify themselves and others through the use of language, which allows them to communicate their social and cultural identity (Kramsch, 1998 ).

Intercultural communication refers to the process of constructing shared meaning among individuals with diverse cultural backgrounds (Piller, 2007 ). Based on the research traditions in the language and communication in student adaptation research, we view foreign or second-language proficiency , that is, the skill allowing an individual to manage communication interactions in a second language successfully (Gallagher, 2013 ), as complementary to communication (Benzie, 2010 ).

Cross-cultural adaptation

The term adaptation is used in the literature interchangeably with acculturation , adjustment , assimilation , or integration . Understood as a state, cultural adaptation refers to the degree to which people fit into a new cultural environment (Gudykunst and Hammer, 1988 ), which is reflected in their psychological and emotional response to that environment (Black, 1990 ). In processual terms, adaptation is the process of responding to the new environment and developing the ability to function in it (Kim, 2001 ).

The literature on language and communication in student adaptation distinguishes between psychological, sociocultural, and academic adaptation. Psychological adaptation refers to people’s psychological well-being, reflected in their satisfaction with relationships with host nationals and their functioning in the new environment. Sociocultural adaptation is the individual’s ability to fit into the interactive aspects of the new cultural environment (Searle and Ward, 1990 ). Finally, academic adaptation refers to the ability to function in the new academic environment (Anderson, 1994 ). We will discuss the results of the research on language and communication in student adaptation with reference to these adaptation domains.

Theoretical underpinnings of language and communication in student adaptation

We will outline the major theories used in the research on international students and other sojourners, which has recognized foreign-language skills and interactions in the host country as critical for an individual’s adaptation and successful international experience.

The sojourner adjustment framework (Church, 1982 ) states that host-language proficiency allows one to establish and maintain interactions with host nationals, which contributes to one’s adaptation to the host country. In turn, social connectedness with host nationals protects one from psychological distress and facilitates cultural learning.

The cultural learning approach to acculturation (Ward et al., 2001 ) states that learning culture-specific skills allows people to handle sociocultural problems. The theory identifies foreign-language proficiency (including nonverbal communication), communication competence, and awareness of cultural differences as prerequisites for successful intercultural interactions and sociocultural adaptation (Ward et al., 2001 ). According to this approach, greater intercultural contact results in fewer sociocultural difficulties (Ward and Kennedy, 1993 ).

Acculturation theory (Berry, 1997 , 2005 ; Ward et al., 2001 ) identifies four acculturation practices when interacting with host nationals: assimilation (seeking interactions with hosts and not maintaining one’s cultural identity), integration (maintaining one’s home culture and seeking interactions with hosts), separation (maintaining one’s home culture and avoiding interactions with hosts), and marginalization (showing little interest in both maintaining one’s culture and interactions with others) (Berry, 1997 ). Acculturation theory postulates that host-language skills help establish supportive social and interpersonal relationships with host nationals and, thus, improve intercultural communication and sociocultural adjustment (Ward and Kennedy, 1993 ).

The anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM) theory (Gudykunst, 2005 ; Gudykunst and Hammer, 1988 ) states that intercultural adjustment is a function of one’s ability to cope with anxiety and uncertainty caused by interactions with hosts and situational processes. People’s ability to communicate effectively depends on their cognitive resources (e.g., cultural knowledge), which helps them respond to environmental demands and ease their anxiety.

The integrative theory of communication and cross-cultural adaptation (Kim, 2001 ) posits that people’s cultural adaptation is reflected in their functional fitness, meaning, the degree to which they have internalized the host culture’s meanings and communication symbols, their psychological well-being, and the development of a cultural identity (Kim, 2001 ). Communication with host nationals improves cultural adaptation by providing opportunities to learn about the host country’s society and culture, and developing intercultural communication competence that includes the ability to receive and interpret comprehensible messages in the host environment.

The intergroup contact theory (Allport, 1954 ; Pettigrew, 2008 ) states that contact between two distinct groups reduces mutual prejudice under certain conditions: when groups have common goals and equal status in the social interaction, exhibit intergroup cooperation, and have opportunities to become friends. Intercultural contact reduces prejudice toward and stereotypical views of the cultural other and provides opportunities for cultural learning (Allport, 1954 ).

These theories provide the theoretical framework guiding the discussion of the results synthesized through the content analysis of the most impactful articles in the field.

Methodology

Bibliometric and content analysis methods.

We used a mixed-method approach to review the research on language and communication in student adaptation for all of 1994–2021. This timeframe was informed by the data extraction process described in the next section. Specifically, we conducted quantitative bibliometric analyses such as co-citation analysis, keyword co-occurrence analysis, and conceptual thematic mapping, as well as qualitative content analysis to explore the research questions (Bretas & Alon, 2021 ).

Bibliometric methods use bibliographic data to identify the structures of scientific fields (Zupic and Čater, 2015 ). Using these methods, we can create an objective view of the literature by making the search and review process transparent and reproducible (Bretas and Alon, 2021 ). First, we measured the impact of the journals and articles by retrieving data from HistCite concerning the number of articles per journal and citations per article. We analyzed the number of total local citations (TLC) per year, that is, the number of times an article has been cited by other articles in the same literature (313 articles in our sample). We then analyzed the total global citations (TGC) each article received in the entire Web of Science (WoS) database. We also identified the trending articles in HistCite by calculating the total citation score (TLCe) at the end of the year covered in the study (mid-2021). This score rewards articles that received more citations within the last three years (i.e., up to the beginning of 2018). Using this technique, we can determine the emerging topics in the field because it considers not only articles with the highest number of citations received over a fixed period of time, but also those that have been cited most frequently in recent times (Alon et al., 2018 ).

Second, to establish a general conceptual structure of the field, we analyzed the co-occurrence of authors’ keywords using VOS software. Next, based on the authors’ keywords, we plotted a conceptual map using Biblioshiny (a tool for scientific mapping analysis that is part of the R bibliometrix-package) to identify motor, basic, niche, and emerging/declining themes in the field (Bretas and Alon, 2021 ).

Third, to determine specific research streams and map patterns within the field (Alon et al., 2018 ), we used the co-citation mapping techniques in HistCite that analyze and visualize citation linkages between articles (Garfield et al., 2006 ) over time.

Next, we used content analysis to synthesize the results from the 31 most impactful articles in the field. We analyzed the results within each research stream and discussed them in light of the major adaptation theories to suggest future research directions and trends within each research stream (Alon et al., 2018 ). Content analysis allows the researcher to identify the relatively objective characteristics of messages (Neuendorf, 2002 ). Thus, this technique enabled us to verify and refine the results produced by the bibliometric analysis, with the goal of improving their validity.

Data extraction

We extracted the bibliographic data from Clarivate Analytics’ WoS database that includes over 21,000 high-quality, peer-reviewed scholarly journals (as of July 2020 from clarivate.libguides.com). We adopted a two-stage data extraction approach (Alon et al., 2018 ; Bretas and Alon, 2021 ). Table 1 describes the data search and extraction processes.

First, in June 2021, we used keywords that would best cover the researched topic by searching for the following combinations of terms: (a) “international student*” OR “foreign student*” OR “overseas student*” OR “study* abroad” OR “international education”—to cover international students as a specific sojourner group; (b) “language*” and “communicat*”—to cover research on foreign-language proficiency as well as communication issues; and (c) “adapt*” OR “adjust*” OR “integrat*” OR “acculturat*”—to cover the adaptation aspects of the international students’ experience. However, given that cross-cultural adaptation is reflected in an individual’s functional fitness, psychological well-being, and development of a cultural identity (Kim, 2001 ), we included two additional terms in the search: “identit*” OR “satisf*”—to cover the literature on the students’ identity issues and satisfaction in the host country. Finally, based on a frequency analysis of our data extracted in step 2, we added “cultur* shock” in step 3 to cover important studies on culture shock as one of critical aspects of cross-cultural adaptation (Gudykunst, 2005 ; Pettigrew, 2008 ; Ward et al., 2001 ). After refining the search by limiting the data to articles published in English, the extraction process yielded 921 sources in WoS.

In the second stage, we refined the extraction further through a detailed examination of all 921 sources. We carefully read the articles’ abstracts to identify those suitable for further analysis. If the abstracts did not contain one or more of the three major aspects specified in the keyword search (i.e., international student, language and communication, adaptation), we studied the whole article to either include or exclude it. We did not identify any duplicates, but we removed book chapters and reviews of prior literature that were not filtered out by the search in WoS. Moreover, we excluded articles that (a) reported on students’ experiences outside of higher education contexts; (b) dealt with teaching portfolios, authors’ reflective inquiries, or anecdotal studies lacking a method section; (c) focused on the students’ experience outside the host country or on the experience of other stakeholders (e.g., students’ spouses, expatriate academics); (d) used the terms “adaptation,” “integration,” or “identity” in a sense different from cultural adaptation (e.g., adaptation of a syllabus/method/language instruction; integration of research/teaching methods/technology; “professional” but not “cultural” identity); or (e) used language/communication as a dependent rather than an independent variable. This process yielded 313 articles relevant to the topic. From them, we extracted the article’s title, author(s) names and affiliations, journal name, number, volume, page range, date of publication, abstract, and cited references for bibliometric analysis.

In a bibliometric analysis, the article is the unit of analysis. The goal of the analysis is to demonstrate interconnections among articles and research areas by measuring how many times the article is (co)cited by other articles (Bretas & Alon, 2021 ).

• Bibliometric analysis

Most relevant journals and articles

We addressed research question 1 regarding the most impactful journals and articles about the role of language and communication in student adaptation by identifying the most relevant journals and articles. Figure  2 lists the top 20 journals publishing in the field. The five most influential journals in terms of the number of local and global citations are as follows: International Journal of Intercultural Relations (79 and 695 citations, respectively), Journal of Studies in International Education (28 and 343 citations, respectively), Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development (14 and 105 citations, respectively), Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology (13 and 302 citations, respectively), and Higher Education (11 and 114 citations, respectively),

Source: HistCite). Note . TLC, total local citations received; TLC/t, total local citations received per year; TGC, total global citations received; Articles, number of articles published in the field

Top 20 journals publishing on language and communication in student adaptation (

Table 2  lists the 20 most influential and trending articles as measured by, respectively, local citations (TLC) and trending local citations at the end of the period covered (TLCe), that is, mid-2021. The most locally cited article was a qualitative study of Asian students’ experiences in New Zealand by Campbell and Li ( 2008 ) (TLC = 12). That study, which linked host-language proficiency with student satisfaction and effective communication in academic contexts, also received the highest number of global citations per year (TGC/t = 7.86). The most influential article in terms of total local citations per year was a quantitative study by Akhtar and Kröner-Herwig ( 2015 ) (TLC/t = 1.00) who linked students’ host-language proficiency, prior international experience, and age with acculturative stress among students in Germany. Finally, Sam’s ( 2001 ) quantitative study, which found no relationship between host-language and English proficiency and having a local friend on students’ satisfaction with life in Norway, received the most global citations (TGC = 115).

The most trending article (TLCe = 7) was a quantitative study by Duru and Poyrazli ( 2011 ) who considered the role of social connectedness, perceived discrimination, and communication with locals and co-nationals in the sociocultural adaptation of Turkish students in the USA. The second article with the most trending local citations (TLCe = 5) was a qualitative study by Sawir et al. ( 2012 ) who focused on host-language proficiency as a barrier to sociocultural adaptation and communication in the experience of students in Anglophone countries.

Keyword co-occurrence analysis

We addressed research question 2 regarding the thematic structure of the research in the field by analyzing the authors’ keyword co-occurrences to establish the thematic structure of the field (Bretas and Alon, 2021 ; Donthu et al., 2020 ). Figure  3 depicts the network of keywords that occurred together in at least five articles between 1994 and 2021. The nodes represent keywords, the edges represent linkages among the keywords, and the proximity of the nodes and the thickness of the edges represent how frequently the keywords co-occurred (Donthu et al., 2020 ). The analysis yielded two even clusters with 17 keywords each. Cluster 1 represents the primary focus on the role of language proficiency in student adaptation. It includes keywords such as “language proficiency,” “adaptation,” “acculturative stress,” “culture shock,” and “challenges.” Cluster 2 represents the focus on the role of intercultural communication and competence in student adaptation. It includes keywords such as “intercultural communication,” “intercultural competence,” “academic/psychological/sociocultural adaptation,” and “transition.”

Source: VOS)

Authors’ keyword co-occurrence analysis (

Conceptual thematic map

Based on the authors’ keywords, we plotted a conceptual map (see Fig.  4 ) using two dimensions. The first is density , which indicates the degree of development of the themes as measured by the internal associations among the keywords. The second is centrality , which indicates the relevance of the themes as measured by the external associations among the keywords. The map shows four quadrants: (a) motor themes (high density and centrality), (b) basic themes (low density and high centrality), (c) niche themes (high density and low centrality), and (d) emerging/declining themes (low density and centrality) (Bretas & Alon, 2021 ). The analysis revealed that motor themes in the field are studies of Chinese students’ experiences and student integration. Unsurprisingly, the basic themes encompass most topics related to language in student adaptation. Research examining the perspective of the students’ parents with regard to their children’s overseas experience exemplifies a niche theme. Finally, “international medical students” and “learning environment” unfold as emerging/declining themes. To determine if the theme is emerging or declining, we analyzed bibliometric data on articles relating to medical students’ adaptation and students’ learning environment. We found that out of 19 articles on medical students published in 13 journals (10 medicine/public health-related), 15 (79%) articles were published over the last five years (2016–2021), which clearly suggests an emerging trend. The analysis of authors’ keywords yielded only three occurrences of the keyword “learning environment” in articles published in 2012, 2016, and 2020, which may suggest an emerging trend. To further validate this result, we searched for this keyword in titles and abstracts and identified eight relevant articles published between 2016 and 2020, which supports the emerging trend.

Source: Biblioshiny)

Conceptual thematic map (

Citation mapping: research streams

We addressed research question 3 regarding the leading research streams investigating language and communication in student adaptation by using co-citation mapping techniques to reveal how the articles in our dataset are co-cited over time. To produce meaningful results that would not trade depth for breadth in our large dataset (313 articles), we limited the search to articles with TGC ≥ 10 and TLC ≥ 3. These thresholds yielded the 31 articles (10% of the dataset) that are most frequently cited within and outside the dataset, indicating their driving force in the field. We analyzed these 31 articles further because their number corresponds with the suggested range of the most-cited core articles for mapping in HistCite (Garfield et al., 2006 ).

Figure  5 presents the citation mapping of these 31 articles. The vertical axis shows how the articles have been co-cited over time. Each node represents an article, the number in the box represents the location of the article in the entire dataset, and the size of the box indicates the article’s impact in terms of TLCs. The arrows indicate the citing direction between two articles. A closer distance between two nodes/articles indicates their similarity. Ten isolated articles in Fig.  5 have not been co-cited by other articles in the subsample of 31 articles.

Source: HistCite)

Citation mapping of articles on language and communication in student adaptation (

A content analysis of these 31 articles points to two major and quite even streams in the field: (a) “ second-language proficiency ” (16 articles) and (b) “ interactions in the host country ” involving second-language proficiency, communication competence, intercultural communication, and other factors (15 articles). We clustered the articles based on similar conceptualizations of language and communication and their role in student adaptation. As Fig.  5 illustrates, the articles formed distinct but interrelated clusters. The vertical axis indicates that while studies focusing solely on second-language proficiency and host-country interactions have developed relatively concurrently throughout the entire timespan, a particular interest in host-country interactions occurred in the second decade of research within the field (between 2009 and 2013). The ensuing sections present the results of the content analysis of the studies in each research stream, discussing the results in light of the major theories outlined before.

Content analysis

We sought to answer research question 4 regarding the effects of language and communication on student adaptation by synthesizing the literature within the previously established two research streams. The concept map in Fig.  6 illustrates the predictive effects of second-language proficiency and host-country interactions on various adaptation domains. Table 4 in the Appendix presents a detailed description of the synthesis and lists studies reporting these effects, underscoring inconclusive results.

A concept map synthesizing research on language and communication in student adaptation

Second-language proficiency

This research stream focuses on language barriers and the role of foreign-language proficiency in student adaptation. Having host-language proficiency predicts less acculturative stress (Akhtar and Kröner-Herwig, 2015 ), while limited host-language proficiency inhibits communication with locals and academic integration (Cao et al., 2016 ). These results are in line with the acculturation theory (Berry, 1997 , 2005 ; Ward et al., 2001 ) and the communication and cross-cultural adaptation theory (Kim, 2001 ). Cross ( 1995 ) suggested that social skills predict sociocultural rather than psychological (perceived stress, well-being) adaptation (Searle and Ward, 1990 ). Indeed, several qualitative studies have explained that the language barrier affects sociocultural adaptation by preventing students from establishing contacts with host nationals (Wang and Hannes, 2014 ), developing meaningful relationships (Sawir et al., 2012 ), and limiting occasions for cultural learning (Trentman, 2013 ), supporting the acculturation theory (Anderson, 1994 ; Church, 1982 ; Searle and Ward, 1990 ).

Moreover, insufficient host-language proficiency reduces students’ satisfaction by hampering their communication, socialization, and understanding of lectures in academic contexts (Campbell and Li, 2008 ). Similarly, language affects academic adaptation in students who have difficulty communicating with domestic students (Young and Schartner, 2014 ) or when used as a tool in power struggles, limiting students’ opportunities to speak up in class and participate in discussions or decision-making (Shi, 2011 ). Students who have limited host-language proficiency tend to interact with other international students, which exacerbates their separation from domestic students (Sawir et al., 2012 ). These findings again confirm the theories of acculturation (Berry, 1997 ; Ward et al., 2001 ) and communication and cross-cultural adaptation (Kim, 2001 ).

With regard to the acculturation theory (Berry, 1997 ; Ward and Kennedy, 1999 ), we found inconclusive results concerning the impact of foreign-language skills on students’ satisfaction and adaptation. Specifically, some studies (e.g., Sam, 2001 ; Ying and Liese, 1994 ) found this effect to be non-significant when tested in regression models. One explanation for this result might be the indirect effect of language on adaptation. For instance, Yang et al. ( 2006 ) established that host-language proficiency mediated the relationship between contact with host nationals and the psychological and sociocultural adjustment of students in Canada. Swami et al. ( 2010 ) reported that better host-language skills among Asian students in Britain predicted their adaptation partly because they had more contacts with host nationals. In turn, Meng et al. ( 2018 ) found that the relationship between foreign-language proficiency and social and academic adaptation was fully mediated by global competence (understood as “intercultural competence” or “global mindset”) in Chinese students in Belgium.

Interactions in the host country

The second research stream comprises studies taking a broader look at language and communication in student adaptation by considering both individual and social interaction contexts: second-language (host-language and English) proficiency; willingness to communicate in the second language; communication interactions with domestic and international students, host nationals, and co-nationals; social connectedness (i.e., a subjective awareness of being in a close relationship with the social world; Lee and Robbins, 1998 ; and integrative motivation (i.e., a positive affective disposition towards the host community; Yu, 2013 .

Host-language proficiency predicts academic (Hirai et al., 2015 ; Yu, 2013 ), psychological (Hirai et al., 2015 ; Rui and Wang, 2015 ), and sociocultural adaptation (Brown, 2009 ; Duru and Poyrazli, 2011 ), confirming the acculturation theory (Ward et al., 2001 ). However, although some studies (Hirai et al., 2015 ; Yu, 2013 ) confirmed the impact of host-language proficiency on academic adaptation, they found no such impact on sociocultural adaptation. Yu’s ( 2013 ) study reported that sociocultural adaptation depends on academic adaptation rather than on host-language proficiency. Moreover, host-language proficiency increases the students’ knowledge of the host culture, reduces their uncertainty, and promotes intercultural communication (Gallagher, 2013 ; Rui and Wang, 2015 ), supporting the central aspects of the AUM theory (Gudykunst, 2005 ).

In turn, by enabling communication with academics and peers, second-language proficiency promotes academic (Yu and Shen, 2012 ) and sociocultural adaptation, as well as social satisfaction (Perrucci and Hu, 1995 ). It also increases the students’ willingness to communicate in non-academic contexts. This willingness mediates the relationship between second-language proficiency and cross-cultural difficulties among Asian students in England (Gallagher, 2013 ). This finding may explain inconclusive results concerning the relationship between second-language proficiency and cultural adaptation. It appears that second-language proficiency alone is insufficient for successful adaptation. This proficiency should be coupled with the students’ willingness to initiate intercultural communication to cope with communication and cultural difficulties, which is compatible with both the AUM theory and Kim’s ( 2001 ) communication and cross-cultural adaptation theory.

As mentioned before, host-language proficiency facilitates adaptation through social interactions. Research demonstrates that communication with domestic students predicts academic satisfaction (Perrucci and Hu, 1995 ) and academic adaptation (Yu and Shen, 2012 ), confirming Kim’s ( 2001 ) theory. Moreover, the frequency of interaction (Zimmermann, 1995 ) and direct communication with host nationals (Rui and Wang, 2015 ) predict adaptation and reduce uncertainty, supporting the AUM theory. Zhang and Goodson ( 2011 ) found that social interactions with host nationals mediate the relationship between adherence to the host culture and sociocultural adaptation difficulties, confirming the acculturation theory (Berry, 1997 ), the intergroup contact theory (Allport, 1954 ; Pettigrew, 2008 ), and the culture learning approach in acculturation theory (Ward et al., 2001 ).

In line with the intergroup contact theory, social connectedness with host nationals predicts psychological and sociocultural adaptation (e.g., Hirai et al., 2015 ; Zhang and Goodson, 2011 ), confirming the sojourner adjustment framework (Church, 1982 ) and extending the acculturation framework (Ward and Kennedy, 1999 ) that recognizes the relevance of social connectedness for sociocultural adaptation only.

Research on interactions with co-nationals has produced inconclusive results. Some qualitative studies (Pitts, 2009 ) revealed that communication with co-nationals enhances students’ sociocultural adaptation and psychological and functional fitness for interacting with host nationals. Consistent with Kim’s ( 2001 ) theory, such communication may be a source of instrumental and emotional support for students when locals are not interested in contacts with them (Brown, 2009 ). Nonetheless, Pedersen et al. ( 2011 ) found that social interactions with co-nationals may cause psychological adjustment problems (e.g., homesickness), contradicting the acculturation theory (Ward and Kennedy, 1994 ), or increase their uncertainty (Rui and Wang, 2015 ), supporting the AUM theory.

Avenues for future research

We addressed research question 5 regarding future research directions through a content analysis of the 31 most impactful articles in the field. Importantly, all 20 trending articles listed in Table 1 were contained in the set of 31 articles. This outcome confirms the relevance of the results of the content analysis. We used these results as the basis for formulating the research questions we believe should be addressed within each of the two research streams. These questions are listed in Table 3 .

Research has focused primarily on the experience of Asian students in Anglophone countries (16 out of 31 most impactful articles), with Chinese students’ integration being the motor theme. This is not surprising given that Asian students account for 58% of all international students worldwide (OECD, 2021b ). In addition, Anglophone countries have been the top host destinations for the last two decades. The USA, the UK, and Australia hosted 49% of international students in 2000, while the USA, the UK, Canada, and Australia hosted 47% of international students in 2020 (Project Atlas, 2020 ). This fact raises the question of the generalizability of the research results across cultural contexts, especially given the previously identified cultural variation in student adaptation (Fritz et al., 2008 ). Thus, it is important to study the experiences of students in underexplored non-Anglophone host destinations that are currently gaining in popularity, such as China, hosting 9% of international students worldwide in 2019, France, Japan, or Spain (Project Atlas, 2020 ). Furthermore, future research in various non-Anglophone countries could precisely define the role of English as a lingua franca vs. host-language proficiency in international students’ experience.

The inconsistent results concerning the effects of communication with co-nationals on student adaptation (e.g., Pedersen et al., 2011 ; Pitts, 2009 ) indicate that more contextualized research is needed to determine if such communication is a product of or a precursor to adaptation difficulties (Pedersen et al., 2011 ). Given the lack of confirmation of the acculturation theory (Ward and Kennedy, 1994 ) or the communication and cross-cultural adaptation theory (Kim, 2001 ) in this regard, future research could cross-check the formation of students’ social networks with their adaptation trajectories, potentially using other theories such as social network theory to explain the contradictory results of empirical research.

Zhang and Goodson ( 2011 ) showed that social connectedness and social interaction with host nationals predict both psychological and sociocultural adaptation. In contrast, the sojourner adjustment framework (Ward and Kennedy, 1999 ) considered their impact on sociocultural adaptation only. Thus, future research should conceptualize the interrelationships among social interactions in the host country and various adaptation domains (psychological, sociocultural, and academic) more precisely.

Some studies (Brown, 2009 ; Gallagher, 2013 ; Rui and Wang, 2015 ) confirm all of the major adaptation theories in that host-language proficiency increases cultural knowledge and the acquisition of social skills, reduces uncertainty and facilitates intercultural communication. Nevertheless, the impact of language on sociocultural adaptation appears to be a complex issue. Our content analysis indicated that sociocultural adaptation may be impacted by academic adaptation (Yu, 2013 ) or does not occur when students do not engage in meaningful interactions with host nationals (Ortaçtepe, 2013 ). To better capture the positive sociocultural adaptation outcomes, researchers should take into account students’ communication motivations, together with other types of adaptation that may determine sociocultural adaptation.

Next, in view of some research suggesting the mediating role of second-language proficiency (Yang et al., 2006 ), contacts with host nationals (Swami et al., 2010 ), and students’ global competence (Meng et al., 2018 ) in their adaptation, future research should consider other non-language-related factors such as demographic, sociocultural, and personality characteristics in student adaptation models.

Finally, the conceptual map of the field established the experiences of medical students and the learning environment as an emerging research agenda. We expect that future research will focus on the experience of other types of students such as management or tourism students who combine studies with gaining professional experience in their fields. In terms of the learning environment and given the development and growing importance of online learning as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic, future research should explore the effects of remote communication, both synchronous and asynchronous, in online learning on students’ adaptation and well-being.

This article offers an objective approach to reviewing the current state of the literature on language and communication in student adaptation by conducting a bibliometric analysis of 313 articles and a content analysis of 31 articles identified as the driving force in the field. Only articles in English were included due to the authors’ inability to read the identified articles in Russian, Spanish, or Chinese. Future research could extend the data search to other languages.

This review found support for the effects of language of communication on student adaptation, confirming major adaptation theories. Nevertheless, it also identified inconsistent results concerning communication with co-nationals and the complex effects of communication with host nationals. Thus, we suggested that future research better captures the adaptation outcomes by conducting contextualized research in various cultural contexts, tracking the formation of students’ social networks, and precisely conceptualizing interrelations among social interactions in the host country and different adaptation domains. Researchers should also consider students’ communication motivations and the mediating role of non-language-related factors in student adaptation models.

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Acknowledgements

We thank the anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments and suggestions.

This research is supported by the Polish National Agency for Academic Exchange grant “Exploring international students’ experiences across European and non-European contexts” [grant number PPN/BEK/2019/1/00448/U/00001] to Michał Wilczewski.

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Michał Wilczewski

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Both authors contributed to the study conception and design. Michał Wilczewski had the idea for the article, performed the literature search and data analysis, and drafted the manuscript. Ilan Alon critically revised the work, suggested developments and revisions, and edited the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Wilczewski, M., Alon, I. Language and communication in international students’ adaptation: a bibliometric and content analysis review. High Educ 85 , 1235–1256 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00888-8

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New right to education report reveals measures taken by countries to expand linguistic diversity in education

UNESCO just published the report From rights to country level action analyzing the 82 reports that were submitted for the recent consultation with UNESCO Member States on the implementation of the Convention against discrimination in education . On the occasion of the International Mother Language Day , the findings of the report are particularly relevant in showcasing national efforts made to foster cultural and linguistic diversity, and can be of inspiration in the context of learning recovery.

Conducted on a periodic basis, the consultations require Member States to submit a national report on the measures taken to implement this normative instrument, providing a valuable opportunity to take stock of the progress made, sharing interesting national practices and report on challenges, for example in light of the impact of the COVID—19 pandemic. For the last twelve years, there has been more than 47% increase in state reporting which shows the value given to this reporting mechanism.

The Convention provides for clear rights when it comes to languages. Recognizing the importance of minority languages, 41% of reporting states have legislation or regulations which guarantee the right of national minorities to study in their mother tongue – some states have even guaranteed this right in their constitutions. The report reveals that countries provide instruction in minority or indigenous languages and in accordance with the needs of the local populations as well as spreading multicultural and intercultural bilingual education through teacher training in “linguistic, communicative, cultural, sociolinguistic and pedagogical competences” in the minority languages. Among the 47% of countries reporting on the adaptation of the curriculum to minorities needs, examples, for instance, on the creation of specific syllabus for schools in the mother tongue of the national minorities and in native languages of indigenous communities, were shared.

Refugees and migrants face a multitude of obstacles to education, including language barriers. 52% of reporting countries are providing language classes to ensure a smooth transition into the educational system of the host country.

Despite progress made, the findings reveal that when the language of instruction differed from the mother tongue, for example for those with migrant backgrounds, learning was extremely challenging and resulted in poor performance. In this respect, globally, 40% of the population does not have access to an education in a language they speak or understand.

Rights-based national measures taken to ensure that every learner can be educated in their mother language will help to foster inclusion and reduce disparities in education, especially for learning recovery. Technology may also have a role to advance multilingual education and support the development of quality learning for all, a facet which is being explored by the Initiative on Evolving the Right to Education . With increasing mobility and the risk of languages disappearing, it is timelier than ever to fully embrace linguistic diversity in education.

• Read the report
• More on UNESCO’s work on the right to education
• More on UNESCO’s work around languages in education

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Lost in Translation: How Language Barriers Affect Classroom Communication

The classroom is a melting pot of diversity, where students from different linguistic backgrounds unite to pursue knowledge and academic growth. However, this diversity can present unique challenges in the form of language barriers. Language barriers occur when individuals struggle to communicate effectively due to language proficiency and understanding differences. In an educational setting, language barriers can significantly disrupt the flow of information, hamper engagement, and limit meaningful interactions between students and educators.

1.1 How Language Barriers Affect Classroom Communication:

Language is the key to effective communication, serving as a conduit for understanding, expression, and learning. In the classroom, comprehending and articulating ideas in the language of instruction is crucial for academic success. However, classrooms often comprise diverse students with linguistic backgrounds and language proficiency levels. This diversity can lead to language barriers, impeding seamless communication and significantly impacting the learning experience for both students and educators.

A. The Complexity of Language Barriers

Language barriers arise when individuals face difficulties in understanding, speaking, reading, or writing the language used for instruction. These barriers can manifest in various ways, such as limited vocabulary, unfamiliarity with academic language, different linguistic structures, or accents. Moreover, cultural nuances and interpretations can further complicate effective communication, even when a common language is seemingly shared.

In educational settings, language barriers can be particularly challenging. Students who struggle to grasp the language of instruction may find it difficult to follow lectures, comprehend study materials, or actively engage in classroom discussions. This lack of understanding not only affects their academic performance but also their overall educational experience.

B. Impact on Classroom Communication

• Understanding and Comprehension: Language barriers can hinder students’ understanding and comprehension of lessons. The academic content may be overwhelming or confusing for those who are not proficient in the language being used. Consequently, students may fall behind in their studies and struggle to grasp fundamental concepts.
• Participation and Engagement: Language barriers often result in reduced participation and engagement. Students may feel hesitant to contribute to class discussions or ask questions due to fear of making mistakes or being misunderstood. This lack of involvement can isolate them from the learning process.
• Misinterpretation and Miscommunication: Misinterpretation of instructions, assignments, or assessments is a common consequence of language barriers. Students might misconstrue what is expected of them, leading to errors in their work and potentially affecting their grades and academic progress.
• Teacher-Student Relationship: Effective communication between teachers and students is vital for academic support and guidance. Language barriers can strain this communication, making it challenging for teachers to understand students’ needs and provide appropriate assistance.
• Emotional and Psychological Impact: Language barriers can have a profound emotional impact on students. They may experience frustration, embarrassment, or low self-esteem due to their inability to communicate effectively. These negative emotions can hinder their motivation and enthusiasm for learning.
• Peer Interaction and Collaboration: Effective collaboration and interaction with peers are essential components of the learning process. Language barriers can isolate students, impeding their ability to work well in groups or engage in collaborative activities, which are crucial for holistic development.

C. Addressing Language Barriers:

Efforts to mitigate the effects of language barriers are crucial for ensuring an inclusive and equitable educational environment. Schools and educators can implement several strategies:

• Language Support Programs: Establish language support programs to assist students in improving their language skills, providing additional tutoring or classes focused on language development.
• Clear Communication: Ensure clear and concise communication in the classroom, using visual aids, gestures, and simple language to enhance understanding.
• Cultural Sensitivity: Foster an environment of cultural sensitivity and understanding, valuing linguistic and cultural diversity within the classroom.
• Inclusive Teaching Methods: Utilize inclusive teaching methods that cater to diverse learning styles and linguistic backgrounds, ensuring that all students can actively participate and engage.
• Peer Support and Partnerships: Encourage peer support and partnerships within the classroom, promoting collaboration and helping students learn from each other.

Language barriers in the classroom pose significant challenges for both students and educators. Understanding the profound impact of these barriers on classroom communication is the first step toward finding effective solutions. By fostering inclusivity, providing necessary language support, and adopting strategies that bridge linguistic gaps, we can create an enriching educational experience that empowers all students to succeed. Breaking down language barriers ultimately leads to a more harmonious and productive educational environment where diversity is celebrated and every student has an equal opportunity to thrive.

1.2 Solutions to Overcoming Language _ Barriers in Classroom Communication:

Language barriers can present substantial challenges in the education process, hindering effective communication and impeding the learning process for students with diverse linguistic backgrounds. To create an inclusive and conducive learning environment, it is essential to identify and implement strategies that help mitigate the impact of these language barriers. Now, we will discuss various solutions to foster better classroom communication and enhance the educational experience for all students.

• Bilingual and Multilingual Support: One of the fundamental solutions to addressing language _ barriers is providing bilingual or multilingual support within the classroom. This can be achieved through bilingual educators, support staff, or peer mentors who can assist students in understanding and translating instructions, materials, and academic content. Offering instruction and support in multiple languages helps bridge the linguistic gap and ensures that all students can comprehend the subject matter effectively.
• Language Assistance Programs: Implementing language assistance programs is another crucial step toward alleviating language barriers. These programs can involve additional language classes, workshops, or tutoring sessions tailored to meet the specific linguistic needs of students struggling with the language of instruction. Such programs aim to enhance language proficiency and comprehension, empowering students to actively engage in classroom discussions and academic activities.
• Clear and Visual Communication: Utilizing clear and visual communication methods can significantly aid in overcoming language barriers. Teachers should employ visual aids, diagrams, charts, and multimedia presentations to supplement verbal communication. Visual cues can assist in conveying ideas and concepts, providing an alternative means of understanding for students with varying language skills.
• Encourage Peer Collaboration: Promoting peer collaboration and group activities is an effective strategy for combating language barriers. Assigning group projects or partnering with students with diverse language backgrounds encourages them to work together, helping each other grasp the subject matter. Collaboration fosters peer learning and exposes students to different linguistic styles and communication methods, enriching their educational experience.
• Inclusive Teaching Methods: Teachers can adopt inclusive teaching methods that cater to diverse learning styles and linguistic backgrounds. This includes incorporating multiple modalities of instruction, such as auditory, visual, and kinesthetic approaches. Tailoring lesson plans to accommodate various learning preferences ensures that all students can engage with the material effectively, regardless of their language proficiency.
• Cultural Sensitivity and Awareness: Fostering cultural sensitivity and awareness within the classroom is essential for breaking down language barriers. Educators should educate students about different cultures, languages, and customs, encouraging respect and understanding. When students appreciate the linguistic diversity in their classroom, they are more likely to support and assist each other in overcoming language challenges.
• Regular Progress Assessments and Feedback: Implementing regular progress assessments and providing constructive feedback is crucial in monitoring students’ language development. Teachers can identify students struggling with language barriers and tailor additional support accordingly. Open communication and feedback mechanisms enable educators to adapt their teaching methods and interventions to better meet their students’ linguistic needs.

Language barriers should not act as a hindrance to effective classroom communication and learning. By combining these strategies, educational institutions and educators can significantly diminish the impact of language barriers, creating an inclusive educational environment that empowers all students to succeed. The key is to recognize the unique linguistic needs of each student and implement targeted solutions that foster better comprehension, engagement, and participation , ensuring that language diversity enriches the educational journey rather than limiting it.

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Language Barrier: Understanding its Impact, Challenges, and Strategies for Effective Communication

Introduction:.

A language barrier refers to the difficulty or inability to communicate effectively due to differences in language and linguistic abilities between individuals. Language barriers can occur in various settings, including healthcare, education, business, and social interactions. This comprehensive article aims to provide an understanding of language barriers, exploring their impact, challenges they pose, and strategies to overcome them for effective communication and meaningful interactions.

Impact of Language Barriers:

Language barriers can have significant implications for individuals and communities:

• Limited access to information: Language barriers can restrict individuals from accessing important information, services, and resources, leading to disparities in education, healthcare, and employment opportunities.
• Miscommunication and misunderstandings: Ineffective communication due to language barriers can result in misinterpretations, misunderstandings, and misdiagnoses, leading to errors, conflicts, or suboptimal outcomes.
• Social isolation and exclusion: Language barriers can contribute to social isolation, as individuals may struggle to participate fully in social, cultural, and community activities.
• Reduced trust and confidence: Inability to communicate fluently in a shared language can lead to decreased trust, confidence, and satisfaction in interpersonal interactions and professional relationships.

Challenges of Language Barriers:

Language barriers present several challenges to effective communication:

• Linguistic differences: Different languages have unique grammar, vocabulary, and syntax, making it challenging to convey messages accurately and understand nuances.
• Cultural differences: Language is closely intertwined with culture, and understanding cultural contexts and norms is essential for effective communication.
• Non-verbal communication: Language barriers can hinder the interpretation and understanding of non-verbal cues, such as facial expressions, body language, and gestures, which are important for conveying meaning.
• Limited resources and support: In certain contexts, resources and support for translation, interpretation, or language assistance may be limited, further exacerbating language barriers.

Strategies for Effective Communication:

Overcoming language barriers requires proactive strategies and approaches:

• Professional interpreters: Utilize trained interpreters or translators proficient in both languages to ensure accurate and culturally sensitive communication.
• Use of technology: Employ language translation tools, mobile applications, or video conferencing services that offer real-time translation capabilities.
• Simple and clear language: Use plain language, avoid jargon or technical terms, and break down complex information into simpler concepts to enhance comprehension.
• Visual aids and gestures: Incorporate visual aids, diagrams, pictures, or gestures to supplement verbal communication and facilitate understanding.
• Cultural competence: Develop cultural competence by learning about and respecting cultural norms, practices, and customs to foster better cross-cultural communication.
• Patience and active listening: Demonstrate patience, active listening, and empathy when communicating with individuals who have limited language proficiency, allowing for clarification and understanding.

Community and Policy Considerations:

Addressing language barriers requires a collective effort and policy considerations:

• Language support services: Ensure the availability of language support services, such as interpreters, translators, or bilingual staff, in public institutions, healthcare facilities, and service-oriented organizations.
• Education and awareness: Promote cultural competency training, language access policies, and awareness campaigns to foster inclusive and equitable communication practices.
• Collaboration and partnerships: Encourage collaboration between diverse communities, organizations, and language service providers to develop sustainable solutions and improve language access.

Conclusion:

Language barriers can significantly impact effective communication and meaningful interactions. Understanding the challenges they pose and employing strategies to overcome them are crucial for fostering inclusive environments, providing equitable access to services, and building stronger connections across linguistic and cultural divides. By prioritizing effective communication, we can bridge language barriers and promote understanding, respect, and inclusivity in our increasingly diverse societies.

Hashtags: #LanguageBarrier #EffectiveCommunication #CulturalCompetence #LanguageAccess

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Krish Tangella MD, MBA

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Implications of Language Barriers for Healthcare: A Systematic Review

Hilal al shamsi.

1 Director of Planning and Studies, Directorate General of Planning and Studies, Ministry of Health, Al Buraimi, Oman

Abdullah G. Almutairi

2 Director of Tumair Hospital, Ministry of Health, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Sulaiman Al Mashrafi

3 Directorate General of Planning and Studies, Department of Health Information and Statistics, Ministry of Health, Muscat, Oman

Talib Al Kalbani

4 Director of Pharmaceutical Care and Medical Stores, Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health, Al Buraimi, Oman

Language barriers pose challenges in terms of achieving high levels of satisfaction among medical professionals and patients, providing high- quality healthcare and maintaining patient safety. To address these challenges, many larger healthcare institutions offer interpreter services to improve healthcare access, patient satisfaction, and communication. However, these services increase the cost and duration of treatment. The purpose of this review is to investigate the impact of language barriers on healthcare and to suggest solutions to address the challenges.

We identified published studies on the implications of language barriers in healthcare using two databases: PubMed and Medline. We included 14 studies that met the selection criteria. These studies were conducted in various countries, both developed and developing, though most came from the US. The 14 studies included 300 918 total participants, with participation in each study ranging from 21 to 22 353 people.

We found that language barriers in healthcare lead to miscommunication between the medical professional and patient, reducing both parties’ satisfaction and decreasing the quality of healthcare delivery and patient safety. In addition, the review found that interpreter services contribute indirectly to increased cost and the length of treatment visits. One study reported the implementation of online translation tools such as Google Translate and MediBabble in hospitals, which increased the satisfaction of both medical providers and patients (to 92%) and improved the quality of healthcare delivery and patient safety. Language barriers are responsible for reducing the satisfaction of medical providers and patients, as well as the quality of healthcare delivery and patient safety. Many healthcare institutions use interpreter services that increase the cost and length of treatment visits.

Conclusions

The results of our review suggest that implementing online translation tools such as Google Translate and MediBabble may improve the quality of healthcare and the level of satisfaction among both medical providers and patients.

Introduction

Language barriers have a major impact on the cost and quality of healthcare. They commonly occur between healthcare providers and patients when the two groups do not share a native language. 1 Regardless of language barriers, healthcare providers are required to deliver high-quality healthcare that adheres to the principles of human rights and equity to all their patients. 2

Health disparities such as unequal treatment related to language barriers are associated with unequal access to healthcare and unequal health outcomes. 3 For instance, a recent study demonstrated that patients who do not speak the local language are disadvantaged in terms of access to healthcare services. 4 Similarly, several studies have shown that patients who face language barriers have poorer health outcomes compared with patients who speak the local language. 5 , 6

Growing evidence documents the fact that language barriers indirectly impact the quality of the healthcare that patients receive. Language barriers contribute to reducing both patient and medical provider satisfaction, as well as communication between medical providers and patients. Patients who face language barriers are more likely to consume more healthcare services 2 and experience more adverse events. 7 A recent study conducted in six hospitals in the US found that adverse events occurred more frequently among patients with limited proficiency in English than among those who were proficient in English.

This review investigates the impact of language barriers on healthcare and suggests solutions to address the challenges.

We identified studies of the impact of language barriers on the delivery of healthcare by searching the PubMed and Medline databases using the keywords: ‘language barriers,’ ‘satisfaction,’ ‘healthcare,’ ‘limited English proficiency,’ ‘quality of care,’ ‘communication,’ and ‘access to health services’.

This review includes studies that address the impact of language barriers on the delivery of healthcare. It excludes studies into the impacts of communication barriers other than language barriers on the delivery of healthcare, studies that were not primarily conducted in healthcare organizations, and non-peer-reviewed articles. The search strategy was limited to articles published from 2000 to 2019 to find the most recent literature on the topic.

The extracted data are summarized in two tables. Table 1 outlines the general characteristics of the studies, including the country in which the study was done, the total number of organizations in which the sample was collected, the type of organization that conducted the study, the study type, the data collection method, the sample size, and the response rate. Table 2 presents the implication of language barriers on the delivery of healthcare in each study in the review.

*MOH: Ministry of Health; NA: not applicable; NR: not recorded.

Figure 1 shows the researcher’s method of selecting eligible studies for this review. Initially, the researcher’s search of the PubMed and Medline databases returned 2569 articles. After removing the duplicate articles, 1211 remained. Next, the researcher excluded the articles that were not mainly about language barriers (n = 605) and the non-peer-reviewed articles (n = 532). Then the researcher excluded those studies that were not primarily conducted in healthcare organizations (n = 60), leaving 14 articles to be included in this systematic review.

The process of selecting the included 14 studies in this review.

Table 1 presents a summary of the general characteristics of the 14 studies arranged by the authors’ names. Nine studies used a cross-sectional design, two used a prospective design, two used qualitative research, and one was a report. Five studies collected data from an interview survey, three used questionnaires, one used both an interview survey and questionnaires, three used hospital databases, and two used telephone and mail surveys. Five of the studies were conducted in the US, two in Saudi Arabia, two in Switzerland, and one each in Canada, Germany, England, Norway, and South Africa. The total number of participants in the 14 studies was 300 918, with the number of participants in each study ranging from 21 to 22 353.

Table 2 presents the most important findings of the 14 studies in this review. Seven of the studies focused on language barriers and patient satisfaction, two on the impact of language barriers on healthcare provider satisfaction, one on the impact of language barriers on both healthcare providers and patient satisfaction, two on the cost of interpretation services, one on the quality of interpretation services, and one on online translation tools. The findings of studies can be divided into three categories: the impact of language barriers on medical providers (such as physicians and nurses), patients, and the cost and quality of healthcare services.

Communication between patients and medical providers is at the heart of effective healthcare. In Pytel, 17 94.3% of nurses reported that it was very important for their work environment and communication to understand the language of their patients. Physicians also have difficulty understanding patients who do not speak their language, leading to wrong diagnosis and medications. 18 In Norway, medical providers reported that they had trouble understanding between 36% and 43% of the patients who do not speak the local language, necessitating interpreters. 15 Indeed, 37% of physicians indicated that they felt that patients hide some information because of language barriers. 15 In addition, all South African nurses in Saudi Arabia had difficulty communicating with patients and their family members, as well as nurses from other countries, because of language barriers. 19

Language barriers have negative implications for the delivery of healthcare and patient satisfaction. One study showed that among patients who received treatment from nurses who did not speak the local language, 30% had difficulty understanding medical instructions, 30% had a problem with the reliability of information, and 50% believed that the language barrier contributed to errors. 10 Other studies found that among patients who did not speak the local language, 49% had trouble understanding a medical situation, 34.7% were confused about how to use medication, 41.8% had trouble understanding a label on medication, 15.8% had a bad reaction to medication due to a problem understanding their healthcare provider’s instructions, 20 66.7% faced a barrier when accessing healthcare, and 20% did not seek healthcare services if these were not readily available for fear of not understanding their healthcare provider. 14 Furthermore, many patients with limited local language proficiency experienced adverse health events that resulted in detectable physical harm (49.1% of patients) or moderate temporary harm (46.8%) or experienced some failure in communication with medical providers (52.4%). 5 Patients with limited local language proficiency are also likely to miss medical appointments and have difficulties arranging appointments due to the language barrier. 9 Therefore, these patients have a poor level of satisfaction with their healthcare. 14 , 18

To increase patient satisfaction with healthcare, it is necessary to provide interpreter services. Two studies pointed out that medical providers needed interpreter services for 43.2% of their patients, and 21–76% of medical providers stated they had poor access to these services. 12 , 15 Moreover, 70.7% of limited English proficiency patients (LEPPs) reported limited availability of interpreter services, 13 , 14 and 26.4% reported that there were no interpreters in their healthcare institutions. 2 LEPPs also indirectly raise the cost of health services when they use interpreter services. 12 LEPPs who used interpreter services received more inpatient services and attended more office visits than those who did not. 11 The authors of this study estimated that interpreter services for Medicaid recipients at about $4.7 million annually. Some healthcare organizations use online translation tools such as Google Translate and MediBabble to address the challenges of language barriers. These tools are free and easy to access, and they contribute to improving healthcare delivery, patient safety, and increased (up to 92%) the satisfaction of both medical professionals and patients. 8

This review investigates the impact of language barriers on the delivery of healthcare and identifies possible solutions to the challenges posed by these language barriers. The first impact of language barriers is miscommunication between medical providers (physicians and nurses) and patients [ Table 2 ]. This miscommunication contributes to a reduction in the satisfaction of both medical providers and patients, the quality of healthcare delivery, and patient safety. The second impact is an increase in indirect healthcare costs. The final impact is the application of online translation tools to healthcare organizations, which improves the quality of healthcare delivery and patient safety and increases the satisfaction of both medical professionals and patients.

Language barriers are a key cause of miscommunication between medical providers and patients, and negatively affect the quality of healthcare services and patient satisfaction. Hospital medical professionals perceive language barriers to be a source of workplace stress and an impediment to the delivery of high-quality healthcare. 21 Much evidence shows a significant association between workplace stress and lower satisfaction among medical providers. 22 - 24 In addition, studies indicate that language barriers contribute to medical professionals’ incomplete understanding of patients’ situations, delayed treatment or misdiagnoses, poor patient assessment and incomplete prescribed treatment. 14 , 25

We also found that patients who do not speak the local language will have less satisfaction with their healthcare and less access to usual sources of healthcare. Even when patients with language barriers have access to healthcare, they have decreased satisfaction with that healthcare, decreased understanding of their diagnoses, and increased medication complications. 25 , 26 A study conducted in Saudi Arabia showed that 25% of foreign patients reported that they had difficulty communicating with medical professionals and decreased satisfaction with their healthcare; 20% of medical professionals reported that health outcomes (i.e., healthcare errors, understanding patient needs, feeling satisfaction, and trust in nursing care needs) were always affected by language barriers. 27 Interpreter services are necessary to solve the problem of language barriers in healthcare institutions and to increase the satisfaction of both medical professionals and patients.

To overcome language barriers, some healthcare institutions provide interpreter services; however, these services pose critical challenges in terms of access and financial burden. Previous studies have shown that most healthcare institutions have poor access to interpreter services or no services at all. 12 , 14 The use of interpreter services contributes to increased patient satisfaction and improved patient care among patients with language barriers. 28 Interpreter services have a significant association with increased physician visits, prescription drugs by physicians, and receipt of preventative services among patients. 29 However, providing interpreter services also increases the length and cost of physician visits.

MediBabble is an application created by medical students at the University of California, San Francisco, and released in 2011. Using advanced voice recognition software, it offers translations for thousands of medical instructions, as well as the questions for a standard medical history. 30 , 31 The application contains thousands of instructions and translated questions, organized by symptom. Most questions can be answered with ‘yes’ or ‘no’ gestures. 32 MediBabble can be used online or offline, and it allows physicians to take patient histories and make diagnoses when a language barrier exists. 32 However, the application translates only six languages: English, Spanish, Russian, Cantonese, Haitian Creole, and Mandarin. 32

A case study showed that medical professionals and patients were highly satisfied with MediBabble; they reported that the application was fast and easy in terms of translating and collecting information. 33 In a study done in Canada, MediBabble was used as one strategy to improve the delivery of healthcare for resettled Syrian refugees. It allowed medical professionals to take the refugees’ histories and also make diagnoses. 30 In brief, MediBabble shows success as a medical translator. Using both interpreter services and online translation tools may offer more opportunities to improve healthcare delivery and patient safety.

This review has some limitations. First, there are few existing studies on the application of online translation tools in healthcare to address the problem of language barriers. Second, there are few studies evaluating the challenges of language barriers in private healthcare organizations. The impact of language barriers must be evaluated in both the public and the private sectors to address this problem.

This review also has several strengths. First, studies included in the review were conducted in both developing and developed countries. Second, the response rate was 100% in six of the studies. Third, the studies focused on various aspects of language barriers in healthcare, which helped the researchers to evaluate the challenges from multiple angles and determine solutions.

Language barriers can make the delivery of high-quality healthcare very challenging. They have a negative impact on the quality of healthcare, patient safety, and the satisfaction of medical professionals and patients. While some health organizations provide interpreter services to address these problems, these services indirectly increase the cost of health services and increase the length of treatment visits. Online translation tools such as Google Translate and MediBabble present possible solutions for overcoming these challenges. Further studies on the implications of language barriers and the effectiveness of online translation tools are recommended. Furthermore, new updates with more medical phrases for Google Translate and with more languages included for MediBabble application are recommended.

The authors declared no conflicts of interest.

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• Published: 15 May 2023

Overcoming the language barrier in science communication

Nature Reviews Bioengineering volume  1 ,  page 305 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Scientific knowledge is mostly communicated in English, which may pose a barrier for non-native English speakers in writing and talking about their research. However, scientific communication can be improved by following some simple rules and by taking advantage of new and existing tools.

Diversity enriches science, whereby researchers from different ethnicities, backgrounds and cultures contribute to a more dynamic, innovative and tolerant scientific environment 1 . Language shapes our way of thinking 2 , 3 , and scholars with different mother tongues can introduce various perspectives and ideas, which are key to research advancements and breakthroughs 4 .

However, most scientific publications, and many conferences and seminars, are conducted in English. Although a common language facilitates communication among scientists worldwide, it can present a barrier for non-native English speakers. Early-career researchers may struggle to master scientific writing in English to clearly communicate the impact of their work, which may introduce an additional challenge when seeking to publish their research and advance their careers. In addition, teaching lectures in English to a multilinguistic class can put pressure on non-native English speakers. In this issue, Hagar Labouta shares her experience as a science educator and discusses the key elements to consider in a multilinguistic and multicultural science classroom.

Whether native English speaker or not, clear and non-ambiguous writing is key to communicating science. Encouragingly, scientific writing can be improved by following a few rules and keeping it simple. When communicating your research, keep in mind that the reader or listener always has four key questions in mind.

“Scientific writing can be improved by following a few rules and keeping it simple”

Why did you do the study? Provide the context of your research (that is, set the stage), and clearly state the knowledge gap or question that your work is addressing.

What did you do? Explain the methods that you have applied, providing enough detail so that others can reproduce your work. Of course, in a conference talk, you may want to keep it simple, outlining key methodologies.

What did you find? Explain (not just list) your key results, comparing them with previously published work, and extracting the key information.

How does the study advance the field? Discuss who else could benefit from your work and provide the bigger picture of how your results and insights can advance this and other fields.

Importantly, whether you are writing a research or a review article, always aim for a broad audience, keep the language simple, use acronyms sparely, and avoid ambiguities (make sure it is clear whether something has previously been published or whether it is a hypothesis). Simplicity is key, as you do not want readers to require a dictionary to read your paper. Avoid redundancies but explain concepts that are important to understand your work in sufficient detail.

When it comes to grammar and style, tools can aid in developing and improving scientific writing skills; for example, Grammarly can be applied to correct spelling, grammar, punctuation and improve clarity. CoSchedule can assist in writing titles. The Hemingway Editor can detect lengthy, complex sentences and common errors, and Quillbot can be used as a paraphrasing tool.

Artificial intelligence technologies, such as the chatbot ChatGPT , can draft abstracts, generate titles or make text more readable. For example, ChatGPT can be applied to obtain a clean and clear version of a manuscript draft. At Springer Nature, large language models, such as ChatGPT, are currently not accepted as a credited author ; however, researchers can use such tools, but need to document their use in the methods or acknowledgements. These tools are a work in progress though, and their implications on scientific writing remain controversial 5 . Whether large language models become a game changer in scientific writing remains to be seen; however, ultimately, our language serves as a means of expression, which should not be lost in the quest to perfectionate writing in English.

At Nature Reviews Bioengineering , we are a team of non-native English-speaking editors, with mother tongues as diverse as Arabic, Farsi, Italian and German. Building on this diversity, we are committed to supporting researchers in communicating their science by editing their review articles, essentially applying the aforementioned rules, and delivering workshops on scientific writing, with the aim to improve scientific communication, while fostering and preserving the diverse ways of communication in our multilinguistic community.

Hofstra, B. et al. The diversity–innovation paradox in science. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 117 , 9284–9291 (2020).

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Deutscher, G. Does your language shape how you think? https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/29/magazine/29language-t.html (2010).

Boroditsky, L. How language shapes thought. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-language-shapes-thought/ (2011).

Almeida, T. Language diversity in the workplace can spur creativity and innovation. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/businessreview/2023/02/20/language-diversity-in-the-workplace-can-spur-creativity-and-innovation/ (2023).

Birhane, A. et al. Science in the age of large language models. Nat. Rev. Phys. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42254-023-00581-4 (2023).

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The Impact of Language Barriers on Academic Achievement in South Africa's Schools 1.1 Introduction and background to the study

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This paper takes on a polemic stance towards the urgency of re-calibrating the English Language curriculum in South Africa. It identifies a systemic avoidance by curriculum designers to consult published research in the social sciences and in education which does not support the curriculum changes that have been made from the National Curriculum Statements in 1996, the Revised National Curriculum Statements in 2007 and the current Curriculum and Assessment Policy in 2012. The article analyses and critiques the English Language curriculum specifications across the years and identifies critical gaps that have generated both epistemic hazards and general inequalities. Inequality is a word that makes populist and conservative politicians feel uncomfortable because addressing and arresting inequality invokes the spectre of equality, which has redistributive connotations offensive to free market ideologies. Equality implies reworking the epistemic deficiencies of the curriculum, with an urgent call to create enduring opportunities for successful matriculants. I connect learner under-achievement to curriculum content deficits and how such inadequate content is unsatisfactorily taught and assessed. Both content and pedagogical approaches need re-calibration in order to break the walls of underachievement, especially in multiply deprived rural and township schools. Keywords Epistemic hazards redistributive curriculum analysis and evaluation Multiply deprived schools multi-languaging benchmarking

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‘A Unique Challenge’: What English Learners With Disabilities Need

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Students with disabilities face a gamut of challenges when it comes to accessing high-quality K-12 education, including a shortage of specialized teachers. The nation’s growing English-learner population faces outsized needs as their English-language proficiency scores remain lower than pre-COVID-19-pandemic averages , and immigrant English learners in particular require more trauma-informed instruction.

English learners who also have disabilities face their own intersectional issues, researchers and advocates say. They range from schools locking students out of dual-language programs in favor of English-only special education programs, language barriers between schools and families, and teachers ill-equipped to serve their students’ needs.

“It’s a complex issue. If it was easy, we would have probably figured out a better way forward by now,” said Sarah Salinas, an assistant professor at Minnesota State University, Mankato’s department of special education. “[This group] includes students that are at the intersection potentially of cultural differences, linguistic differences, and disability differences.”

According to federal data from the school year 2020-21 , nearly 14 percent of all students ages 5 through 21 enrolled in public schools were served under IDEA Part B. Of those students, 11.7 percent were English learners.

As this dual-identified population continues to grow, researchers and advocates offer some potential systemic solutions to many of the prevailing challenges these students and their families face.

A lack of access to bilingual education

One of the top concerns researchers and parents alike shared in interviews with Education Week when it comes to English learners with disabilities is a lack of access to bilingual education or dual-language programs.

Parents are encouraged to speak only English with dual-identified students, in part because of a flawed assumption that bilingualism will confuse them or hinder their academic progress or language progress, said Nikkia Borowski, a Ph.D. candidate in inclusive education at Syracuse University who studies access to bilingualism among such students.

She added that there is also the idea that dual-language programs are enrichment programs designed for academically gifted students, locking dual-identified students out in the process.

This preference for English-only instruction for English learners with disabilities plays out in smaller contexts as well, such as speech-generating devices students use that are programmed only in English.

“As a result, the students are missing access to a bilingual identity and missing access to really important cultural aspects as well,” Borowski said.

There is also the matter of how federal policy works for these dual-identified students.

Both the Equal Education Act of 1968 and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act apply to this student population.

The IDEA, in its 2004 reauthorization, defines a least restrictive environment as the premise of providing services to a student with the greatest access to the general education curriculum, without any explicit mention of what these services look like for multilingual students, Salinas said. The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 focuses on language access for students whose first language is not English without explicit mention of education access for students with disabilities.

So while dual-identified students stand at the intersection of distinct federal policies and laws, the policies and laws are not intersectional themselves.

And even though an English-learner tool kit from the U.S. Department of Education’s office of English-language acquisition reminds educators that a student’s English learner and disability-related educational needs must be met, what ultimately ends up happening is special education and IDEA are consistently prioritized over bilingual education services, Salinas said.

Policymakers have talked about reauthorizing IDEA with more explicit mentions of the needs of dual-identified students, though such a move remains hypothetical, Salinas added.

But even before policies and practices can better align to the linguistic, cultural, and disability-related needs of students, another challenge is at play that presents a quicker potential solution.

The need to reassess communication between schools and families

Navigating IDEA and individual education programs, or IEPs, can already be a daunting task for families. Doing so while English is not the family’s home language is all the more complicated.

Under IDEA, districts must ensure that a student’s parents understand the proceedings of the IEP team meeting, including taking steps such as providing a translator.

In an April survey by the EdWeek Research Center, 65 percent of participating district and school leaders said they offered translation services for special education programming for students whose first language is not English. 37 percent said they did so for all relevant languages spoken by students and families.

Meanwhile, 6 percent of leaders said they do not offer such a service although they have special education students with that need.

Even when considering that 37 percent said their school or districts covered all relevant languages in translation needs, there’s a question of whether the translators involved were trained professionals who understand things like IEPs, or if Spanish-language teachers and bilingual receptionists were called in instead, said Christy Moreno, the chief community advocacy and impact officer of the Missouri-based family-advocacy group Revolucion Educativa.

Moreno, a trained interpreter and translator herself, said offering translation services is the minimum schools and districts must offer families. High-quality translation is key to ensuring families are fully informed of their rights, she added.

“I’ve seen IEPs that are done by Google Translate,” Moreno said.

In addition to investing in proper translation and interpretation, Moreno said educators need to proactively ensure that parents understand how to ask questions about their children’s education. That includes taking into account cultural barriers at play such as stigma within the Latino community over the experiences of students in special education.

Lizdelia Piñón, an emergent bilingual education associate for the Texas-based advocacy nonprofit Intercultural Development Research Association, or IDRA, knows all too well how important it is for families to advocate for their children. Her Spanish-speaking 11-year-old triplets require several accommodations for their autism, cerebral palsy, ADHD, and more.

On several occasions, Piñón said she had to file formal complaints against her local school district to ensure her children’s linguistic and special education needs were met—including pushing back against an attempt to reduce the time her triplets spent with their special education teacher.

However, one systemic issue she sees is a lack of proper training among educators on how to best work with dual-identified students.

The need for better teacher preparation

Piñón worked as a bilingual teacher for about 10 years. She knows that existing bilingual teachers can get their certification in special education as well. But there is a gap of information in both programs, she said, leaving teachers without full context on how to best work with dual-identified students.

“I think that educating English learners with disabilities is a unique challenge for our teachers,” Piñón said.

Overall, there aren’t many teacher-preparation programs that train teachers on what to do in bilingual special education classrooms, said Salinas of Minnesota State University.

Recognizing that knowledge gap, Piñón worked on legislation signed into law in 2021 in Texas to create a bilingual special education certification. However, approval of the new certificate program remains stalled within the state board of education.

Yet, a temporary solution to such knowledge gaps in teacher preparation lies in strategic collaboration among educators, Salinas said.

Such work isn’t always possible between special education and bilingual education teachers on account of tight school schedules and other barriers, she added.

Still, it’s a strategy researchers focusing on English learners say can mitigate not only a lack of bilingual and special education teachers but also address how little training general education teachers have when it comes to working with English learners and special education students overall.

Coverage of students with learning differences and issues of race, opportunity, and equity is supported in part by a grant from the Oak Foundation, at www.oakfnd.org . Education Week retains sole editorial control over the content of this coverage. A version of this article appeared in the May 22, 2024 edition of Education Week as ‘A Unique Challenge’: What English Learners With Disabilities Need

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Why writing by hand beats typing for thinking and learning

Jonathan Lambert

If you're like many digitally savvy Americans, it has likely been a while since you've spent much time writing by hand.

The laborious process of tracing out our thoughts, letter by letter, on the page is becoming a relic of the past in our screen-dominated world, where text messages and thumb-typed grocery lists have replaced handwritten letters and sticky notes. Electronic keyboards offer obvious efficiency benefits that have undoubtedly boosted our productivity — imagine having to write all your emails longhand.

To keep up, many schools are introducing computers as early as preschool, meaning some kids may learn the basics of typing before writing by hand.

But giving up this slower, more tactile way of expressing ourselves may come at a significant cost, according to a growing body of research that's uncovering the surprising cognitive benefits of taking pen to paper, or even stylus to iPad — for both children and adults.

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In kids, studies show that tracing out ABCs, as opposed to typing them, leads to better and longer-lasting recognition and understanding of letters. Writing by hand also improves memory and recall of words, laying down the foundations of literacy and learning. In adults, taking notes by hand during a lecture, instead of typing, can lead to better conceptual understanding of material.

"There's actually some very important things going on during the embodied experience of writing by hand," says Ramesh Balasubramaniam , a neuroscientist at the University of California, Merced. "It has important cognitive benefits."

While those benefits have long been recognized by some (for instance, many authors, including Jennifer Egan and Neil Gaiman , draft their stories by hand to stoke creativity), scientists have only recently started investigating why writing by hand has these effects.

A slew of recent brain imaging research suggests handwriting's power stems from the relative complexity of the process and how it forces different brain systems to work together to reproduce the shapes of letters in our heads onto the page.

Your brain on handwriting

Both handwriting and typing involve moving our hands and fingers to create words on a page. But handwriting, it turns out, requires a lot more fine-tuned coordination between the motor and visual systems. This seems to more deeply engage the brain in ways that support learning.

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"Handwriting is probably among the most complex motor skills that the brain is capable of," says Marieke Longcamp , a cognitive neuroscientist at Aix-Marseille Université.

Gripping a pen nimbly enough to write is a complicated task, as it requires your brain to continuously monitor the pressure that each finger exerts on the pen. Then, your motor system has to delicately modify that pressure to re-create each letter of the words in your head on the page.

"Your fingers have to each do something different to produce a recognizable letter," says Sophia Vinci-Booher , an educational neuroscientist at Vanderbilt University. Adding to the complexity, your visual system must continuously process that letter as it's formed. With each stroke, your brain compares the unfolding script with mental models of the letters and words, making adjustments to fingers in real time to create the letters' shapes, says Vinci-Booher.

That's not true for typing.

To type "tap" your fingers don't have to trace out the form of the letters — they just make three relatively simple and uniform movements. In comparison, it takes a lot more brainpower, as well as cross-talk between brain areas, to write than type.

Recent brain imaging studies bolster this idea. A study published in January found that when students write by hand, brain areas involved in motor and visual information processing " sync up " with areas crucial to memory formation, firing at frequencies associated with learning.

"We don't see that [synchronized activity] in typewriting at all," says Audrey van der Meer , a psychologist and study co-author at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. She suggests that writing by hand is a neurobiologically richer process and that this richness may confer some cognitive benefits.

Other experts agree. "There seems to be something fundamental about engaging your body to produce these shapes," says Robert Wiley , a cognitive psychologist at the University of North Carolina, Greensboro. "It lets you make associations between your body and what you're seeing and hearing," he says, which might give the mind more footholds for accessing a given concept or idea.

Those extra footholds are especially important for learning in kids, but they may give adults a leg up too. Wiley and others worry that ditching handwriting for typing could have serious consequences for how we all learn and think.

What might be lost as handwriting wanes

The clearest consequence of screens and keyboards replacing pen and paper might be on kids' ability to learn the building blocks of literacy — letters.

"Letter recognition in early childhood is actually one of the best predictors of later reading and math attainment," says Vinci-Booher. Her work suggests the process of learning to write letters by hand is crucial for learning to read them.

"When kids write letters, they're just messy," she says. As kids practice writing "A," each iteration is different, and that variability helps solidify their conceptual understanding of the letter.

Research suggests kids learn to recognize letters better when seeing variable handwritten examples, compared with uniform typed examples.

This helps develop areas of the brain used during reading in older children and adults, Vinci-Booher found.

"This could be one of the ways that early experiences actually translate to long-term life outcomes," she says. "These visually demanding, fine motor actions bake in neural communication patterns that are really important for learning later on."

Ditching handwriting instruction could mean that those skills don't get developed as well, which could impair kids' ability to learn down the road.

"If young children are not receiving any handwriting training, which is very good brain stimulation, then their brains simply won't reach their full potential," says van der Meer. "It's scary to think of the potential consequences."

Many states are trying to avoid these risks by mandating cursive instruction. This year, California started requiring elementary school students to learn cursive , and similar bills are moving through state legislatures in several states, including Indiana, Kentucky, South Carolina and Wisconsin. (So far, evidence suggests that it's the writing by hand that matters, not whether it's print or cursive.)

Slowing down and processing information

For adults, one of the main benefits of writing by hand is that it simply forces us to slow down.

During a meeting or lecture, it's possible to type what you're hearing verbatim. But often, "you're not actually processing that information — you're just typing in the blind," says van der Meer. "If you take notes by hand, you can't write everything down," she says.

The relative slowness of the medium forces you to process the information, writing key words or phrases and using drawing or arrows to work through ideas, she says. "You make the information your own," she says, which helps it stick in the brain.

Such connections and integration are still possible when typing, but they need to be made more intentionally. And sometimes, efficiency wins out. "When you're writing a long essay, it's obviously much more practical to use a keyboard," says van der Meer.

Still, given our long history of using our hands to mark meaning in the world, some scientists worry about the more diffuse consequences of offloading our thinking to computers.

"We're foisting a lot of our knowledge, extending our cognition, to other devices, so it's only natural that we've started using these other agents to do our writing for us," says Balasubramaniam.

It's possible that this might free up our minds to do other kinds of hard thinking, he says. Or we might be sacrificing a fundamental process that's crucial for the kinds of immersive cognitive experiences that enable us to learn and think at our full potential.

Balasubramaniam stresses, however, that we don't have to ditch digital tools to harness the power of handwriting. So far, research suggests that scribbling with a stylus on a screen activates the same brain pathways as etching ink on paper. It's the movement that counts, he says, not its final form.

Jonathan Lambert is a Washington, D.C.-based freelance journalist who covers science, health and policy.

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Language Barriers in Health Care: Findings from the KFF Survey on Racism, Discrimination, and Health

Ana Gonzalez-Barrera , Liz Hamel , Samantha Artiga , and Marley Presiado Published: May 16, 2024

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In the U.S., there are about 26 million people who have limited English proficiency (LEP), meaning they speak English less than very well, making up about 8% of people ages five and older. Most U.S. adults with LEP speak Spanish (62%), followed by Chinese (7%), Vietnamese (3%), Arabic (2%), and Tagalog (2%), with the remainder speaking a variety of different languages from regions across the world.  Hispanic people account for nearly two-thirds (62%) of the LEP population, while over a fifth (22%) of individuals with LEP are Asian. The remainder of individuals with LEP are White (11%) or Black (4%) or of other racial and ethnic backgrounds. Adults with LEP are also more likely to be low-income—nearly one in five individuals with LEP have family income below 200% of the federal poverty level, compared with one in ten English-proficient individuals. This brief examines health care experiences among U.S. adults with LEP, drawing on findings from the KFF Survey on Racism, Discrimination, and Health. 1 For more information about U.S. immigrants with LEP, see this brief . The data identify ongoing barriers and disparities adults with LEP face in accessing health care and suggest that having access to providers who speak their preferred language helps reduce these barriers and may improve certain health care experiences.

Health and Health Care Experiences Among Adults with LEP

Adults with LEP express lower levels of comfort asking questions of their health care providers compared to those who are English proficient. While most adults, regardless of English proficiency, say they have felt at least “somewhat” comfortable asking doctors and other health care providers questions about their health or treatment in the past three year, about half (54%) of adults with LEP say they feel “very comfortable,” which is lower than the two-thirds (66%) of English proficient adults who say the same.

About one in five adults with LEP report a negative experience with a provider, one in eight report being treated unfairly or with disrespect, and about half report practicing vigilant behaviors associated with health care visits. Among adults with LEP, one in five reports experiencing at least one of several negative experiences with a health care provider in the past three years, including a provider ignoring a direct request or question (11%), assuming something about them without asking (8%), suggesting they were personally to blame for a health problem (8%), or refusing to prescribe needed pain medication (8%). In addition, one in eight (13%) adults with LEP say there was a time in the past three years when a health care provider or their staff treated them unfairly or with disrespect because of their race or ethnic background or for some other reason. Reflecting these experiences, about half (48%) of adults with LEP say they feel they have to be very careful about their appearance in order to be treated fairly (44%) and/or prepare for possible insults from a provider or their staff (18%) at least some of the time during health care visits. Adults with LEP do not report these experiences at significantly higher rates compared with those who are English proficient.

Importance of Linguistically Concordant Care

Nearly four in ten adults with LEP say fewer than half of their recent health care visits were with a provider who spoke their preferred language. While six in ten (63%) adults with LEP say at least half of their health care visits in the past three years were with a doctor or health care provider that spoke their preferred language, just 28% say that all of them were. Almost four in ten (37%) say that fewer than half of their visits were with a language concordant provider, including 15% who say they had no health care visits in the past three years with a provider who spoke their preferred language. In addition, among adults with LEP, four in ten say fewer than half of their health care visits in the past year were with a provider who shared their racial and ethnic background.

Adults with LEP who have more visits with providers who speak their preferred language are less likely to report facing language barriers while getting health care. Overall, four in ten LEP adults who say at least half of their health care visits in the past three years were with a provider who spoke their preferred language report experiencing at least one language barrier, compared with six in ten among those who had fewer than half of their health care visits with a language-concordant provider. For example, 45% of LEP adults who say less than half of their health care visits were with a provider who spoke their preferred language say they had trouble communicating with medical office staff, compared with 26% of those who had half or more of their health care visits with a language concordant provider.

Adults with LEP who have more visits with a provider who speaks their preferred language are more likely to say they are comfortable asking questions about their health and treatment compared to those with fewer visits with a language concordant provider. Six in ten (61%) LEP adults who had at least half their visits with providers who spoke their preferred language say they have felt very comfortable asking questions compared to four in ten (43%) of those who had fewer visits with a language concordant provider.

Adults with LEP who have more visits with language-concordant providers are more likely to say their providers usually respect their cultural values and beliefs and ask them about social factors like access to work, food, and housing. Among adults with LEP, those who had at least half of their health care visits with a provider who spoke their preferred language are more likely to say their providers understood and respected their cultural values and beliefs most or every time compared with those who had fewer visits with language-concordant providers (87% vs. 76%). While few LEP adults overall say their provider asked them about their work, housing situation or access to food or transportation during recent health care visits, those who had at least half of their visits with language concordant providers are more likely than those who had fewer visits with such providers to say this happened at least most of the time (29% vs. 15%).

• Racial Equity and Health Policy
• Survey on Racism, Discrimination and Health
• TOPLINE & METHODOLOGY

Also of Interest

• LGBT Adults’ Experiences with Discrimination and Health Care Disparities: Findings from the KFF Survey of Racism, Discrimination, and Health
• KFF Survey on Racism, Discrimination and Health: Views on Racism and Trust in Key U.S. Institutions
• Survey on Racism, Discrimination and Health: Experiences and Impacts Across Racial and Ethnic Groups

Community leaders explain how poor translations and a lack of cultural understanding affect a city known for its diversity.

Canopy Atlanta asked over 100 Norcross community members about the journalism they needed. This story emerged from that feedback.

Canopy Atlanta also trains and pays community members, our Fellows, to learn reporting skills to better serve their community. Daniela Racines , a reporter on this story, is a Canopy Atlanta Fellow.

Trinh Pham is executive director of the Norcross-based Atlanta chapter of Boat People SOS (BPSOS), a Vietnamese American non-profit targeting immigrant and low-income community members. “We help people to resettle in [the] U.S.,” Pham says. “[But] they still need us because we found our community had the biggest barriers in culture and language access.”

In Norcross, a city that has become a destination for immigrants settling in Georgia, 47.2 percent of the population speak a language other than English at home, including Spanish, Vietnamese, and Korean, according to the Census Bureau in 2023. 

Georgia’s laws aren’t immigrant friendly, barring DACA recipients from attending some public universities , among other limitations . However, as part of the Welcoming America Network , made of cities dedicated to implementing “intentional, inclusive policies, practices, and norms” for immigrants, Norcross serves as a model on how to make amenities more accessible for all.

But organizations like BPSOS still have to fill important gaps for immigrants, reviewing documents such as leases for homes or small businesses on their behalf. 

Moreover, Pham says that Vietnamese translations provided locally—whether by hospitals to communicate medical information or by the Georgia Department of Driver Services in driver’s tests—either feature poor grammar or don’t account for how much the Vietnamese language has changed. “Someone will translate who came here 50 years ago,” Pham says, to where the “current generation cannot understand it.” 

“Actually, I currently have someone here [in the office] who has taken the test in Vietnamese, but they couldn’t understand it,” she shared.

Other translations don’t appear to account for differences in understanding based on cultural distinctions. BPSOS-Atlanta assists families with applying for Medicare and Medicaid. Many Vietnamese families will have multiple generations living together. BPSOS has found that when applying for benefits, it’s easy for families to interpret “household” incorrectly, with applicants stating that children support the parents by contributing to rent, which can disqualify them from benefits that they do actually qualify for.

“We say that we’re not only bilingual, but bicultural,” Pham says.

With the help of community nonprofits and leaders, Canopy Atlanta explores the many ways language and cultural barriers otherwise create a disconnect in some of the most crucial parts of life in Norcross.

Norcross is primarily policed by two departments: the Norcross Police Department, which covers the official city limits, and the Gwinnett County Police Department West Precinct, which covers the unincorporated areas.

Thirty five percent of the NPD speak a second language, says Norcross Chief of Police Bill Grogan. Twenty two percent of NPD’s uniform patrol officers speak Spanish. 

NPD and West Precinct also have a contract with LanguageLine, which connects dispatchers and police officers in the field to translators by phone. The most common languages requested in the West Precinct include Spanish, Korean, and Vietnamese, according to precinct commander Jordan Griffin.

Meanwhile, over the past year, NPD processed over 1,600 LanguageLine calls from residents speaking Spanish, Vietnamese, Korean, Mandarin, and Arabic. 

“A lot of people fall through the cracks.”

Arelis Rivera worked at NPD for nearly a decade until her recent retirement. She was the department’s sergeant of community outreach, overseeing a Hispanic Citizens Police Academy that taught residents in Spanish about laws and how to navigate them. She says that NPD doesn’t coach officers on how to use LanguageLine. Aside from a “step-by-step guide” for how to use it, “you were basically on your own to figure it out.”

Moreover, officers could struggle to identify which language that non-English speaking residents require: “If you’re from other Spanish countries that speak Spanish, I can tell,” says Rivera, who speaks Spanish and is Puerto Rican. “But as a person who doesn’t know the dialects of each individual Asian country, I couldn’t tell you where [those residents] were from.” 

“A lot of people fall through the cracks,” Rivera adds. Compared to someone fluent in English, who can very well report mistreatment or otherwise unsatisfactory behavior by police to their supervisor, “if you’re from Vietnam, and you had an experience with a police officer, and it was a negative experience, they’re not going to call. They’re not going to do anything.”

Aceli Zenil, co-founder of Amigos de la Comunidad Georgia , an organization supporting Latino families in the state, has met residents who are victims of domestic violence and car theft—like someone whose construction supplies they need to provide financially were stolen. But they won’t want to call the police because they think, “Maybe they will call immigration or ask for papers,” Zenil says.

House Bill 1105 , which passed the Georgia Senate in late March, is expected to add to those fears, as it would grant local or state law enforcement authority to “arrest any person based on such person’s status as an illegal alien or for a violation of any federal immigration law.” As of now, it’s sitting on the Governor’s desk waiting to possibly be signed into law.

“There are not enough bilingual translators who understand medical terminology,” says Greg Lang, former executive director and current chief financial officer of Good Samaritan Health Centers of Gwinnett . As a result, “non-English speaking patients often do not fully understand the education and instructions given to them by a healthcare provider.”

That’s if such patients make a doctor’s visit in the first place. “Generally, the health literacy of non-English speaking patients born in underdeveloped countries is quite limited, as in they do not understand the need for prevention screening, vaccination, and long-term medication use,” Lang says. “Sadly, high blood pressure has no symptoms, and cancer has no symptoms until it is in advanced stages. . . . They tend to believe the absence of symptoms means nothing is wrong.”

A lack of access to healthcare compounds what gets lost in translation, which can ultimately lead to “premature deaths, infectious disease, and untreated chronic conditions,” says Roxana Chicas, assistant professor at Emory University’s nursing school. 

“Non-English speaking patients usually wait to seek medical attention because of the fear of a high out-of-pocket medical cost and lack of culturally and linguistically appropriate care. . . . For immigrants with limited English proficiency, they often face a combination [of] factors that delays seeking care even more,” Chicas says. Those factors include long work hours, lack of transportation, lack of sick pay, and cultural stigmas around mental health. 

Photos by Sophia Qureshi

Such inequities are why BPSOS runs a community clinic, staffed entirely by volunteers, to offer free health screenings, primary care, and vaccinations. BPSOS also partners with Uber to provide rides for patients to their appointments. “We educate people: You need to have an annual check-up,” Pham says. “So we partnered with Emory University to offer free services, because we found many families couldn’t afford health insurance.”

Schools and Education

Even before the school year starts, just signing children up for school at all can be a challenge without English proficiency. 

Zenil’s organization, Amigos de la Comunidad Georgia, assists those who need it with that process: “Some families call me and they say, ‘Oh I need to sign my kids [up for] school, and I don’t know how to do [it].”

“I am a parent in the ​​Gwinnett County Public School System, and they recognize me as Vietnamese and even though I understand English, they send me materials all the time in Vietnamese,” Pham says. “But I couldn’t understand, so I had to read the English [version].”

“When the kids spend time in ESOL, they don’t have opportunities to go into other programs.”

Another issue that Zenil raised is that even children of immigrant parents who are born in the United States are placed in English as a Second Language (ESL) programs. Parents are still left with questions: Two moms from Norcross called Zenil recently about this topic, stating that their kids are in ESL but they don’t know why. 

Zenil has heard of students who cannot test out of these programs (“sometimes the kids, they’re nervous when they have the test”)—and whose parents struggle to interpret the test results their children receive. Those children stay enrolled for “three to four years,” which prevents them from meeting other graduation requirements. “When the kids spend time in ESOL, they don’t have opportunities to go into other programs,” she says.

Zenil says that in 2023, Amigos de la Comunidad co-hosted two panels that explained what it means for students to be enrolled in ESOL programs. Earlier this year, the organization met with the office of Gwinnett County Public Schools superintendent Calvin Watts to discuss why students are kept in ESOL programs “when kids are born here and speak English,” Zenil says.

“We asked . . . how the kids can be for a long time in that program when they can do something else. This is a big problem, because it’s more Latino students in the program.”

In Georgia, where most counties are only legally obligated to provide election ballots in English, “language access [is] a patchwork based on local leadership in interest,” says Gigi Pedraza, Executive Director and Founder of Latino Community Fund Georgia. In that regard, Gwinnett County is a rarity, being the only Georgia county mandated by federal law to provide materials and ballots in Spanish. 

“As a county, Gwinnett does a good job in trying to be inclusive and thinking about providing in-language resources and tools for voters, such as making it a priority to have all the information on the website translated [and] trying to recruit bilingual poll workers,” says Berenice Rodriguez, organizing and civic engagement director at Asian Americans Advancing Justice Atlanta. “However, a lot of those capacities are in English and Spanish only. Norcross, specifically, covers a wide range of AAPI communities—and we are not seeing that same effort being reflected in other Asian languages like Korean, Vietnamese, Mandarin, etc. That poses a big challenge.”

BPSOS helps Vietnamese residents register to vote and understand the election process. Atlanta chapter executive director Pham says while ballots are translated, their grammar in particular could use improvement: “I’m glad so many agencies have Vietnamese translations now.” However, “there are bad translations all the time, everywhere.”

Beyond language barriers, “people don’t have too much [of an] interest to vote because most people say [the government] doesn’t do anything, the government doesn’t change anything. . . . It’s really hard to convince the community to vote,” Zenil says.

That’s why organizations like AAAJ host events like the “art form of dumpling making” that are simultaneously cross-generational conversations about voter engagement and education.

“It’s not a workshop, you’re not coming in and just sitting down and hearing me talk. You’re doing something,” Rodriguez says. “We invite our canvassers who are all younger folks and our youth cohort, which are all high schoolers. . . . And you have all your older moms or grandmas who are here, trying to teach you how to do this.”

Tamale sessions could be up next on their list.

“We just have conversations like, ‘Are you guys voting? Do you guys care about the elections? Why or why not?’” she says. “So those are the different types of engagement that are a bit more creative, that I think make a bigger impact.”

Editor: Christina Lee

Fact Checker: Janat Batra

Canopy Atlanta Reader: Kamille Whittaker

There is no excerpt because this is a protected post.

How (and why) to vote + races to watch

Where a residential developer sees available, open greenspace on which to build, residents envision a cheaply-built, congested traffic nightmare.

Norcross-based nonprofits say community gatherings are a lifeline for seniors. But limited transportation options keep many from coming together.

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NT budget reveals record net debt of more than $11 billion, with big hit to mining royalties

Analysis NT budget reveals record net debt of more than $11 billion, with big hit to mining royalties

If the Northern Territory was a small business, it'd be in serious financial trouble.

The newly released NT budget for 2024-25 reveals the jurisdiction is tipping into record levels of net debt at more than $11 billion for the looming financial year.

For the number-crunchers out there, that's about $42,649 per Northern Territory resident, per year.

And that's predicted to worsen by more than a billion in the next three years ahead.

The debt has risen far above predicted levels from last year due primarily to NT government spending – roads, infrastructure, hundreds of millions more for police, more for education.

Chief Minister and Treasurer Eva Lawler conceded in her budget speech on Tuesday morning that it was "not a glamorous budget".

"You cannot just breathe hot air on the issues and given them a bit of shine with your t-shirt," Ms Lawler said.

The territory leader's point refers to her government's hefty spends on the difficult issues of remote housing, health, education and on the police force.

The long-term intergenerational challenges of the territory have never been glamorous.

But there are also alarming indications that the NT's financial situation is going to get much more difficult before it improves – and it won't be easily solved by government spending.

Huge public service, lower mining royalties

Of this year's NT budget, 41 per cent of the government's overall operating expenses came from its huge public service base of around 22,000 people.

The budget papers say it's "the territory's largest expenditure".

In recent years, this Labor government has attempted to place caps and pay freezes on its departments and executives, but yet public service employee costs continue to stay high.

There's also the issue of falling mining royalties to help cover these daunting costs.

In the past year, Cyclone Megan caused significant damage at mines on Groote Eylandt and McArthur River, which due to prolonged closures saw a royalty drop of around $191 million.

While this was a freak occurrence caused by natural disaster, it may be a harbinger of things to come when revenue-raising mines on Groote and in Gove close for good around 2030.

Unless the NT sees substantial new private sector projects and changes to its public service, it's hard to envision a way that it can ever manage to claw its way out of its huge financial hole.

Chief minister's 'commonsense' budget refrain

Ms Lawler repeated the phrase in her speech on Tuesday that her latest financial output is a "commonsense" budget for territorians "to lower crime and improve community safety".

She says it's not an election budget – but it's hard to argue against this being precisely what it is, especially with the huge spends on hundreds more police and two new prisons.

Despite having a new chief minister, the third in three years , this is the same Labor government that has now been in parliament for nearly eight years.

Where were those "commonsense" spends on these same departments last year?

At the time, Ms Lawler was criticised for low spends on police and education.

She can argue that there was a recent police resources review that guided her team to make the latest budget boost, but the public sentiment to do more for public safety is nothing new.

The NT government is now trying to convince the population that it has read the room and is focused on delivering change to high crime rates and low economic activity.

"Saying simple slogans will not change outcomes for people in the territory," Ms Lawler said.

"We need a responsible budget that sets us up for long-term fixes."

What budget 2024 doesn't do is show any viable pathway forward to shed the seemingly impossible levels of long-term debt the territory is shooting towards at full pelt.

Whichever party wins the election in August has an unenviable task ahead.

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