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Endnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the end of a research paper and arranged sequentially in relation to where the reference appears in the paper.

Footnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the bottom of a page corresponding to the item cited in the corresponding text above.

Fiske, Robert Hartwell. To the Point: A Dictionary of Concise Writing . New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2014.

Structure and Writing Style

Advantages of Using Endnotes

• Endnotes are less distracting to the reader and allows the narrative to flow better.
• Endnotes don't clutter up the page.
• As a separate section of a research paper, endnotes allow the reader to read and contemplate all the notes at once.

Disadvantages of Using Endnotes

• If you want to look at the text of a particular endnote, you have to flip to the end of the research paper to find the information.
• Depending on how they are created [i.e., continuous numbering or numbers that start over for each chapter], you may have to remember the chapter number as well as the endnote number in order to find the correct one.
• Endnotes may carry a negative connotation much like the proverbial "fine print" or hidden disclaimers in advertising. A reader may believe you are trying to hide something by burying it in a hard-to-find endnote.

Advantages of Using Footnotes

• Readers interested in identifying the source or note can quickly glance down the page to find what they are looking for.
• It allows the reader to immediately link the footnote to the subject of the text without having to take the time to find the note at the back of the paper.
• Footnotes are automatically included when printing off specific pages.

Disadvantages of Using Footnotes

• Footnotes can clutter up the page and, thus, negatively impact the overall look of the page.
• If there are multiple columns, charts, or tables below only a small segment of text that includes a footnote, then you must decide where the footnotes should appear.
• If the footnotes are lengthy, there's a risk they could dominate the page, although this issue is considered acceptable in legal scholarship.
• Adding lengthy footnotes after the paper has been completed can alter the page where other sources are located [i.e., a long footnote can push text to the next page].
• It is more difficult learning how to insert footnotes using your word processing program than simply adding endnotes at the end of your paper.

Things to keep in mind when considering using either endnotes or footnotes in your research paper :

1.    Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a research paper, except for those notes accompanying special material (e.g., figures, tables, charts, etc.). Numbering of footnotes are "superscript"--Arabic numbers typed slightly above the line of text. Do not include periods, parentheses, or slashes. They can follow all punctuation marks except dashes. In general, to avoid interrupting the continuity of the text, footnote numbers are placed at the end of the sentence, clause, or phrase containing the quoted or paraphrased material. 2.    Depending on the writing style used in your class, endnotes may take the place of a list of resources cited in your paper or they may represent non-bibliographic items, such as comments or observations, followed by a separate list of references to the sources you cited and arranged alphabetically by the author's last name. If you are unsure about how to use endnotes, consult with your professor. 3.    In general, the use of footnotes in most academic writing is now considered a bit outdated and has been replaced by endnotes, which are much easier to place in your paper, even with the advent of word processing programs. However, some disciplines, such as law and history, still predominantly utilize footnotes. Consult with your professor about which form to use and always remember that, whichever style of citation you choose, apply it consistently throughout your paper.

NOTE:   Always think critically about the information you place in a footnote or endnote. Ask yourself, is this supplementary or tangential information that would otherwise disrupt the narrative flow of the text or is this essential information that I should integrate into the main text? If you are not sure, it's better to work it into the text. Too many notes implies a disorganized paper.

Cermak, Bonni and Jennifer Troxell. A Guide to Footnotes and Endnotes for NASA History Authors . NASA History Program. History Division; Hale, Ali. Should You Use Footnotes or Endnotes? DailyWritingTips.com; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lunsford, Andrea A. and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook . New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989; Saller, Carol. “Endnotes or Footnotes? Some Considerations.” The Chronicle of Higher Education 58 (January 6, 2012): http://chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/2012/01/06/endnotes-or-footnotes-some-considerations/.

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What Are Endnotes, Why Are They Needed, and How Are They Used?

Experts Give Good Examples for More Effective Writing

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

An "endnote" is a reference, explanation, or comment placed at the end of an article, research paper, chapter, or book. Like footnotes  (which are used in this article), endnotes serve two main purposes in a research paper: (1) They acknowledge the source of a quotation, paraphrase, or summary; and (2) They provide explanatory comments that would interrupt the flow of the main  text .

Endnotes vs. Footnotes

"Your department may specify whether you should use footnotes or endnotes, especially for a thesis or dissertation.

If not, you should generally choose footnotes, which are easier to read. Endnotes force readers to flip to the back to check every citation. On the other hand, choose endnotes when your footnotes are so long or numerous that they take up too much space on the page, making your report unattractive and difficult to read. Also, endnotes better accommodate tables, quoted poetry, and other matter that requires special typography."

(Turabian, Kate L.  A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations , 7th ed., University of Chicago Press, 2007.)

"Readers of academic and scholarly books usually prefer footnotes to endnotes because the former allows them to skim the notes without losing their place in the text. Popular wisdom, however, says that nonscholarly readers are either reluctant or unwilling to purchase a nonfiction trade book whose feet are hemmed with ribbons of tiny type; thus most trade books place (the shop term is 'bury') the notes containing sources and references at the back of the book ."

(Einsohn, Amy. The Copyeditor's Handbook,  University of California Press, 2006.)

Endnote Conventions

"An author or title mentioned in the text need not be repeated in the footnote  citation , though it is often helpful to do so. In an endnote, however, the author (or at least the author's last name) and title should be repeated, since at least some readers may have forgotten whether the note number was 93 or 94 by the time they find it at the back of a work.

Such frustration can be prevented by the devices illustrated in the examples below."

34. This and the preceding four quotations are all from  Hamlet , act 1, sc. 4. 87. Barbara Wallraff,  Word Court  (New York: Harcourt, 2000), 34. Further citations to this work are given in the text.​

(​ The Chicago Manual of Style,  University of Chicago Press, 2003.)

Endnote Numbering

"Endnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a chapter or article, with each new chapter or section starting over with endnote 1. The notes section at the back is then broken down by chapter or section, with the corresponding endnote numbers listed underneath.

Place endnote numbers within the text in superscript type (small typeset above the line). In the notes section, use the same number to identify the endnote with the number in the text."

(Robbins, Lara M.  Grammar, and Style at Your Fingertips,  Alpha, 2007.)

Sample Endnotes From Pennebaker's 'The Secret Life of Pronouns '

"Chapter 2: Ignoring the Content, Celebrating the Style 19. The drawing is from the Thematic Apperception Test by Henry A. Murray, Card 12F, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press. 20. Throughout this book, I include quotations from people who have been in my studies or classes, from text on the Internet, or even from conversations or e-mails from friends or family members. In all cases, all identifying information has been removed or altered. 22. In this book, the terms style, function , and stealth words are used interchangeably. They have many other names as well —  junk words, particles , and closed-class words . Linguists tend to disagree about the precise definitions of each of these overlapping terms."

(Pennebaker, James W.  The Secret Life of Pronouns: What Our Words Say About Us,  Bloomsbury Press, 2011.)

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How to Do Endnotes

Last Updated: March 23, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Megan Morgan, PhD . Megan Morgan is a Graduate Program Academic Advisor in the School of Public & International Affairs at the University of Georgia. She earned her PhD in English from the University of Georgia in 2015. There are 14 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 233,587 times.

Proper citation of sources is necessary to give credit to the authors whose work informed yours, to point readers to the sources you used, and to show the breadth of your research. Though endnotes are less commonly used in student or academic papers than in-line citations or footnotes, they are quite common in books, where they make for a cleaner page. The basics of endnotes are always the same – numbered notes within the text refer to numbered entries in a notes section at the end of the document – but there are minor differences depending on whether you use Chicago or MLA (Modern Language Association) style.

Inserting Endnotes

• To avoid plagiarism, you must correctly attribute ideas and quotations, which is using someone else's ideas or material without acknowledgement (intentionally or unintentionally). If you are a student, plagiarism may result in disciplinary action. If you are an academic or professional, plagiarism will result in, at best, the rejection of your manuscript, and at worst disciplinary action. People have even their degrees revoked when plagiarism was discovered. [1] X Research source
• To allow the reader to check your work. Proper citations allow readers to look up the quotes and ideas you used in context, to see if they agree with your interpretation. [2] X Research source
• To allow interested readers to dig deeper. Endnotes allow readers interested in your topic to easily locate the sources that informed it so that they can read them as well.
• To show that you have considered a variety of sources. Endnotes allow you to show the reader that you have considered all of the major arguments regarding your given topic, or if you have not, allows them to easily see which authors you have failed to consider.

• Page number
• Author name, as well as the name of any editors or translators
• Book name, place of publishing, name of publisher, and year of publishing if a book
• Article name, periodical name, volume and series number, and date of publication

• Pushing citations to the end of a paper or work helps to create clean, uncluttered pages. This is why endnotes are often preferred in books.
• Having all the citations in one place allows the reader to digest them as a whole.
• On the other hand, not having citations on the page means the reader will have to flip to the back of your manuscript each time they want to look something up, which can be frustrating.
• Endnotes can give the impression that you are trying to hide your citations.

• Note numbers should follow punctuation. Never put a note number before a period, comma, or quotation mark.
• Note numbers should be consecutive throughout an entire paper.
• In a book, note numbers may restart with each chapter, in which case the endnotes should be divided by chapter.
• Put the superscript number at the end of the clause or sentence in which you reference someone else's materials. [5] X Research source For example: "According to Hoskins and Garrett, IQ tests are often problematic, 1 but I argue that it is still possible to implement them usefully in school settings."

• Indent the first line of each endnote half an inch (or 5 spaces) from the left margin. Additional lines within a single endnote should be flush with the left hand margin.
• Use the appropriate citation form per your style guide.

Using Chicago (Turabian) Style

• Chicago style uses endnotes (or footnotes) to cite sources, rather than providing inline citation. This is a key difference from MLA style, which uses inline citation.
• In Chicago style, it is recommended to always write the author name and title, not just the author name, in subsequent citations after the first full one.
• In Chicago style, a bibliography typically follows the endnotes. The bibliography lists all sources in alphabetical order by author’s last name. You should add entries to it every time you create a note. The format is slightly different from endnotes. See http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html for more information.

• Book (author) – Author’s First and Last Name, Title (Place of Publication: Publisher, Date of Publication), page number(s).
• Book (editor) – Author’s First and Last Name, ed., Title (Place of Publication: Publisher, Date of Publication), page number(s).
• Journal Article – Author’s First and Last Name, “Title of Article,” Title of Journal Volume (Year): page number(s).
• Newspaper – Author’s First and Last Name, “Title of Article,” Title of Newspaper , date, page number(s).
• For all source types, if there are two to three authors, list their names with commas between them. For more than three authors, write the first author's name, a comma, and “et al.” in place of any remaining authors.
• For a complete list of source types and their appropriate formats, see http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html .

• Author’s last name, Title, page number(s). (If the title is not fiction or poetry, you can use a shortened form of the title if it is longer than four words.)

• 1 Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Love in the Time of Cholera , trans. Edith Grossman (London: Cape, 1988), 27-28.
• 2 Ibid., 45.

• In some cases, your teacher may prefer you to single-space endnotes and leave a blank line between each entry. If you have questions, consult with your teacher. [12] X Research source

Using MLA Style

• MLA style does not recommend using endnotes to cite works. You should use inline citation in MLA style unless specifically told otherwise.
• In most cases, you will still need to provide a Works Cited page in addition to your endnotes.

• For example, "For further discussion of this phenomenon, see also King, 53; Norris, 175-185; and Kozinsky, 299-318."
• For example, "Several other studies also reach similar conclusions. For examples, see also Brown and Spiers 24-50, Chapel 30-45, and Philips 50-57."

• For example, "Although it is less commonly known than her major works, singer-songwriter Wendy's 1980 album Cookies also deals with the idea of ecofriendly agriculture."
• For example, "Johnson reiterated this point in a conference talk in 2013, although she worded it less forcefully there."

• Center the word Notes on the page. Do not use any formatting or quote marks. If you have only one endnote, use the word Note.
• Double-space endnotes in MLA style.

Community Q&A

• Other style guides may also use endnotes, although APA Style, commonly used in social sciences, does not. [16] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source If you are writing for a journal or publisher that has an in-house style guide, consult with them about endnote requirements. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/useinformationcorrectly/avoiding-plagiarism/1/
• ↑ http://web.grinnell.edu/Dean/Tutorial/EUS/IC.pdf
• ↑ https://www.trentu.ca/academicskills/documentation-guide/chicago-style/footnotes-and-endnotes
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/c.php?g=293795&p=1956824
• ↑ https://guides.lib.uw.edu/hsl/ama/intext
• ↑ https://support.office.com/en-US/article/Add-footnotes-and-endnotes-BFF71B0C-3EC5-4C37-ABC1-7C8E7D6F2D78
• ↑ https://support.office.com/en-US/article/Add-footnotes-and-endnotes-61F3FB1A-4717-414C-9A8F-015A5F3FF4CB
• ↑ https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/dam/jcr:e7d5f449-dd5e-42c7-89dc-a264d75f4c23/Turabian-Tip-Sheet-11.pdf
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/chicago_manual_17th_edition/cmos_formatting_and_style_guide/chicago_manual_of_style_17th_edition.html
• ↑ http://www.library.georgetown.edu/tutorials/research-guides/turabian-footnote-guide
• ↑ http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/qanda/data/faq/topics/Documentation/faq0240.html
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_endnotes_and_footnotes.html
• ↑ https://guides.library.brandeis.edu/citations/MLA
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa6_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/footnotes_and_endnotes.html

About This Article

To use endnotes in a paper, start by inserting a superscript number that corresponds with the source each time you reference it in your paper. Then, at the end of your paper, create a new page with the heading, “Notes.” List the sources, including the author’s first and last name, the title and date of the publication, and the page number for each one. Separate each element with a comma, then add a period after the page number. For two different ways to format your endnotes, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Turabian Footnote/Endnote Style

Table of Contents: Books E-books Journal Articles (Print) Journal Articles (Online) Magazine Articles (Print) Magazine Articles (Online) Newspaper Articles Review Articles Websites For More Help

The examples in this guide are meant to introduce you to the basics of citing sources using Kate Turabian's A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (seventh edition) .  Kate Turabian created her first "manual" in 1937 as a means of simplifying for students The Chicago Manual of Style ; the seventh edition of Turabian is based on the 15th edition of the Chicago Manual . For types of resources not covered in this guide (e.g., government documents, manuscript collections, video recordings) and for further detail and examples, please consult the websites listed at the end of this guide, the handbook itself or a reference librarian .

Whenever you refer to or use another's words, facts or ideas in your paper, you are required to cite the source. Traditionally, disciplines in the humanities (art, history, music, religion, theology) require the use of bibliographic footnotes or endnotes in conjunction with a bibliography to cite sources used in research papers and dissertations. For the parenthetical reference (author-date) system (commonly used in the sciences and social sciences), please refer to the separate guide Turabian Parenthetical/Reference List Style . It is best to consult with your professor to determine the preferred citation style.

Indicate notes in the text of your paper by using consecutive superscript numbers (as demonstrated below). The actual note is indented and can occur either as a footnote at the bottom of the page or as an endnote at the end of the paper. To create notes, type the note number followed by a period on the same line as the note itself. This method should always be used for endnotes; it is the preferred method for footnotes. However, superscript numbers are acceptable for footnotes, and many word processing programs can generate footnotes with superscript numbers for you.

When citing books, the following are elements you may need to include in your bibliographic citation for your first footnote or endnote and in your bibliography, in this order:

1. Author or editor; 2. Title; 3. Compiler, translator or editor (if an editor is listed in addition to an author); 4. Edition; 5. Name of series, including volume or number used; 6. Place of publication, publisher and date of publication; 7. Page numbers of citation (for footnote or endnote).

Books with One Author or Corporate Author

Author: Charles Hullmandel experimented with lithographic techniques throughout the early nineteenth century, patenting the "lithotint" process in 1840. 1

Editor: Human beings are the sources of "all international politics"; even though the holders of political power may change, this remains the same. 1

Corporate Author: Children of Central and Eastern Europe have not escaped the nutritional ramifications of iron deficiency, a worldwide problem. 1

First footnote:

1 Michael Twyman, Lithography 1800-1850 (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 145-146.

1 Valerie M. Hudson, ed., Culture and Foreign Policy (Boulder: L. Rienner Publishers, 1997), 5.

1 UNICEF, Generation in Jeopardy: Children in Central and Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union , edited by Alexander Zouev (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), 44.

Note the different treatment of an editor's name depending on whether the editor takes the place of an author (second example) or is listed in addition to the author (third example). 

Subsequent footnotes:

       Method A: Include the author or editor's last name, the title (or an abbreviated title) and the page number cited.

2 Twyman, Lithography 1800-1850, 50.

2 Hudson, ed., Culture and Foreign Policy, 10.

2 UNICEF, Generation in Jeopardy, 48.

       Method B: Include only the author or editor's last name and the page number, leaving out the title.  

2 Twyman, 50.

2 Hudson, ed., 10.

2 UNICEF, 48.

Use Method A if you need to cite more than one reference by the same author.

1. Michael Twyman, Lithography 1800-1850  (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 145-146.

Ibid., short for ibidem, means "in the same place."  Use ibid. if you cite the same page of the same work in succession without a different reference intervening.  If you need to cite a different page of the same work, include the page number.  For example:   2 Ibid., 50.

Bibliography:

Hudson, Valerie, N., ed. Culture and Foreign Policy . Boulder: L. Rienner Publishers, 1997.

Twyman, Michael. Lithography 1800-1850 . London: Oxford University Press, 1970.

UNICEF.  Generation in Jeopardy: Children in Central and Eastern Europe and the             Former Soviet Union . Edited by Alexander Zouev. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999.

Books with Two or More Authors or Editors

1 Russell Keat and John Urry, Social Theory as Science, 2d ed. (London: Routledge and K. Paul, 1982), 196.

1 Toyoma Hitomi, "The Era of Dandy Beauties," in Queer Voices from Japan: First-Person Narratives from Japan's Sexual Minorities,  eds. Mark J. McLelland, Katsuhiko Suganuma, and James Welker ( Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007), 157.

For references with more than three authors, cite the first named author followed by "et al." Cite all the authors in the bibliography.

1 Leonard B. Meyer, et al., The Concept of Style , ed. Berel Lang (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), 56.

2 Keat and Urry, Social Theory as Science , 200.

2 Meyer, et al., The Concept of Style , 90.

Keat, Russell, and John Urry. Social Theory as Science , 2d. ed. London: Routledge and K. Paul, 1982.

Hitomi, Toyoma. "The Era of Dandy Beauties." In Queer Voices from Japan: First-Person Narratives from Japan's Sexual Minorities,  edited by Mark J. McLelland, Katsuhiko Suganuma, and James Welker, 153-165.   Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007.

Meyer, Leonard B., Kendall Walton, Albert Hofstadter, Svetlana Alpers, George Kubler, Richard Wolheim, Monroe Beardsley, Seymour Chatman, Ann Banfield, and Hayden White. The Concept of Style . Edited by Berel Lang.  Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979.  

Electronic Books

Follow the guidelines for print books, above, but include the collection (if there is one), URL and the date you accessed the material.

1 John Rae, Statement of Some New Principles on the Subject of Political Economy (Boston: Hillard, Gray and Company, 1834), in The Making of the Modern World,   http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/MOME?af=RN&ae=U104874605&srchtp=a&ste=14  (accessed June 22, 2009).  

2 Rae, Statement of Some New Principles on the Subject of Political Economy .

Rae, John.  Statement of Some New Principles on the Subject of Political Economy. Boston: Hillard, Gray and Company, 1834. In The Making of the Modern World,   http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/MOME?af=RN&ae=U104874605&srchtp=a&ste=14  (accessed June 22, 2009).  

PERIODICAL ARTICLES

For periodical (magazine, journal, newspaper, etc.) articles, include some or all of the following elements in your first footnote or endnote and in your bibliography, in this order:

1. Author; 2. Article title; 3. Periodical title; 4. Volume or Issue number (or both); 5. Publication date; 6. Page numbers.

For online periodicals   , add: 7. URL and date of access; or 8. Database name, URL and date of access. (If available, include database publisher and city of publication.)

For an article available in more than one format (print, online, etc.), cite whichever version you used.

Journal Articles (Print)

1 Lawrence Freedman, "The Changing Roles of Military Conflict," Survival 40, no. 4 (1998): 52.

Here you are citing page 52.  In the bibliography (see below) you would include the full page range: 39-56.

If a journal has continuous pagination within a volume, you do not need to include the issue number:

1 John T. Kirby, "Aristotle on Metaphor," American Journal of Philology 118 (1997): 520.

Subsequent footnotes :

2 Freedman, "The Changing Roles of Military Conflict," 49.   

2 Kirby, "Aristotle on Metaphor," 545.

Freedman, Lawrence. "The Changing Roles of Military Conflict."   Survival 40, no. 4 (1998): 39-56.

Kirby, John T. "Aristotle on Metaphor."  American Journal of Philology 118 (1997): 517-554.  

Journal Articles (Online)

Cite as above, but include the URL and the date of access of the article.

On the Free Web

1 Molly Shea, "Hacking Nostalgia: Super Mario Clouds," Gnovis 9, no. 2 (Spring 2009), http://gnovisjournal.org/journal/hacking-nostalgia-super-mario-clouds  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Through a Subscription Database

1 John T. Kirby, "Aristotle on Metaphor," American Journal of Philology 118, no. 4 (Winter 1997): 524, http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/american_journal_of_philology/v118/118.4.kirby.html  (accessed June 25, 2009).

1 Michael Moon, et al., "Queers in (Single-Family) Space," Assemblage 24 (August 1994): 32, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3171189  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Subsequent Footnotes:

2 Shea, "Hacking Nostalgia."

2 Kirby, "Aristotle on Metaphor," 527. 

2 Moon, "Queers in (Single-Family) Space," 34. 

Shea, Molly. "Hacking Nostalgia: Super Mario Clouds," Gnovis 9, no. 2 (Spring 2009), http://gnovisjournal.org/journal/hacking-nostalgia-super-mario-clouds  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Kirby, John T. "Aristotle on Metaphor," American Journal of Philology 118, no. 4 (Winter 1997): 524, http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/american_journal_of_philology/v118/118.4.kirby.html  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Moon, Michael, Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Benjamin Gianni, and Scott Weir. "Queers in (Single-Family) Space." Assemblage 24 (August 1994): 30-7, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3171189  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Magazine Articles (Print)

Monthly or Bimonthly

           1 Paul Goldberger, "Machines for Living: The Architectonic Allure of the Automobile," Architectural Digest, October 1996, 82.

1 Steven Levy and Brad Stone, "Silicon Valley Reboots," Newsweek , March 25, 2002, 45.

          2 Goldberger, "Machines for Living," 82.

          2 Levy and Stone, "Silicon Valley Reboots," 46.

Goldberger, Paul.  "Machines for Living: The Architectonic Allure of the Automobile." Architectural Digest, October 1996.

Levy, Steven, and Brad Stone. "Silicon Valley Reboots." Newsweek , March 25, 2002.

Magazine Articles (Online)

Follow the guidelines for print magazine articles, adding the URL and date accessed.

1 Bill Wyman, "Tony Soprano's Female Trouble," Salon.com, May 19, 2001, http://www.salon.com/2001/05/19/sopranos_final/ (accessed February 13, 2017).

1 Sasha Frere-Jones, "Hip-Hop President." New Yorker , November 24, 2008, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=35324426&site=ehost-live (accessed June 26, 2009).

Wyman, Bill. "Tony Soprano's Female Trouble." Salon.com, May 19, 2001, http://www.salon.com/2001/05/19/sopranos_final/ (accessed February 13, 2017).

Frere-Jones, Sasha. "Hip-Hop President." New Yorker , November 24, 2008. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=35324426&site=ehost-live (accessed June 26, 2009).

Newspaper Articles

In most cases, you will cite newspaper articles only in notes, not in your bibliography. Follow the general pattern for citing magazine articles, although you may omit page numbers.

        1 Eric Pianin, "Use of Arsenic in Wood Products to End," Washington Post , February 13, 2002, final edition.

        1 Eric Pianin, "Use of Arsenic in Wood Products to End," Washington Post , February 13, 2002, final edition, in LexisNexis Academic (accessed June 27, 2009).

Note: In the example above, there was no stable URL for the article in LexisNexis, so the name of the database was given rather than a URL.

Review Articles

Follow the pattern below for review articles in any kind of periodical.

1 Alanna Nash, "Hit 'Em With a Lizard," review of Basket Case, by Carl Hiassen, New York Times , February 3, 2002, http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=105338185&sid=2&Fmt=6&clientId=5604&RQT=309&VName=PQD (accessed June 26, 2009).  

1 David Denby, "Killing Joke," review of No Country for Old Men , directed by Ethan and Joel Coen,  New Yorker, February 25, 2008, 72-73, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=fah&AN=30033248&site=ehost-live (accessed June 26, 2009). 

Second footnote:

2 Nash, "Hit 'Em With a Lizard."

2 Denby, "Killing Joke."

In most cases, you will be citing something smaller than an entire website. If you are citing an article from a website, for example, follow the guidelines for articles above. You can usually refer to an entire website in running text without including it in your reference list, e.g.: "According to its website, the Financial Accounting Standards Board requires ...".

If you need to cite an entire website in your bibliography, include some or all of the following elements, in this order:

1. Author or editor of the website (if known) 2. Title of the website 3. URL 4. Date of access

Financial Accounting Standards Board .  http://www.fasb.org  (accessed April 29, 2009).

FOR MORE HELP

Following are links to sites that have additional information and further examples:

Turabian Quick Guide (University of Chicago Press)

Chicago Manual of Style Online

RefWorks Once you have created an account, go to Tools/Preview Output Style to see examples of Turabian style.

Purdue's Online Writing Lab (OWL) Excellent source for research, writing and citation tips.

Citing Sources Duke University's guide to citing sources. The site offers comparison citation tables with examples from APA , Chicago , MLA and Turabian for both print and electronic works.

How to Cite Electronic Sources From the Library of Congress. Provides MLA and Turabian examples of citing formats like films, photographs, maps and recorded sound that are accessed electronically.

Uncle Sam: Brief Guide to Citing Government Publications The examples in this excellent guide from the University of Memphis are based on the Chicago Manual of Style and Kate Turabian's Manual .

Chicago Style Citation Guide: Sample Papers

• Chicago Manual of Style
• Basic Chicago Style Templates
• Articles and Online Sources
• Interviews, Films and TV
• Sound Recordings and Music Scores
• Personal Interviews and Film
• Sound Recording and Musical Composition
• Formatting Your Paper
• Sample Papers
• Citing Images (Chicago)

Chicago Style Options

Chicago Manual of Style offers the option to use footnotes, endnotes or parenthetical in-text citations featuring an author / date format. Footnotes or endnotes allow for citation information to be easily accessible at the bottom of each page (footnotes) or at the end of the paper (endnotes). Notes also allow for supplemental explanatory text to be included in the paper at the place it is most relevant. The notes format is used primarily in the disciplines of the humanities (history, religion, philosophy, art, etc.). The author / date format is used primarily in the disciplines of the physical, natural and social sciences (biology, chemistry, sociology, etc.).

The author / date format is similar to MLA and APA citation styles. The following sample papers present all three formats.

Footnotes / Endnotes sample papers

Footnotes, which are located at the bottom of each page, acknowledge which parts of the paper reference particular sources. Footnotes should match with a superscript number at the end of the sentence referencing the source. Footnotes should begin with 1 and continue numerically throughout the paper. Do not start the order over on each page.

• Footnotes sample paper
• Endnotes sample paper

Author / Date sample paper

Author / date in-text citations are briefly cited in the text, usually in parentheses, by author’s last name and date of publication. The short citations are amplified in a list of references, where full bibliographic information is provided.

• CMOS Author-Date Sample Paper

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Headnotes or Footnotes? A Quick Guide on Organizing Your Research Paper

In academic writing, footnotes, endnotes, and headnotes provide additional information on a particular topic. They are placed in the document as a supplement to the main text. These notes can be inserted into the document as a footer or at the end of a chapter.

The notes should be kept as brief as possible. The objective is to provide more information without distracting the reader. We discuss the different types of notes, how to use them, and their pros and cons.

What Are They and Why Use Them?

A footnote is a reference placed at the bottom of a page or footer. They are referenced in the text in the same way as a citation i.e. the referenced text is followed by a superscript numeral ( 1 ), which corresponds to the numbered footnote at the bottom of the page. When writing your research paper , you would use a footnote for two major reasons:

• To cite sources of facts or quotations
• Provide additional information  

The two types of footnotes are:

• Content : Supplements or simplifies substantive information; not detailed.
• Copyright permission : Cites quoted text and any reprinted materials used in the text.

The format of footnotes is fairly standard (see below for specific rules) and is the same as that for references as follows:

Adrian Johns.  The Nature of the Book: Print and Knowledge in the Making (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 623.

When citing the same reference again, the footnote can be shortened as follows:

Johns.  Nature of the Book , 384–85.

Some older journals use “ ibid ” instead of a shortened version of the reference. Ibid is short for the Latin “ ibidem” , which means “in the same place.” This format was previously used in most printed text but rarely used now.

Endnotes are much the same as footnotes except that they are placed at the end your research paper instead of at the bottom of a page. In books, they can be placed after each chapter or at the end of the book.

In many cases, the book publisher decides the best placement. Endnotes, as footnotes, are numerically noted in superscript. The format is the same as that for footnotes.

Headnotes are used as introductions in legal documents or as summaries of the text that follows them. In academic writing, headnotes are explanatory notes included with tables and figures. They are placed below the table itself or just below the figure title and typed in a font size that is smaller than the main text (e.g., 8- or 10-point font). Headnotes are used to define acronyms used, units of measure, significance, etc. Because tables and figures should be able to “stand alone” without the main text, headnotes should always be used.

Format for Footnotes, Endnotes, and Headnotes

Although the format for footnotes and endnotes is almost similar, there are specific rules depending on the journal where the paper is submitted. Most scientific journals use specific reference formats; however, some style guides do not allow footnotes and endnotes.

For example, the Modern Language Association (MLA), which deals specifically with disciplines in the humanities allows limited use of footnotes. These are to provide the reader with other sources for more information on the subject covered. The MLA style for these notes is shown in the example below and the number corresponds to the superscript number noted in the referenced text:

See [name of author], especially chapters 3 and 4, for an insightful analysis of this trend.

MLA suggests using “content” footnotes when necessary to avoid interrupting the text with an explanation or other details.

In contrast, the American Psychological Association (APA), the style for the behavioral and social sciences, does not usually allow footnotes. Your particular journal guidelines will provide that information.

A third style guide, the American Medical Association (AMA) , is used mostly with papers in the biological and medical sciences. AMA also discourages the use of footnotes but allows them on the title page. The information on the title page would include the authors’ names and affiliations, corresponding author, members of affiliated groups, etc.

Pros and Cons

Scientific papers do not usually include footnotes. Endnotes may be used sometimes, but sparingly. Other disciplines, such as law and history, still use them regularly . There are pros and cons to each.

The advantages of using footnotes are that they provide the reader with a fast reference and link to additional information. They are easy to insert and will automatically print. The advantage of using endnotes instead of footnotes is that their placement is less distracting. They also provide the reader with an easy reference list in one place.

According to the Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS), endnotes are preferred to footnotes simply because they don’t clutter up a page. CMOS does caution that it can seem disconcerting to a reader to see pages of notes at the end of a chapter or book, so use them sparingly.

Again, another disadvantage to footnotes is that they tend to interrupt the flow of the text. The reader might feel that he must stop and look at the note before moving on, which can be very distracting. Some disadvantages to endnotes are that the reader must turn to the end of the text or chapter to find the additional information. In books with several chapters, this can be tedious, especially if the endnotes are renumbered in each chapter.

As for headnotes, there are really no drawbacks to using them in tables and figures. They offer the reader helpful information that is readily available as they read the data or interpret a figure.

Bottom Line

The style to which you conform when writing your paper will ultimately depend on the journal’s guidelines. Pay careful attention to its protocols for citations and references and whether it will allow footnotes and endnotes. If allowed, be mindful of the disadvantages of both and consider either greatly limiting them or eliminating them altogether.

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How to use and write Footnotes and Endnotes in academic papers

Research papers and reports often include adjuncts such as charts and graphs, tables , diagrams, a hierarchy of headings, citations and references etc. Notes – whether footnotes or endnotes – are an important adjunct. They primarily serve the role of supplying additional information , which, if weaved into the main text, may reduce its ease of readability .

Footnotes vs. endnotes

• Location : By definition, footnotes appear at the foot of a page on which appears the text they support. Endnotes are placed at the end of a paper, a chapter or a book.
• Space : Footnotes, being located at the bottom of each individual page, are constrained by the amount of space available, whereas endnotes, located right at the end of the text, are afforded much more ample room.
• Amount of information (and flow) : The above point (space) is a useful distinction that tells readers what to expect. Footnotes offer small bits of information that you can choose to take in without breaking stride. You could take a quick look and return to the main text on the same page. On the other hand, endnotes may sometimes contain sizeable amounts of information, but you do not have to interrupt your reading of the main text. You can choose to read them once you have reached the end of the document.

Footnotes: Examples

As discussed, footnotes comprise small bits of information short enough to take in at a glance. Here are a couple of examples to illustrate the function of footnotes.

• A text may mention the name of an organisation and use a footnote to explain that the organisation had a different name in the past.
• A text may mention a certain sum of money in Korean Won, and the corresponding footnotes will indicate the equivalent sum in US dollars. 

Endnotes: Examples

As discussed too, endnotes can comprise much longer parcels of information. Here too are a couple of examples to illustrate the use of endnotes.

• While you may describe a certain method in your main text, you might use an endnote to outline in more detail some other tangential studies , perhaps from a slightly different field, which used that same method , the results they produced and why this may be of interest.
• You might cite an important quotation within the main body of your text and then include in a related endnote the full paragraph or section from which that quotation was taken, thus enabling interested readers to explore the wider context and additional insights if they wish. 

Usage in academic papers and digital documents

As an author of an academic paper, you can choose between footnotes and endnotes depending on how much additional information you want to give. Be aware, however, that footnotes and endnotes, especially endnotes, are virtually never used in research papers in the physical and biological sciences . They may sometimes be used in the social sciences and are more commonly seen in the humanities .

In digital documents, the distinction between footnotes and endnotes and their placement is less important, because the additional information can be connected to the main text with hyperlinks .

Writing footnotes and endnotes

• Superscripts and symbols : Within the main text, both footnotes and endnotes are typically signalled, or announced, using superscript numbers, although, for footnotes, other symbols such as a star or an asterisk (*), a dagger or obelisk (†), a double dagger or diesis (‡), a section mark (§), a pilcrow or blind p (¶), and so on are also employed, usually in that order. Do note that these symbols are never used with endnotes .
• Numbers : With numbered footnotes, the sequence either begins afresh on each page or can be continued throughout within a paper, a chapter (e.g. if the book has chapters by different contributors) or a book. Endnotes are always numbered and the sequence is always continuous .
• Heading for endnotes : Note that the heading for endnotes, when all of them are gathered at the end, is simply ‘Notes’ and not ‘Endnotes’.
• Footnotes for tables : Table titles, column or row headings, or specific cells within a table can all carry footnotes. Those footnotes are explained at the foot of the table in question and not at the foot of a page on which the table appears.

As a scholar, try to familiarise yourself with the idea of notes and their related mechanics as early on in your writing process as possible. These details can seem numerous at first, but once you master them, you will be able to spontaneously incorporate them into your writing.

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Endnotes – Guide to How to Use Them Correctly

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Citing sources properly is required to give acknowledgement to the writers whose work influenced your own, to direct readers to the sources you used, and to demonstrate the scope of your research. Although endnotes are used less frequently in student or academic papers than in-text citations or footnotes, they are extremely prevalent in books, where they contribute to a cleaner page. This article provides a thorough guide to using endnotes correctly with examples.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Endnotes – In a Nutshell
• 2 Definition: Endnotes
• 3 Endnotes vs. footnotes
• 4 How to use endnotes
• 5 How to insert endnotes in Word

Endnotes – In a Nutshell

• They may be used instead of a list of cited sources, depending on the writing style.
• Even with the advent of word-processing software, these notes are considerably simpler to include in a document.
• Unlike footnotes, they don’t take up much space on the page.

Definition: Endnotes

Endnotes are the notes that come at the end of the text in an academic paper. They are denoted in the text by numbers or, occasionally, other symbols.

They are employed:

• for citations in particular styles
• to add supplementary material that does not flow with the primary text

Endnotes vs. footnotes

Endnotes and footnotes are commonly mistaken. Footnotes are similarly used to offer citations or additional information; however, they appear at the bottom of each page rather than at the conclusion .

Footnotes or endnotes should typically be used consistently. Your instructor may advise you on the appropriate note format.

How to use endnotes

Endnote numbers are placed after the clause or sentence to which they pertain. Unless an em dash concludes the sentence, the number comes before the punctuation , after which it is displayed. There is no space following the number.

The general agreement now—though there are dissenting voices 1 —is that this experiment was too methodologically faulty to provide valid results. 2

Notes are consecutively numbered in the order that they occur in the text. Each endnote is assigned a unique number; do not reuse a number, even when citing the same source multiple times.

Endnotes in Chicago style

Using footnotes or endnotes for citations is standard practice in Chicago style bibliographies and notes. Either type of note may also provide additional information, such as more examples, commentary on the sources you quote, or a more in-depth analysis of concepts mentioned in the text.

Place Chicago endnotes after the clause or sentence to which they pertain. A citation note provides complete information on a source the first time it is cited, and simplified information for subsequent citations.

You should still provide a complete list of your sources in a bibliography following the notes unless you are writing a brief paper and have been instructed otherwise.

The notes page follows the bibliography and begins with the word “Notes” printed in bold and centered. The basic format of the notes is as follows:

• A blank line should separate the notes, and the notes should be single-spaced.
• Start each note with an indentation.
• Place a period and a space after the note numbers, which should be written in regular text rather than a superscript.

Endnotes in APA style

Additional information can be included in endnotes or footnotes when writing in APA style . They are not used for citations; instead, use APA in-text citations .

When applicable, copyright attributions are included using APA endnotes. In addition, they can be used to build on the text’s themes or provide further instances. However, do so sparingly, as the APA advises against including redundant information.

The notes are placed on a separate page following the reference list, with the heading “Footnotes” (APA does not use the phrase “endnotes”) bold and centered at the top.

The notes are formatted as indented, double-spaced paragraphs. Each note should begin with its number in superscript, followed by a space.

Endnotes in MLA style

Endnotes can be used instead of MLA in-text citations if you must include many references in a single paragraph.

MLA notes may also convey more information, including clarifications, further illustrations, or elaboration of concepts briefly discussed in the text.

They should appear on a separate page before the Works Cited list and be titled “Notes” or “Endnotes.” Each endnote’s first line should be indented, and the number should be superscripted, followed by a space. They must use double spacing.

How to insert endnotes in Word

Many word processors, such as Microsoft Word, make it simple to insert notes automatically. Follow the steps below:

• Click the point within the text where the note number should appear.
• Click “Insert Endnote” after opening the “References” tab at the top.
• Input text in the note that appears at the end of your manuscript.

However, if you use one of the above styles, you must alter the formatting to meet their criteria and include a heading for the notes page.

What should I write in an endnote?

Footnotes and endnotes perform the same function. These are brief clarifications, additions, or copyright information. You can improve the reader’s experience by adding an endnote example outside the text.

How do I make the endnote numbers?

Don’t enter the numbers manually! The “Insert Citation” or “Insert Reference” function in your word processing software (such as MS Word) will add the note numbers and make room for the note automatically. This function’s name differs slightly between programs.

How is an endnote supposed to look?

A five-space indentation marks the first line of each endnote, and subsequent lines are flush to the left margin. Each endnote number should be preceded by a period and space, with the right note following the space.

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Research Paper: Use Footnotes and Endnotes

• As you write your first draft, including the introduction, body, and conclusion, add the information or quotations on your note cards to support your ideas.
• Use footnotes or endnotes to identify the sources of this information. If you are using footnotes, the note will appear on the same page as the information you are documenting, at the bottom (or "foot") of the page. If you are using endnotes, the note will appear together with all other notes on a separate page at the end of your report, just before the bibliography.
• There are different formats for footnotes (and endnotes), so be sure to use the one your teacher prefers.
• Note that footnotes can be shortened if the source has already been given in full in a previous footnote.

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Organizing Academic Research Papers: Footnotes or Endnotes?

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

Endnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the end of a research paper.

Footnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the bottom of a page corresponding the item cited.

Structure and Writing Style

Advantages of Using Endnotes

• Endnotes are less distracting to the reader and allows the narrative to flow better.
• Endnotes don't clutter up the page.
• As a separate section of a research paper, endnotes allow the reader to read and contemplate all the notes at once.

Disadvantages of Using Endnotes

• If you want to look at the text of a particular endnote, you have to flip to the end of the research paper to find the information.
• Depending on how they are created [i.e., continuous numbering or numbers that start over for each chapter], you may have to remember the chapter number as well as the endnote number in order to find the correct one.
• Endnotes may carry a negative connotation much like the proverbial "fine print" or hidden disclaimers in advertising. A reader may believe you are trying to hide something by burying it in a hard-to-find endnote.

Advantages of Using Footnotes

• Readers interested in reviewing the footnote can just glance down the page to find what they are looking for.
• A footnote immediately connects the reader to the citation or your specific thought, concept, or idea related to the text.
• Footnotes are automatically included when printing off specific pages.

Disadvantages of Using Footnotes

• Footnotes can clutter up the page and, thus, negatively impact the overall look of the page. If there are multiple columns or charts or tables below only a small segment of text that includes a footnote, then you must decide where the footnotes should appear.
• If the footnotes are lengthy, there's a risk they could dominate the page, although this issue is considered acceptable in legal scholarship.

Things to keep in mind when considering using either endnotes or footnotes in your research paper :

• Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a research paper, except for those notes accompanying special material (e.g., figures, tables, charts, etc.). Numbering of footnotes are "superscript"--arabic numbers typed slightly above the line without periods, parentheses or slashes. They can follow all punctuation marks except dashes. In general, to avoid interrupting the continuity of the text, footnote numbers are placed at the end of the sentence, clause or phrase containing the quoted or paraphrased material.
• Depending on the writing style used in your class, endnotes may take the place of a list of resources cited in your paper or they may represent non-bibliographic items, such as comments or observations, followed by a separate list of references to the sources you cited and arranged alphabetically by the author's last name.
• In general, the use of footnotes is now considered outdated and has been replaced by endnotes, which are much easier to place in your paper, even with the advent of word processing programs. However, some disciplines, such as law and history, still predominantly utilize footnotes. Consult with your professor about which form to use and always remember that, whichever system you choose, apply it consistently throughout your paper.

NOTE: Always think critically about the information you place in a footnote or endnote. Ask yourself, is this supplementary or tangential information that would otherwise disrupt the flow of the text or is this essential information that I should integrate into the main text? If you are not sure, it's better to work it into the text. Too many notes implies a disorganized paper.

Cermak, Bonni and Jennifer Troxell. A Guide to Footnotes and Endnotes for NASA History Authors . NASA History Program. History Division; Hale, Ali. Should You Use Footnotes or Endnotes? DailyWritingTips.com ; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lunsford, Andrea A. and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook . New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989; Saller, Carol. “Endnotes or Footnotes? Some Considerations.” The Chronicle of Higher Education 58 (January 6, 2012): http://chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/2012/01/06/endnotes-or-footnotes-some-considerations/.

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Chicago Manual of Style 17th Edition

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Please note that although these resources reflect the most recent updates in the The Chicago Manual of Style  (17 th  edition) concerning documentation practices, you can review a full list of updates concerning usage, technology, professional practice, etc. at  The Chicago Manual of Style Online .

Introduction

The Chicago Manual of Style  (CMOS) covers a variety of topics from manuscript preparation and publication to grammar, usage, and documentation, and as such, it has been lovingly dubbed the “editor's bible.”

The material on this page focuses primarily on one of the two CMOS documentation styles: the Notes-Bibliography System (NB) , which is used by those working in literature, history, and the arts. The other documentation style, the Author-Date System, is nearly identical in content but slightly different in form and is preferred by those working in the social sciences.

Though the two systems both convey all of the important information about each source, they differ not only in terms of the way they direct readers to these sources, but also in terms of their formatting (e.g., the position of dates in citation entries). For examples of how these citation styles work in research papers, consult our sample papers: 

Author-Date Sample Paper

NB Sample Paper

In addition to consulting  The Chicago Manual of Style  (17th edition) for more information, students may also find it useful to consult Kate L. Turabian's  Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations  (8th edition). This manual, which presents what is commonly known as the "Turabian" citation style, follows the two CMOS patterns of documentation but offers slight modifications suited to student texts.

Notes and Bibliography (NB) in Chicago style

The Chicago Notes and Bibliography (NB) system is often used in the humanities to provide writers with a system for referencing their sources through the use of footnotes, endnotes, and through the use of a bibliography. This offers writers a flexible option for citation and provides   an outlet for commenting on those sources, if needed. Proper use of the Notes and Bibliography system builds a writer’s credibility by demonstrating their accountability to source material. In addition, it can protect writers from accusations of plagiarism, which is the intentional or accidental uncredited use of source material created by others.

Introduction to Notes

In the Notes and Bibliography system, you should include a note (endnote or footnote) each time you use a source, whether through a direct quote, paraphrase, or summary. Footnotes are added at the end of the page on which the source is referenced, while endnotes are compiled at the end of each chapter or at the end of the entire document.

In either case, a superscript number corresponding to a note, along with the bibliographic information for that source, should be placed in the text following the end of the sentence or clause in which the source is referenced.

If a work includes a bibliography, which is typically preferred, then it is not necessary to provide full publication details in notes. However, if a bibliography is not included with a work, the first note for each source should include  all  relevant information about the source: author’s full name, source title, and facts of publication. If you cite the same source again, or if a bibliography is included in the work, the note only needs to include the surname of the author, a shortened form of the title (if more than four words), and the page number(s). However, in a work that does not include a bibliography, it is recommended that the full citation be repeated when it is first used in a new chapter.

In contrast to earlier editions of CMOS, if you cite the same source two or more times consecutively, CMOS recommends using shortened citations. In a work with a bibliography, the first reference should use a shortened citation which includes the author’s name, the source title, and the page number(s), and consecutive references to the same work may omit the source title and simply include the author and page number. Although discouraged by CMOS, if you cite the same source and page number(s) from a single source two or more times consecutively, it is also possible to utilize the word “Ibid.,” ( from the Latin ibidem, which means “in the same place,”) as the corresponding note. If you use the same source but a draw from different new page, the corresponding note should use “Ibid.” followed by a comma and the new page number(s).

In the NB system, the footnote or endnote itself begins with the appropriate full-sized number, followed by a period and then a space.

Introduction to Bibliographies

In the NB system, the bibliography provides an alphabetical list of all sources used in a given work. This page, most often titled Bibliography, is usually placed at the end of the work preceding the index. It should include all sources cited within the work and may sometimes include other relevant sources that were not cited but provide further reading.

Although bibliographic entries for various sources may be formatted differently, all included sources (books, articles, websites, etc.) are arranged alphabetically by author’s last name. If no author or editor is listed, the title or, as a last resort, a descriptive phrase may be used.

Though useful, a bibliography is not required in works that provide full bibliographic information in the notes.

Common Elements

All entries in the bibliography will include the author (or editor, compiler, translator), title, and publication information.

Author Names

The author’s name is inverted in the bibliography, placing the last name first and separating the last name and first name with a comma; for example, John Smith becomes Smith, John.

Titles of books and journals are italicized. Titles of articles, chapters, poems, etc. are placed in quotation marks .

Publication Information

The year of publication is listed after the publisher or journal name .

Punctuation

In a bibliography, all major elements are separated by periods.

For more information and specific examples, see the sections on  Books  and  Periodicals .

Please note that this OWL resource provides basic information regarding the formatting of entries used in the bibliography. For more information about Selected Bibliographies, Annotated Bibliographies, and Bibliographic Essays, please consult Chapter 14.61 of  The Chicago Manual of Style (17th edition).

EndNote 20/21 Guide / APA Referencing Guide

• About EndNote 20/21 and APA referencing
• Accessing EndNote 20/21 on campus computers
• Setting the reference style to APA 7th edition
• Navigating EndNote 20/21
• Manually adding references
• Exporting a reference from online databases
• Exporting a reference from Google Scholar
• Exporting a reference from Ebook Central
• Editing a reference
• Attaching and annotating files

Adding your own research notes

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EndNote provides a space for you to add your own personal notes to a reference.  Write any information about the source that will prove helpful when writing your assignment.  These notes can be referred back to at any time.

Please note: These research notes do not appear in the in-text citation or full reference.  

To add your own notes to the reference click the reference in the centre panel → In the right panel select Edit → Scroll down to the Research Notes section and write your notes.  Save your changes.  

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