critical research question example

Join thousands of product people at Insight Out Conf on April 11. Register free.

Insights hub solutions

Analyze data

Uncover deep customer insights with fast, powerful features, store insights, curate and manage insights in one searchable platform, scale research, unlock the potential of customer insights at enterprise scale.

Featured reads

Inspiration

Three things to look forward to at Insight Out

Tips and tricks

Make magic with your customer data in Dovetail

Four ways Dovetail helps Product Managers master continuous product discovery

Events and videos

© Dovetail Research Pty. Ltd.

• Examples of good research questions

Last updated

Reviewed by

Tanya Williams

However, developing a good research question is often challenging. But, doing appropriate data analysis or drawing meaningful conclusions from your investigation with a well-defined question make it easier.

So, to get you on the right track, let’s start by defining a research question, what types of research questions are common, and the steps to drafting an excellent research question.

Make research less tedious

Dovetail streamlines research to help you uncover and share actionable insights

• What is a research question?

The definition of a research question might seem fairly obvious.

 At its simplest, a research question is a question you research to find the answer.

Researchers typically start with a problem or an issue and seek to understand why it has occurred, how it can be solved, or other aspects of its nature.

As you'll see, researchers typically start with a broad question that becomes narrower and more specific as the research stages are completed.

In some cases, a study may tackle more than one research question.

• Research question types

Research questions are typically divided into three broad categories: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method.

These categories reflect the research type necessary to answer the research question.

Qualitative research

When you conduct qualitative research, you're broadly exploring a subject to analyze its inherent qualities.

There are many types of qualitative research questions, which include:

Descriptive: describing and illuminating little-known or overlooked aspects of a subject

Emancipatory: uncovering data that can serve to emancipate a particular group of people, such as disadvantaged or marginalized communities

Evaluative:  assessing how well a particular research approach or method works

Explanatory: answering “how” or “why” a given phenomenon occurs 

Exploratory:  identifying reasons behind certain behaviors and exploring motivations (also known as generative research because it can generate solutions to problems)

Ideological: researching ideologies or beliefs, such as political affiliation

Interpretive: understanding group perceptions, decision-making, and behavior in a natural setting

Predictive: forecasting a likely outcome or scenario by examining past events 

While it's helpful to understand the differences between these qualitative research question types, writing a good question doesn't start with determining the precise type of research question you'll be asking.

It starts with determining what answers you're seeking.

Quantitative research

Unlike broad, flexible qualitative research questions, quantitative research questions are precise. They also directly link the research question and the proposed methodology.

So, in a quantitative research question, you'll usually find

The study method 

An independent variable (or variables)

A dependent variable

The study population 

Quantitative research questions can also fall into multiple categories, including:

Comparative research questions compare two or more groups according to specific criteria and analyze their similarities and differences.

Descriptive questions measure a population's response to one or more variables.

Relationship (or relationship-based) questions examine how two or more variables interact.

Mixed-methods research

As its name suggests, mixed-methods research questions involve qualitative and quantitative components.

These questions are ideal when the answers require an evaluation of a specific aspect of a phenomenon that you can quantify and a broader understanding of aspects that can't.

• How to write a research question

Writing a good research question can be challenging, even if you're passionate about the subject matter.

A good research question aims to solve a problem that still needs to be answered and can be solved empirically. 

The approach might involve quantitative or qualitative methodology, or a mixture of both. To write a well-developed research question, follow the four steps below:

1. Select a general topic

Start with a broad topic. You may already have one in mind or get one assigned to you. If you don't, think about one you're curious about. 

You can also use common brainstorming techniques , draw on discussions you've had with family and friends, take topics from the news, or use other similar sources of inspiration.

Also, consider a subject that has yet to be studied or addressed. If you're looking to tackle a topic that has already been thoroughly studied, you'll want to examine it from a new angle.

Still, the closer your question, approach, and outcomes are to existing literature, the less value your work will offer. It will also be less publishing-worthy (if that’s your goal).

2. Conduct preliminary research

Next, you'll want to conduct some initial research about your topic. You'll read coverage about your topic in academic journals, the news, and other credible sources at this stage.

You'll familiarize yourself with the terminology commonly used to describe your topic and the current take from subject matter experts and the general public. 

This preliminary review helps you in a few ways. First, you'll find many researchers will discuss challenges they found conducting their research in their "Limitations," "Results," and "Discussion" sections of research papers.

Assessing these sections also helps you avoid choosing the wrong methodological approach to answering your question. Initial research also enables you to avoid focusing on a topic that has already been covered. 

You can generate valuable research questions by tracking topics that have yet to be covered.

3. Consider your audience

Next, you'll want to give some thought to your audience. For example, what kinds of research material are they looking for, and what might they find valuable?

Reflect on why you’re conducting the research. 

What is your team looking to learn if your research is for a work assignment?

How does what they’re asking for from you connect to business goals?

Understanding what your audience is seeking can help you shape the direction of your research so that the final draft connects with your audience.

If you're writing for an academic journal, what types of research do they publish? What kinds of research approaches have they published? And what criteria do they expect submitted manuscripts to meet?

4. Generate potential questions

Take the insights you've gained from your preliminary research and your audience assessment to narrow your topic into a research question. 

Your question should be one that you can answer using the appropriate research methods. Unfortunately, some researchers start with questions they need more resources to answer and then produce studies whose outcomes are limited, limiting the study's value to the broader community. 

Make sure your question is one you can realistically answer.

• Examples of poor research questions

"How do electronics distract teen drivers?"

This question could be better from a researcher's perspective because it is overly broad. For instance, what is “electronics” in this context? Some electronics, like eye-monitoring systems in semi-autonomous vehicles, are designed to keep drivers focused on the road.

Also, how does the question define “teens”? Some states allow you to get a learner's permit as young as 14, while others require you to be 18 to drive. Therefore, conducting a study without further defining the participants' ages is not scientifically sound.

Here's another example of an ineffective research question:

"Why is the sky blue?"

This question has been researched thoroughly and answered. 

A simple online search will turn up hundreds, if not thousands, of pages of resources devoted to this very topic. 

Suppose you spend time conducting original research on a long-answered question; your research won’t be interesting, relevant, or valuable to your audience.

Alternatively, here's an example of a good research question:

"How does using a vehicle’s infotainment touch screen by drivers aged 16 to 18 in the U.S. affect driving habits?"

This question is far more specific than the first bad example. It notes the population of the study, as well as the independent and dependent variables.

And if you're still interested in the sky's color, a better example of a research question might be:

"What color is the sky on Proxima Centauri b, based on existing observations?"

A qualitative research study based on this question could extrapolate what visitors on Proxima Centauri b (a planet in the closest solar system to ours) might see as they look at the sky.

You could approach this by contextualizing our understanding of how the light scatters off the molecules of air resulting in a blue sky, and the likely composition of Proxima Centauri b's atmosphere from data NASA and others have gathered.

• Why the right research question is critical

As you can see from the examples, starting with a poorly-framed research question can make your study difficult or impossible to complete. 

Or it can lead you to duplicate research findings.

Ultimately, developing the right research question sets you up for success. It helps you define a realistic scope for your study, informs the best approach to answer the central question, and conveys its value to your audience. 

That's why you must take the time to get your research question right before you embark on any other part of your project.

Get started today

Go from raw data to valuable insights with a flexible research platform

Editor’s picks

Last updated: 21 December 2023

Last updated: 16 December 2023

Last updated: 6 October 2023

Last updated: 17 February 2024

Last updated: 5 March 2024

Last updated: 19 November 2023

Last updated: 15 February 2024

Last updated: 11 March 2024

Last updated: 12 December 2023

Last updated: 6 March 2024

Last updated: 10 April 2023

Last updated: 20 December 2023

Latest articles

Related topics, log in or sign up.

Get started for free

Research Question Examples 🧑🏻‍🏫

25+ Practical Examples & Ideas To Help You Get Started 

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | October 2023

A well-crafted research question (or set of questions) sets the stage for a robust study and meaningful insights.  But, if you’re new to research, it’s not always clear what exactly constitutes a good research question. In this post, we’ll provide you with clear examples of quality research questions across various disciplines, so that you can approach your research project with confidence!

Research Question Examples

• Psychology research questions
• Business research questions
• Education research questions
• Healthcare research questions
• Computer science research questions

Examples: Psychology

Let’s start by looking at some examples of research questions that you might encounter within the discipline of psychology.

How does sleep quality affect academic performance in university students?

This question is specific to a population (university students) and looks at a direct relationship between sleep and academic performance, both of which are quantifiable and measurable variables.

What factors contribute to the onset of anxiety disorders in adolescents?

The question narrows down the age group and focuses on identifying multiple contributing factors. There are various ways in which it could be approached from a methodological standpoint, including both qualitatively and quantitatively.

Do mindfulness techniques improve emotional well-being?

This is a focused research question aiming to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific intervention.

How does early childhood trauma impact adult relationships?

This research question targets a clear cause-and-effect relationship over a long timescale, making it focused but comprehensive.

Is there a correlation between screen time and depression in teenagers?

This research question focuses on an in-demand current issue and a specific demographic, allowing for a focused investigation. The key variables are clearly stated within the question and can be measured and analysed (i.e., high feasibility).

Examples: Business/Management

Next, let’s look at some examples of well-articulated research questions within the business and management realm.

How do leadership styles impact employee retention?

This is an example of a strong research question because it directly looks at the effect of one variable (leadership styles) on another (employee retention), allowing from a strongly aligned methodological approach.

What role does corporate social responsibility play in consumer choice?

Current and precise, this research question can reveal how social concerns are influencing buying behaviour by way of a qualitative exploration.

Does remote work increase or decrease productivity in tech companies?

Focused on a particular industry and a hot topic, this research question could yield timely, actionable insights that would have high practical value in the real world.

How do economic downturns affect small businesses in the homebuilding industry?

Vital for policy-making, this highly specific research question aims to uncover the challenges faced by small businesses within a certain industry.

Which employee benefits have the greatest impact on job satisfaction?

By being straightforward and specific, answering this research question could provide tangible insights to employers.

Examples: Education

Next, let’s look at some potential research questions within the education, training and development domain.

How does class size affect students’ academic performance in primary schools?

This example research question targets two clearly defined variables, which can be measured and analysed relatively easily.

Do online courses result in better retention of material than traditional courses?

Timely, specific and focused, answering this research question can help inform educational policy and personal choices about learning formats.

What impact do US public school lunches have on student health?

Targeting a specific, well-defined context, the research could lead to direct changes in public health policies.

To what degree does parental involvement improve academic outcomes in secondary education in the Midwest?

This research question focuses on a specific context (secondary education in the Midwest) and has clearly defined constructs.

What are the negative effects of standardised tests on student learning within Oklahoma primary schools?

This research question has a clear focus (negative outcomes) and is narrowed into a very specific context.

Need a helping hand?

Examples: Healthcare

Shifting to a different field, let’s look at some examples of research questions within the healthcare space.

What are the most effective treatments for chronic back pain amongst UK senior males?

Specific and solution-oriented, this research question focuses on clear variables and a well-defined context (senior males within the UK).

How do different healthcare policies affect patient satisfaction in public hospitals in South Africa?

This question is has clearly defined variables and is narrowly focused in terms of context.

Which factors contribute to obesity rates in urban areas within California?

This question is focused yet broad, aiming to reveal several contributing factors for targeted interventions.

Does telemedicine provide the same perceived quality of care as in-person visits for diabetes patients?

Ideal for a qualitative study, this research question explores a single construct (perceived quality of care) within a well-defined sample (diabetes patients).

Which lifestyle factors have the greatest affect on the risk of heart disease?

This research question aims to uncover modifiable factors, offering preventive health recommendations.

Examples: Computer Science

Last but certainly not least, let’s look at a few examples of research questions within the computer science world.

What are the perceived risks of cloud-based storage systems?

Highly relevant in our digital age, this research question would align well with a qualitative interview approach to better understand what users feel the key risks of cloud storage are.

Which factors affect the energy efficiency of data centres in Ohio?

With a clear focus, this research question lays a firm foundation for a quantitative study.

How do TikTok algorithms impact user behaviour amongst new graduates?

While this research question is more open-ended, it could form the basis for a qualitative investigation.

What are the perceived risk and benefits of open-source software software within the web design industry?

Practical and straightforward, the results could guide both developers and end-users in their choices.

Remember, these are just examples…

In this post, we’ve tried to provide a wide range of research question examples to help you get a feel for what research questions look like in practice. That said, it’s important to remember that these are just examples and don’t necessarily equate to good research topics . If you’re still trying to find a topic, check out our topic megalist for inspiration.

Psst… there’s more (for free)

This post is part of our dissertation mini-course, which covers everything you need to get started with your dissertation, thesis or research project. 

You Might Also Like:

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

• Print Friendly

The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews
• Introduction

Why are research questions so important?

Research question examples, types of qualitative research questions, writing a good research question, guiding your research through research questions.

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework
• Data collection
• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research
• Case studies
• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Research questions

The research question plays a critical role in the research process, as it guides the study design, data collection , analysis , and interpretation of the findings.

A research paper relies on a research question to inform readers of the research topic and the research problem being addressed. Without such a question, your audience may have trouble understanding the rationale for your research project.

People can take for granted the research question as an essential part of a research project. However, explicitly detailing why researchers need a research question can help lend clarity to the research project. Here are some of the key roles that the research question plays in the research process:

Defines the scope and focus of the study

The research question helps to define the scope and focus of the study. It identifies the specific topic or issue that the researcher wants to investigate, and it sets the boundaries for the study. A research question can also help you determine if your study primarily contributes to theory or is more applied in nature. Clinical research and public health research, for example, may be more concerned with research questions that contribute to practice, while a research question focused on cognitive linguistics are aimed at developing theory.

Provides a rationale for the study

The research question provides a rationale for the study by identifying a gap or problem in existing literature or practice that the researcher wants to address. It articulates the purpose and significance of the study, and it explains why the study is important and worth conducting.

Guides the study design

The research question guides the study design by helping the researcher select appropriate research methods , sampling strategies, and data collection tools. It also helps to determine the types of data that need to be collected and the best ways to analyze and interpret the data because the principal aim of the study is to provide an answer to that research question.

Shapes the data analysis and interpretation

The research question shapes the data analysis and interpretation by guiding the selection of appropriate analytical methods and by focusing the interpretation of the findings. It helps to identify which patterns and themes in the data are more relevant and worth digging into, and it guides the development of conclusions and recommendations based on the findings.

Generates new knowledge

The research question is the starting point for generating new knowledge. By answering the research question, the researcher contributes to the body of knowledge in the field and helps to advance the understanding of the topic or issue under investigation.

Overall, the research question is a critical component of the research process, as it guides the study from start to finish and provides a foundation for generating new knowledge.

Supports the thesis statement

The thesis statement or main assertion in any research paper stems from the answers to the research question. As a result, you can think of a focused research question as a preview of what the study aims to present as a new contribution to existing knowledge.

Here area few examples of focused research questions that can help set the stage for explaining different types of research questions in qualitative research . These questions touch upon various fields and subjects, showcasing the versatility and depth of research.

• What factors contribute to the job satisfaction of remote workers in the technology industry?
• How do teachers perceive the implementation of technology in the classroom, and what challenges do they face?
• What coping strategies do refugees use to deal with the challenges of resettlement in a new country?
• How does gentrification impact the sense of community and identity among long-term residents in urban neighborhoods?
• In what ways do social media platforms influence body image and self-esteem among adolescents?
• How do family dynamics and communication patterns affect the management of type 2 diabetes in adult patients?
• What is the role of mentorship in the professional development and career success of early-career academics?
• How do patients with chronic illnesses experience and navigate the healthcare system, and what barriers do they encounter?
• What are the motivations and experiences of volunteers in disaster relief efforts, and how do these experiences impact their future involvement in humanitarian work?
• How do cultural beliefs and values shape the consumer preferences and purchasing behavior of young adults in a globalized market?
• How do individuals whose genetic factors predict a high risk for developing a specific medical condition perceive, cope with, and make lifestyle choices based on this information?

These example research questions highlight the different kinds of inquiries common to qualitative research. They also demonstrate how qualitative research can address a wide range of topics, from understanding the experiences of specific populations to examining the impact of broader social and cultural phenomena.

Also, notice that these types of research questions tend to be geared towards inductive analyses that describe a concept in depth or develop new theory. As such, qualitative research questions tend to ask "what," "why," or "how" types of questions. This contrasts with quantitative research questions that typically aim to verify an existing theory. and tend to ask "when," "how much," and "why" types of questions to nail down causal mechanisms and generalizable findings.

Whatever your research inquiry, turn to ATLAS.ti

Powerful tools to help turn your research question into meaningful analysis, starting with a free trial.

As you can see above, the research questions you ask play a critical role in shaping the direction and depth of your study. These questions are designed to explore, understand, and interpret social phenomena, rather than testing a hypothesis or quantifying data like in quantitative research. In this section, we will discuss the various types of research questions typically found in qualitative research, making it easier for you to craft appropriate questions for your study.

Descriptive questions

Descriptive research questions aim to provide a detailed account of the phenomenon being studied. These questions usually begin with "what" or "how" and seek to understand the nature, characteristics, or functions of a subject. For example, "What are the experiences of first-generation college students?" or "How do small business owners adapt to economic downturns?"

Comparative questions

Comparative questions seek to examine the similarities and differences between two or more groups, cases, or phenomena. These questions often include the words "compare," "contrast," or "differences." For example, "How do parenting practices differ between single-parent and two-parent families?" or "What are the similarities and differences in leadership styles among successful female entrepreneurs?"

Exploratory questions

Exploratory research questions are open-ended and intended to investigate new or understudied areas. These questions aim to identify patterns, relationships, or themes that may warrant further investigation. For example, "How do teenagers use social media to construct their identities?" or "What factors influence the adoption of renewable energy technologies in rural communities?"

Explanatory questions

Explanatory research questions delve deeper into the reasons or explanations behind a particular phenomenon or behavior. They often start with "why" or "how" and aim to uncover underlying motivations, beliefs, or processes. For example, "Why do some employees resist organizational change?" or "How do cultural factors influence decision-making in international business negotiations?"

Evaluative questions

Evaluative questions assess the effectiveness, impact, or outcomes of a particular intervention, program, or policy. They seek to understand the value or significance of an initiative by examining its successes, challenges, or unintended consequences. For example, "How effective is the school's anti-bullying program in reducing incidents of bullying?" or "What are the long-term impacts of a community-based health promotion campaign on residents' well-being?"

Interpretive questions

Interpretive questions focus on understanding how individuals or groups make sense of their experiences, actions, or social contexts. These questions often involve the analysis of language, symbols, or narratives to uncover the meanings and perspectives that shape human behavior. For example, "How do cancer survivors make sense of their illness journey?" or "What meanings do members of a religious community attach to their rituals and practices?"

There are mainly two overarching ways to think about how to devise a research question. Many studies are built on existing research, but others can be founded on personal experiences or pilot research.

Using the literature review

Within scholarly research, the research question is often built from your literature review . An analysis of the relevant literature reporting previous studies should allow you to identify contextual, theoretical, or methodological gaps that can be addressed in future research.

A compelling research question built on a robust literature review ultimately illustrates to your audience what is novel about your study's objectives.

Conducting pilot research

Researchers may conduct preliminary research or pilot research when they are interested in a particular topic but don't yet have a basis for forming a research question on that topic. A pilot study is a small-scale, preliminary study that is conducted in order to test the feasibility of a research design, methods, and procedures. It can help identify unresolved puzzles that merit further investigation, and pilot studies can draw attention to potential issues or problems that may arise in the full study.

One potential benefit of conducting a pilot study in qualitative research is that it can help the researcher to refine their research question. By collecting and analyzing a small amount of data, the researcher can get a better sense of the phenomenon under investigation and can develop a more focused and refined research question for the full study. The pilot study can also help the researcher to identify key themes, concepts, or variables that should be included in the research question.

In addition to helping to refine the research question, a pilot study can also help the researcher to develop a more effective data collection and analysis plan. The researcher can test different methods for collecting and analyzing data, and can make adjustments based on the results of the pilot study. This can help to ensure that the full study is conducted in the most effective and efficient manner possible.

Overall, conducting a pilot study in qualitative research can be a valuable tool for refining the research question and developing a more effective research design, methods, and procedures. It can help to ensure that the full study is conducted in a rigorous and effective manner, and can increase the likelihood of generating meaningful and useful findings.

When you write a research question for your qualitative study, consider which type of question best aligns with your research objectives and the nature of the phenomenon you are investigating. Remember, qualitative research questions should be open-ended, allowing for a range of perspectives and insights to emerge. As you progress in your research, these questions may evolve or be refined based on the data you collect, helping to guide your analysis and deepen your understanding of the topic.

Use ATLAS.ti for every step of your research project

From the research question to the key insights, ATLAS.ti is there for you. See how with a free trial.

LBST 2301 (SOCY): Critical Thinking & Communication - Karen Cushing

• How to Develop a Research Question
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Popular vs. Scholarly Resources
• Annotated Bibliography
• Citing Your Sources

Developing a Research Question

Developing Strong Research Questions

A good research question is essential to guide your research paper, project or thesis. It pinpoints exactly what you want to find out and gives your work a clear focus and purpose. All research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

In a research paper or essay, you will usually write a single research question to guide your reading and thinking. The answer that you develop is your thesis statement — the central assertion or position that your paper will argue for.

In a bigger research project, such as a thesis or dissertation, you might have multiple research questions, but they should all be clearly connected and focused around a central research problem.

From: Scribbr

How to Write a Research Question

How to write a research question.

The process of developing your research question follows several steps:

• Choose a broad topic
• Do some preliminary reading to find out about topical debates and issues
• Narrow down a specific niche that you want to focus on
• Identify a practical or theoretical research problem that you will address

When you have a clearly-defined problem, you need to formulate one or more questions. Think about exactly what you want to know and how it will contribute to resolving the problem.

• << Previous: Home
• Next: Writing a Research Proposal >>
• Last Updated: Oct 4, 2023 9:30 AM
• URL: https://guides.library.charlotte.edu/c.php?g=1218501

• Search Menu
• Browse content in Arts and Humanities
• Browse content in Archaeology
• Anglo-Saxon and Medieval Archaeology
• Archaeological Methodology and Techniques
• Archaeology by Region
• Archaeology of Religion
• Archaeology of Trade and Exchange
• Biblical Archaeology
• Contemporary and Public Archaeology
• Environmental Archaeology
• Historical Archaeology
• History and Theory of Archaeology
• Industrial Archaeology
• Landscape Archaeology
• Mortuary Archaeology
• Prehistoric Archaeology
• Underwater Archaeology
• Urban Archaeology
• Zooarchaeology
• Browse content in Architecture
• Architectural Structure and Design
• History of Architecture
• Residential and Domestic Buildings
• Theory of Architecture
• Browse content in Art
• Art Subjects and Themes
• History of Art
• Industrial and Commercial Art
• Theory of Art
• Biographical Studies
• Byzantine Studies
• Browse content in Classical Studies
• Classical History
• Classical Philosophy
• Classical Mythology
• Classical Literature
• Classical Reception
• Classical Art and Architecture
• Classical Oratory and Rhetoric
• Greek and Roman Epigraphy
• Greek and Roman Law
• Greek and Roman Papyrology
• Greek and Roman Archaeology
• Late Antiquity
• Religion in the Ancient World
• Digital Humanities
• Browse content in History
• Colonialism and Imperialism
• Diplomatic History
• Environmental History
• Genealogy, Heraldry, Names, and Honours
• Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing
• Historical Geography
• History by Period
• History of Emotions
• History of Agriculture
• History of Education
• History of Gender and Sexuality
• Industrial History
• Intellectual History
• International History
• Labour History
• Legal and Constitutional History
• Local and Family History
• Maritime History
• Military History
• National Liberation and Post-Colonialism
• Oral History
• Political History
• Public History
• Regional and National History
• Revolutions and Rebellions
• Slavery and Abolition of Slavery
• Social and Cultural History
• Theory, Methods, and Historiography
• Urban History
• World History
• Browse content in Language Teaching and Learning
• Language Learning (Specific Skills)
• Language Teaching Theory and Methods
• Browse content in Linguistics
• Applied Linguistics
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Computational Linguistics
• Forensic Linguistics
• Grammar, Syntax and Morphology
• Historical and Diachronic Linguistics
• History of English
• Language Acquisition
• Language Evolution
• Language Reference
• Language Variation
• Language Families
• Lexicography
• Linguistic Anthropology
• Linguistic Theories
• Linguistic Typology
• Phonetics and Phonology
• Psycholinguistics
• Sociolinguistics
• Translation and Interpretation
• Writing Systems
• Browse content in Literature
• Bibliography
• Children's Literature Studies
• Literary Studies (Asian)
• Literary Studies (European)
• Literary Studies (Eco-criticism)
• Literary Studies (Romanticism)
• Literary Studies (American)
• Literary Studies (Modernism)
• Literary Studies - World
• Literary Studies (1500 to 1800)
• Literary Studies (19th Century)
• Literary Studies (20th Century onwards)
• Literary Studies (African American Literature)
• Literary Studies (British and Irish)
• Literary Studies (Early and Medieval)
• Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers)
• Literary Studies (Gender Studies)
• Literary Studies (Graphic Novels)
• Literary Studies (History of the Book)
• Literary Studies (Plays and Playwrights)
• Literary Studies (Poetry and Poets)
• Literary Studies (Postcolonial Literature)
• Literary Studies (Queer Studies)
• Literary Studies (Science Fiction)
• Literary Studies (Travel Literature)
• Literary Studies (War Literature)
• Literary Studies (Women's Writing)
• Literary Theory and Cultural Studies
• Mythology and Folklore
• Shakespeare Studies and Criticism
• Browse content in Media Studies
• Browse content in Music
• Applied Music
• Dance and Music
• Ethics in Music
• Ethnomusicology
• Gender and Sexuality in Music
• Medicine and Music
• Music Cultures
• Music and Religion
• Music and Media
• Music and Culture
• Music Education and Pedagogy
• Music Theory and Analysis
• Musical Scores, Lyrics, and Libretti
• Musical Structures, Styles, and Techniques
• Musicology and Music History
• Performance Practice and Studies
• Race and Ethnicity in Music
• Sound Studies
• Browse content in Performing Arts
• Browse content in Philosophy
• Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
• Epistemology
• Feminist Philosophy
• History of Western Philosophy
• Metaphysics
• Moral Philosophy
• Non-Western Philosophy
• Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Language
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Perception
• Philosophy of Action
• Philosophy of Law
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic
• Practical Ethics
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Browse content in Religion
• Biblical Studies
• Christianity
• East Asian Religions
• History of Religion
• Judaism and Jewish Studies
• Qumran Studies
• Religion and Education
• Religion and Health
• Religion and Politics
• Religion and Science
• Religion and Law
• Religion and Art, Literature, and Music
• Religious Studies
• Browse content in Society and Culture
• Cookery, Food, and Drink
• Cultural Studies
• Customs and Traditions
• Ethical Issues and Debates
• Hobbies, Games, Arts and Crafts
• Lifestyle, Home, and Garden
• Natural world, Country Life, and Pets
• Popular Beliefs and Controversial Knowledge
• Sports and Outdoor Recreation
• Technology and Society
• Travel and Holiday
• Visual Culture
• Browse content in Law
• Arbitration
• Browse content in Company and Commercial Law
• Commercial Law
• Company Law
• Browse content in Comparative Law
• Systems of Law
• Competition Law
• Browse content in Constitutional and Administrative Law
• Government Powers
• Judicial Review
• Local Government Law
• Military and Defence Law
• Parliamentary and Legislative Practice
• Construction Law
• Contract Law
• Browse content in Criminal Law
• Criminal Procedure
• Criminal Evidence Law
• Sentencing and Punishment
• Employment and Labour Law
• Environment and Energy Law
• Browse content in Financial Law
• Banking Law
• Insolvency Law
• History of Law
• Human Rights and Immigration
• Intellectual Property Law
• Browse content in International Law
• Private International Law and Conflict of Laws
• Public International Law
• IT and Communications Law
• Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law
• Law and Politics
• Law and Society
• Browse content in Legal System and Practice
• Courts and Procedure
• Legal Skills and Practice
• Primary Sources of Law
• Regulation of Legal Profession
• Medical and Healthcare Law
• Browse content in Policing
• Criminal Investigation and Detection
• Police and Security Services
• Police Procedure and Law
• Police Regional Planning
• Browse content in Property Law
• Personal Property Law
• Study and Revision
• Terrorism and National Security Law
• Browse content in Trusts Law
• Wills and Probate or Succession
• Browse content in Medicine and Health
• Browse content in Allied Health Professions
• Arts Therapies
• Clinical Science
• Dietetics and Nutrition
• Occupational Therapy
• Operating Department Practice
• Physiotherapy
• Radiography
• Speech and Language Therapy
• Browse content in Anaesthetics
• General Anaesthesia
• Neuroanaesthesia
• Browse content in Clinical Medicine
• Acute Medicine
• Cardiovascular Medicine
• Clinical Genetics
• Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
• Dermatology
• Endocrinology and Diabetes
• Gastroenterology
• Genito-urinary Medicine
• Geriatric Medicine
• Infectious Diseases
• Medical Toxicology
• Medical Oncology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Medicine
• Rehabilitation Medicine
• Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonology
• Rheumatology
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports and Exercise Medicine
• Clinical Neuroscience
• Community Medical Services
• Critical Care
• Emergency Medicine
• Forensic Medicine
• Haematology
• History of Medicine
• Browse content in Medical Dentistry
• Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
• Paediatric Dentistry
• Restorative Dentistry and Orthodontics
• Surgical Dentistry
• Browse content in Medical Skills
• Clinical Skills
• Communication Skills
• Nursing Skills
• Surgical Skills
• Medical Ethics
• Medical Statistics and Methodology
• Browse content in Neurology
• Clinical Neurophysiology
• Neuropathology
• Nursing Studies
• Browse content in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
• Gynaecology
• Occupational Medicine
• Ophthalmology
• Otolaryngology (ENT)
• Browse content in Paediatrics
• Neonatology
• Browse content in Pathology
• Chemical Pathology
• Clinical Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics
• Histopathology
• Medical Microbiology and Virology
• Patient Education and Information
• Browse content in Pharmacology
• Psychopharmacology
• Browse content in Popular Health
• Caring for Others
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Self-help and Personal Development
• Browse content in Preclinical Medicine
• Cell Biology
• Molecular Biology and Genetics
• Reproduction, Growth and Development
• Primary Care
• Professional Development in Medicine
• Browse content in Psychiatry
• Addiction Medicine
• Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Learning Disabilities
• Old Age Psychiatry
• Psychotherapy
• Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology
• Epidemiology
• Public Health
• Browse content in Radiology
• Clinical Radiology
• Interventional Radiology
• Nuclear Medicine
• Radiation Oncology
• Reproductive Medicine
• Browse content in Surgery
• Cardiothoracic Surgery
• Gastro-intestinal and Colorectal Surgery
• General Surgery
• Neurosurgery
• Paediatric Surgery
• Peri-operative Care
• Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
• Surgical Oncology
• Transplant Surgery
• Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery
• Vascular Surgery
• Browse content in Science and Mathematics
• Browse content in Biological Sciences
• Aquatic Biology
• Biochemistry
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
• Developmental Biology
• Ecology and Conservation
• Evolutionary Biology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Microbiology
• Molecular and Cell Biology
• Natural History
• Plant Sciences and Forestry
• Research Methods in Life Sciences
• Structural Biology
• Systems Biology
• Zoology and Animal Sciences
• Browse content in Chemistry
• Analytical Chemistry
• Computational Chemistry
• Crystallography
• Environmental Chemistry
• Industrial Chemistry
• Inorganic Chemistry
• Materials Chemistry
• Medicinal Chemistry
• Mineralogy and Gems
• Organic Chemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Polymer Chemistry
• Study and Communication Skills in Chemistry
• Theoretical Chemistry
• Browse content in Computer Science
• Artificial Intelligence
• Computer Architecture and Logic Design
• Game Studies
• Human-Computer Interaction
• Mathematical Theory of Computation
• Programming Languages
• Software Engineering
• Systems Analysis and Design
• Virtual Reality
• Browse content in Computing
• Business Applications
• Computer Security
• Computer Games
• Computer Networking and Communications
• Digital Lifestyle
• Graphical and Digital Media Applications
• Operating Systems
• Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography
• Atmospheric Sciences
• Environmental Geography
• Geology and the Lithosphere
• Maps and Map-making
• Meteorology and Climatology
• Oceanography and Hydrology
• Palaeontology
• Physical Geography and Topography
• Regional Geography
• Soil Science
• Urban Geography
• Browse content in Engineering and Technology
• Agriculture and Farming
• Biological Engineering
• Civil Engineering, Surveying, and Building
• Electronics and Communications Engineering
• Energy Technology
• Engineering (General)
• Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology
• History of Engineering and Technology
• Mechanical Engineering and Materials
• Technology of Industrial Chemistry
• Transport Technology and Trades
• Browse content in Environmental Science
• Applied Ecology (Environmental Science)
• Conservation of the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Environmental Sustainability
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Environmental Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Environmental Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environmental Science)
• Nuclear Issues (Environmental Science)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Environmental Science)
• History of Science and Technology
• Browse content in Materials Science
• Ceramics and Glasses
• Composite Materials
• Metals, Alloying, and Corrosion
• Nanotechnology
• Browse content in Mathematics
• Applied Mathematics
• Biomathematics and Statistics
• History of Mathematics
• Mathematical Education
• Mathematical Finance
• Mathematical Analysis
• Numerical and Computational Mathematics
• Probability and Statistics
• Pure Mathematics
• Browse content in Neuroscience
• Cognition and Behavioural Neuroscience
• Development of the Nervous System
• Disorders of the Nervous System
• History of Neuroscience
• Invertebrate Neurobiology
• Molecular and Cellular Systems
• Neuroendocrinology and Autonomic Nervous System
• Neuroscientific Techniques
• Sensory and Motor Systems
• Browse content in Physics
• Astronomy and Astrophysics
• Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics
• Biological and Medical Physics
• Classical Mechanics
• Computational Physics
• Condensed Matter Physics
• Electromagnetism, Optics, and Acoustics
• History of Physics
• Mathematical and Statistical Physics
• Measurement Science
• Nuclear Physics
• Particles and Fields
• Plasma Physics
• Quantum Physics
• Relativity and Gravitation
• Semiconductor and Mesoscopic Physics
• Browse content in Psychology
• Affective Sciences
• Clinical Psychology
• Cognitive Psychology
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Criminal and Forensic Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational Psychology
• Evolutionary Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems in Psychology
• Music Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational Psychology
• Psychological Assessment and Testing
• Psychology of Human-Technology Interaction
• Psychology Professional Development and Training
• Research Methods in Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Browse content in Social Sciences
• Browse content in Anthropology
• Anthropology of Religion
• Human Evolution
• Medical Anthropology
• Physical Anthropology
• Regional Anthropology
• Social and Cultural Anthropology
• Theory and Practice of Anthropology
• Browse content in Business and Management
• Business Strategy
• Business Ethics
• Business History
• Business and Government
• Business and Technology
• Business and the Environment
• Comparative Management
• Corporate Governance
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Entrepreneurship
• Health Management
• Human Resource Management
• Industrial and Employment Relations
• Industry Studies
• Information and Communication Technologies
• International Business
• Knowledge Management
• Management and Management Techniques
• Operations Management
• Organizational Theory and Behaviour
• Pensions and Pension Management
• Public and Nonprofit Management
• Strategic Management
• Supply Chain Management
• Browse content in Criminology and Criminal Justice
• Criminal Justice
• Criminology
• Forms of Crime
• International and Comparative Criminology
• Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
• Development Studies
• Browse content in Economics
• Agricultural, Environmental, and Natural Resource Economics
• Asian Economics
• Behavioural Finance
• Behavioural Economics and Neuroeconomics
• Econometrics and Mathematical Economics
• Economic Systems
• Economic History
• Economic Methodology
• Economic Development and Growth
• Financial Markets
• Financial Institutions and Services
• General Economics and Teaching
• Health, Education, and Welfare
• History of Economic Thought
• International Economics
• Labour and Demographic Economics
• Law and Economics
• Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
• Microeconomics
• Public Economics
• Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics
• Welfare Economics
• Browse content in Education
• Adult Education and Continuous Learning
• Care and Counselling of Students
• Early Childhood and Elementary Education
• Educational Equipment and Technology
• Educational Strategies and Policy
• Higher and Further Education
• Organization and Management of Education
• Philosophy and Theory of Education
• Schools Studies
• Secondary Education
• Teaching of a Specific Subject
• Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs
• Teaching Skills and Techniques
• Browse content in Environment
• Applied Ecology (Social Science)
• Climate Change
• Conservation of the Environment (Social Science)
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Social Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environment)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Social Science)
• Browse content in Human Geography
• Cultural Geography
• Economic Geography
• Political Geography
• Browse content in Interdisciplinary Studies
• Communication Studies
• Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences
• Browse content in Politics
• African Politics
• Asian Politics
• Chinese Politics
• Comparative Politics
• Conflict Politics
• Elections and Electoral Studies
• Environmental Politics
• European Union
• Foreign Policy
• Gender and Politics
• Human Rights and Politics
• Indian Politics
• International Relations
• International Organization (Politics)
• International Political Economy
• Irish Politics
• Latin American Politics
• Middle Eastern Politics
• Political Methodology
• Political Communication
• Political Philosophy
• Political Sociology
• Political Behaviour
• Political Economy
• Political Institutions
• Political Theory
• Politics and Law
• Public Administration
• Public Policy
• Quantitative Political Methodology
• Regional Political Studies
• Russian Politics
• Security Studies
• State and Local Government
• UK Politics
• US Politics
• Browse content in Regional and Area Studies
• African Studies
• Asian Studies
• East Asian Studies
• Japanese Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Middle Eastern Studies
• Native American Studies
• Scottish Studies
• Browse content in Research and Information
• Research Methods
• Browse content in Social Work
• Addictions and Substance Misuse
• Adoption and Fostering
• Care of the Elderly
• Child and Adolescent Social Work
• Couple and Family Social Work
• Developmental and Physical Disabilities Social Work
• Direct Practice and Clinical Social Work
• Emergency Services
• Human Behaviour and the Social Environment
• International and Global Issues in Social Work
• Mental and Behavioural Health
• Social Justice and Human Rights
• Social Policy and Advocacy
• Social Work and Crime and Justice
• Social Work Macro Practice
• Social Work Practice Settings
• Social Work Research and Evidence-based Practice
• Welfare and Benefit Systems
• Browse content in Sociology
• Childhood Studies
• Community Development
• Comparative and Historical Sociology
• Economic Sociology
• Gender and Sexuality
• Gerontology and Ageing
• Health, Illness, and Medicine
• Marriage and the Family
• Migration Studies
• Occupations, Professions, and Work
• Organizations
• Population and Demography
• Race and Ethnicity
• Social Theory
• Social Movements and Social Change
• Social Research and Statistics
• Social Stratification, Inequality, and Mobility
• Sociology of Religion
• Sociology of Education
• Sport and Leisure
• Urban and Rural Studies
• Browse content in Warfare and Defence
• Defence Strategy, Planning, and Research
• Land Forces and Warfare
• Military Administration
• Military Life and Institutions
• Naval Forces and Warfare
• Other Warfare and Defence Issues
• Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution
• Weapons and Equipment

• < Previous chapter
• Next chapter >

2 Selection of the Research Question

• Published: March 2018
• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions Icon Permissions

Selecting a research question is the first step of any research project. This chapter discusses how to formulate a specific research question from a variety of scientific interests. The reader will learn that a good research question needs to consider several aspects, such as feasibility, innovation, and significance, and that merging all these aspects into one research question may be challenging. This chapter reviews the importance of generating a strong research question using the PICOT format: population (P), intervention (I), control (C), outcomes (O), and time (T). This chapter also discusses the selection of appropriate outcome variables—surrogates or clinical endpoints, based on the types of questions or study phase. The final goal of this chapter is to refine the researcher’s general idea into the process of shaping a strong research question that will be feasible, important, ethical, and answerable.

The difficulty in most scientific work lies in framing the questions rather than in finding the answers. —Arthur E. Boycott (Pathologist, 1877–1938)

The grand aim of all science is to cover the greatest number of empirical facts by logical deduction from the smallest number of hypotheses or axioms. —Albert Einstein (Physicist, 1879–1955)

Introduction

The previous chapter provided the reader with an overview of the history of clinical research, followed by an introduction to fundamental concepts of clinical research and clinical trials. It is important to be aware of and to learn lessons from the mistakes of past and current research in order to be prepared to conduct your own research. As you will soon learn, developing your research project is an evolutionary process, and research itself is a continuously changing and evolving field.

Careful conceptual design and planning are crucial for conducting a reproducible, compelling, and ethically responsible research study. In this chapter, we will discuss what should be the first step of any research project, that is, how to develop your own research question. The basic process is to select a topic of interest, identify a research problem within this area of interest, formulate a research question, and finally state the overall research objectives (i.e., the specific aims that define what you want to accomplish).

You will learn how to define your research question, starting from broad interests and then narrowing these down to your primary research question. We will address the key elements you will need to define for your research question: the study population, the intervention ( x , independent variable[s]), and the outcome(s) ( y , dependent variable[s]). Later chapters in this volume will discuss popular study designs and elements such as covariates, confounders, and effect modifiers (interaction) that will help you to further delineate your research question and your data analysis plan.

Although this chapter is not a grant-writing tutorial, most of what you will learn here has very important implications for writing a grant proposal. In fact, the most important part of a grant proposal is the “specific aims” page, where you state your research question, hypotheses, and objectives.

How to Select a Research Question

What is a research question.

A research question is an inquiry about an unanswered scientific problem. The purpose of your research project is to find the answer to this particular research question. Defining a research question can be the most difficult task during the design of your study. Nevertheless, it is fundamental to start with the research question, as it is strongly associated with the study design and predetermines all the subsequent steps in the planning and analysis of the research study.

What Is the Importance of a Research Question?

Defining the research question is instrumental for the success of your study. It determines the study population, outcome, intervention, and statistical analysis of the research study, and therefore the scope of the entire project.

A novice researcher will often jump to methodology and design, eager to collect data and analyze them. It is always tempting to try out a new or “fancy” method (e.g., “Let’s test this new proteomic biomarker in a pilot study!” or “With this Luminex assay we can test 20 cytokines simultaneously in our patient serum!”), but this mistake all too often makes the research project a “fishing expedition,” with the unfortunate outcome that a researcher has invested hours of work and has obtained reams of data, only to find herself at an impasse, and never figuring out what to do with all the information collected. Although it is not wrong to plan an exploratory study (or a hypothesis-generating study), such study has a high risk of not yielding any useful information; thus all the effort to have the study performed will be lost. When planning an exploratory or pilot study (with no defined research question), the investigator must understand the goals and the risks (for additional discussion on pilot studies, see Lancaster et al. 2002 ).

It is important to first establish a concept for your research. You must have a preset idea or a working hypothesis in order to be able to understand the data you will generate. Otherwise, you will not be able to differentiate whether your data were obtained by chance, by mistake, or if they actually reflect a true finding. Also, have in mind ahead of time how you would like to present your study at a conference, in a manuscript, or in a grant proposal. You should be able to present your research to your audience in a well-designed manner that reflects a logical approach and appropriate reasoning.

A good research question leads to useful findings that may have a significant impact on clinical practice and health care, regardless of whether the results are positive or negative. It also gives rise to the next generation of research questions. Therefore, taking enough time to develop the research question is essential.

Where Do Research Questions Come From?

How do we find research questions? As a clinical research scientist, your motivation to conduct a study might be driven by a perceived knowledge gap, the urge to deepen your understanding in a certain phenomenon, or perhaps to clarify contradictory existing findings. Maybe your bench research implies that your findings warrant translation into a study involving patients in a clinical setting. Maybe your clinical work experience gives you the impression that a new intervention would be more effective for your patients compared to standard treatment. For example, your results could lead you to ask, “Does this drug really prolong life in patients with breast cancer?” or, “Does this procedure really decrease pain in patients with chronic arthritis?”

Once you have identified a problem in the area you want to study, you can refine your idea into a research question by gaining a firm grasp of “what is known” and “what is unknown.” To better understand the research problem, you should learn as much as you can about the background pertaining to the topic of interest and specify the gap between current understanding and unsolved problems. As an early step, you should consult the literature, using tools such as MEDLINE or EMBASE, to gauge the current level of knowledge relevant to your potential research question. This is essential in order to avoid spending unnecessary time and effort on questions that have already been solved by other investigators. Meta-analyses and systematic reviews are especially useful to understand the combined level of evidence from a large number of studies and to obtain an overview of clinical trials associated with your questions. You should also pay attention to unpublished results and the progress of important studies whose results are not yet published. It is important to realize that there likely are negative results produced but never published. You can inspect funnel plots obtained from meta-analyses or generated from your own research (see Chapter 14 in this volume for more details) to estimate if there has been publication bias toward positive studies. Also, be aware that clinical trials with aims similar to those of your study might still be ongoing. To find this information, you can check the public registration of trials using sites such as clinicaltrials.gov.

How to Develop the Research Question: Narrow Down the Question

Once you have selected your research topic, you need to develop it into a more specific question. The first step in refining a research question is to narrow down a broad research topic into a specific description ( narrow research question ) that covers the four points of importance, feasibility, answerability , and ethicality.

Importance: Interesting, Novel, and Relevant

Your research can be descriptive, exploratory, or experimental. The purpose of your research can be for diagnostic or treatment purposes, or to discover or elucidate a certain mechanism. The point you will always have to consider when making a plan for your study, however, is how to justify your research proposal. Does your research question have scientific relevance? Can you answer the “so what” question? You need to describe the importance of your research question with careful consideration of the following elements:

The disease (condition or problem) : Novelty, unmet need, or urgency are important. What is the prevalence of this disease/condition? Is there a pressing need for further discoveries regarding this topic because of well-established negative prognoses (e.g., HIV, pancreatic cancer, or Alzheimer’s disease)? Are existing treatment options limited, too complex or costly, or otherwise not satisfactory (e.g., limb replacement, face transplantation)? Does the research topic reflect a major problem in terms of health policy, medical, social, and/or economic aspects (e.g., smoking, hypertension, or obesity)?

The intervention : Is it a new drug, procedure, technology, or medical device (e.g., stem-cell derived pacemaker or artificial heart)? Does it concern an existing drug approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for a different indication (e.g., is Rituximab, a drug normally indicated for malignant lymphoma, effective for systemic lupus erythematosus or rheumatoid arthritis)? Is there new evidence for application of an existing intervention in a different population (e.g., is Palivizumab also effective in immunodeficiency infants, not only in premature infants to prevent respiratory syncytial virus)? Have recent findings supported the testing of a new intervention in a particular condition (e.g., is a β-blocker effective in preventing cardiovascular events in patients with chronic renal failure)? Even a research question regarding a standard of care intervention can be valuable if in the end it can improve the effectiveness of clinical practice.

Feasibility

In short, be realistic: novel research tends to jump right away into very ambitious projects. You should carefully prove the feasibility of your research idea to prevent wasting precious resources such as time and money:

Patients : Can you recruit the required number of subjects? Do you think your recruitment goal is realistic? Rare diseases such as Pompe or Fabry’s disease will pose a challenge in obtaining a sufficient sample size. Even common diseases, depending on your inclusion criteria and regimen of intervention, may be difficult to recruit. Does your hospital have enough patients? If not, you may have to consider a multi-center study. What about protocol adherence and dropouts ? Do you expect significant deviations from the protocol? Do you need to adjust your sample size accordingly?

Technical expertise : Are there any established measurements or diagnostic tools for your study? Can the outcome be measured? Is there any established diagnostic tool? Do we have any standard techniques for using the device (e.g., guidelines for echocardiographic diagnosis for congenital heart disease)? Is there a defined optimal dose? Can you operate the device, or can the skill be learned appropriately (e.g., training manual for transcutaneous atrial valve replacement)? A pilot study or small preliminary study can be helpful at this stage to help answer these preliminary questions.

Time : Do you have the required time to recruit your patients? Is it possible to follow up with patients for the entire time of the proposed study period (e.g., can you follow preterm infant development at 3, 6, and 9 years of age)? When do you need to have your results in order to apply for your next grant?

Funding : Does you budget allow for the scope of your study? Are there any research grants you can apply for? Do the funding groups’ interests align with those of your study? How realistic are your chances of obtaining the required funding? If there are available funds, how do you apply for the grant?

Team : How about your research environment? Do your mentors and colleagues share your interests? What kind of specialists do you need to invite for your research? Do you have the staff to support your project (technicians, nurses, administrators, etc.)?

Answerability

New knowledge can only originate from questions that are answerable. A broad research problem is still a theoretical idea, and even if it is important and feasible, it still needs to be further specified. You should carefully investigate your research idea and consider the following:

Precisely define what is known or not known and identify what area your research will address. The research question should demonstrate an understanding of the biology, physiology , and epidemiology relevant to your research topic. For example, you may want to investigate the prevalence and incidence of stroke after catheterization and its prognosis before you begin research on the efficacy of a new anticoagulant for patients who received catheter procedures. Again, you may need to conduct a literature review in order to clarify what is already known. Conducting surveys ( interviews or questionnaires ) initially could also be useful to understand the current status of your issues (e.g., how many patients a year are diagnosed with stroke after catherization in your hospital? What kind of anticoagulant is already being used for the patients? How old are the patients? How about the duration of cauterization techniques? etc.).

The standard treatment should be well known before testing a new treatment. Are there any established treatments in your research field? Could your new treatment potentially replace the standard treatment or be complementary to the current treatment of choice? Guidelines can be helpful for discussion (e.g., American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association guidelines for anticoagulant therapy). Without knowing the current practice, your new treatment may never find its clinical relevance.

We also need information about clinical issues for diagnostic tests and interventions . Are you familiar with the diagnoses and treatment of this disease (e.g., computerized tomography or magnetic resonance imaging to rule out stroke after catherization)? Do you know the current guidelines ?

Ethical Aspects

Ethical issues should be discussed before conducting research. Is the subject of your research a controversial topic? The possible ethical issues will often depend largely on whether the study population is considered vulnerable (e.g., children, pregnant women, etc.; see Chapter 1 ) [ 1 ]. You must always determine the possible risks and benefits of your study intervention [ 1 ].

Finally, you may want to ask for expert opinions about whether your research question is answerable and relevant (no matter how strong your personal feelings may be about the relevance). To this end, a presentation of your idea or preliminary results at a study meeting early on in the project development can help refine your question.

How to Build the Research Question

The next step of formulating a narrow research question is to focus on the primary interest ( primary question ): What is the most critical question for your research problem? You will define this primary question by addressing the key elements using the useful acronym PICOT (population, intervention, control, outcome, and time), while keeping in mind the importance, feasibility, answerability, and ethicality. Although PICOT is a useful framework, it does not cover all types of studies, especially some observational studies, for instance those investigating predictors of response (E [exposure] instead of I [intervention] is used for observational studies). But for an experimental study (e.g., a clinical trial), the PICOT framework is extremely useful to guide formulation of the research question.

Building the Research Question: PICOT

P (population or patient).

What is the target population of your research? The target population is the population of interest from which you want to draw conclusions and inferences. Do you want to study mice or rabbits? Adults or children? Nurses or doctors? What are the characteristics of the study subjects, and what are the given problems that should be considered? You may want to consider the pathophysiology (acute or chronic?) and the severity of the disease (severe end stage or early stage?), as well as factors such as geographical background and socioeconomic status.

Once you decide on the target population, you may select a sample as the study population for your study. The study population is a subset of the target population under investigation. However, it is important to remember that the study population is not always a perfect representation of the target population, even when sampled at random. Thus, defining the study population by the inclusion and exclusion criteria is a critical step (see Chapter 3 ).

Since only in rare cases will you be able to study every patient of interest, you will have to identify and select whom from the target population you want to study. This is referred to as the study sample. To do this requires choosing a method of selection or recruitment (see Chapter 7 ).

A specific study sample defined by restricted criteria will have a reduced number of covariates and will be more homogeneous, therefore increasing the chance of higher internal validity for your study. This also typically allows for the study to be smaller and potentially less expensive. In contrast, a restricted population might make it more difficult to recruit a sufficient number of subjects. On the other hand, recruitment can be easier if you define a broad population, which also increases the generalizability of your study results. However, a broad population can make the study larger and more expensive [ 2 ].

I (Intervention)

The I of the acronym usually refers to “intervention.” However, a more general and therefore preferable term would be “independent variable.” The independent variable is the explanatory variable of primary interest, also declared as x in the statistical analysis. The independent variable can be an intervention (e.g., a drug or a specific drug dose), a prognostic factor, or a diagnostic test. I can also be the exposure in an observational study. In an experimental study, I is referred to as the fixed variable (controlled by the investigator), whereas in an observational study, I refers to an exposure that occurs outside of the experimenter’s control.

The independent variable precedes the outcome in time or in its causal path, and thus it “drives” the outcome in a cause-effect relationship.

C (Control)

What comparison or control is being considered? This is an important component when comparing the efficacy of two interventions. The new treatment should be superior to the placebo , when there is no standard treatment available. Placebo is a simulated treatment that has no pharmaceutical effects and is used to mask the recipients to potential expectation biases associated with participating in clinical trials. On the other hand, active controls could be used when an established treatment exists and the efficacy of the new intervention should be examined at least within the context of non-inferiority to the standard treatment. Also the control could be baseline in a one-group study.

O (Outcomes)

O is the dependent variable, or the outcome variable of primary interest; in the statistical analysis, it is also referred to as y . The outcome of interest is a random variable and can be a clinical (e.g., death) or a surrogate endpoint (e.g., hormone level, bone density, antibody titer). Selection of the primary outcome depends on several considerations: What can you measure in a timely and efficient manner? Which measurement will be relevant to understand the effectiveness of the new intervention? What is routinely accepted and established within the clinical community? We will discuss the outcome variable in more detail later in the chapter.

Time is sometimes added as another criterion and often refers to the follow-up time necessary to assess the outcome or the time necessary to recruit the study sample. Rather than viewing time as a separate aspect, it is usually best to consider time in context with the other PICOT criteria.

What Is the Primary Interest in your Research?

Once you have selected your study population, as well as the dependent and independent variables, you are ready to formulate your primary research question, the major specific aim, and a hypothesis. Even if you have several different ideas regarding your research problem, you still need to clearly define what the most important question of your research is. This is called your primary question . A research project may also contain additional secondary questions.

The primary question is the most relevant question of your research that should be driven by the hypothesis. Usually only one primary question should be defined at the beginning of the study, and it must be stated explicitly upfront [ 3 ]. This question is relevant for your sample size calculation (and in turn, for the power of your study—see Chapter 11 ).

The specific aim is a statement of what you are proposing to do in your research project.

The primary hypothesis states your anticipated results by describing how the independent variable will affect the dependent variable. Your hypothesis cannot be just speculation, but rather it must be grounded on the research you have performed and must have a reasonable chance of being proven true.

We can define more than one question for a study, but aside from the primary question, all others associated with your research are treated as secondary questions. Secondary questions may help to clarify the primary question and may add some information to the research study. What potential problems do we encounter with secondary questions? Usually, they are not sufficiently powered to be answered because the sample size is determined based on th e primary question. Also, type I errors (i.e., false positives) may occur due to multiple comparisons if not adjusted for by the proper statistical analysis. Therefore, findings from secondary questions should be considered exploratory and hypothesis generating in nature, with new confirmatory studies needed to further support the results.

An ancillary study is a sub-study built into the main study design. Previous evidence may convince you of the need to test a hypothesis within a sub-group ancillary to the main population of interest (e.g., females, smokers). While this kind of study enables you to perform a detailed analysis of the subpopulation, there are limitations on the generalizability of an ancillary study since the population is usually more restricted (see Further Readings, Examples of Ancillary Studies).

It is important to understand thoroughly the study variables when formulating the study question. Here we will discuss some of the important concepts regarding the variables, which will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 8 .

We have already learned that the dependent variable is the outcome, and the independent variable is the intervention. For study design purposes, it is important to also discuss how the outcome variables are measured. A good measurement requires reliability (precision), validity (“trueness”), and responsiveness to change. Reliability refers to how consistent the measurement is if it is repeated. Validity of a measurement refers to the degree to which it measures what it is supposed to measure. Responsiveness of a measurement means that it can detect differences that are proportional to the change of what is being measured with clinical meaningfulness and statistical significance.

Covariates are independent variables of secondary interest that may influence the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Age, race, and gender are well-known examples. Since covariates can affect the study results, it is critical to control or adjust for them. Covariates can be controlled for by both planning (inclusion and exclusion criteria, placebo and blinding, sampling and randomization, etc.) and analytical methods (e.g., covariate adjustment [see Chapter 13 ], and propensity scores [see Chapter 17 ]).

Continuous (ratio and interval scale), discrete, ordinal, nominal (categorical, binary) variables: Continuous data represent all numbers (including fractions of numbers, floating point data) and are the common type of raw data. Discrete data are full numbers (i.e., integer data type; e.g., number of hospitalizations). Ordinal data are ordered categories (e.g., mild, moderate, severe). Nominal data can be either categorical (e.g., race) or dichotomous/binary (e.g., gender). Compared to other variables, continuous variables have more power, which is the ability of the study to detect an effect (e.g., differences between study groups) when it is truly present, but they don’t always reflect clinical meaningfulness and therefore make interpretation more difficult. Ordinal and nominal data may better reflect the clinical significance (e.g., dead or alive, relapse or no relapse, stage 1 = localized carcinoma, etc.). However, ordinal and categorical data typically have less power, and important information may be lost (e.g., if an IQ less than 70 is categorized as developmental delay in infants, IQs of 50, 58, and 69 will all fall into the same category, while an IQ of 70 or more is considered to be normal development, although the difference is just 1 point). This approach is called categorization of continuous data, where a certain clinically meaningful threshold is set to make it easier to quickly assess study results. It is important to note that some authors differentiate between continuous and discrete variables by defining the former as having a quantitative characteristic and the latter as having a qualitative characteristic. This is a somewhat problematic classification, especially when it comes to ordinal data.

Single and multiple variables : Having a single variable is simpler, as it is easier for clinical interpretation. Multiple valuables are efficient because we can evaluate many variables within a single trial, but these can be difficult to disentangle and interpret. Composite endpoints are combined multiple variables and are also sometimes used. Because each clinical outcome may separately require a long duration and a large sample size, combining many possible outcomes increases overall efficiency and enables one to reduce sample size requirements and to capture the overall impact of therapeutic interventions. Common examples include MACE (major adverse cardiac events) and TVF (target vessel failure: myocardial infarction in target vessel, target vessel reconstruction, cardiac death, etc.). Interpretation of the results has to proceed with caution, however (see section on case-specific questions) [ 9 ].

Surrogate variables (endpoints) and clinical variables (endpoints): Clinical variables directly assess the effect of therapeutic interventions on patient function and survival, which is the ultimate goal of a clinical trial. Clinical variables may include mortality, events (e.g., myocardial infarction, stroke), and occurrence of disease (e.g., HIV). A clinical endpoint is the most definitive outcome to assess the efficacy of an intervention. Thus, clinical endpoints are preferably used in clinical research. However, it is not always feasible to use clinical outcomes in trials. The evaluation of clinical outcomes presents some methodological problems since they require long-term follow-up (with problems of adherence, dropouts, competing risks, requiring larger sample sizes) and can make a trial more costly. At the same time, the clinical endpoint may be difficult to observe. For this reason, clinical scientists often use alternative outcomes to substitute for the clinical outcomes. So-called surrogate endpoints are a more practical measure to reflect the benefit of a new treatment. Surrogate endpoints (e.g., cholesterol levels, blood sugar, blood pressure, viral load) are defined based on the understanding of the mechanism of a disease that suggests a clear relationship between a marker and a clinical outcome [ 8 ]. Also, a biological rationale provided by epidemiological data, other clinical trials, or animal data should be previously demonstrated. A surrogate is frequently a continuous variable that can be measured early and repeatedly and therefore requires shorter follow-up time, smaller sample size, and reduced costs for conducting a trial. Surrogate endpoints are often used to accelerate the process of new drug development and early stages of development, such as in phase 2 [ 10 ]. As a word of caution, too much reliance on surrogate endpoints alone can be misleading if the results are not interpreted with regard to validation, measurability, and reproducibility (see Further Reading) [ 4 ].

How to Express a Research Question

Once a narrow research question is defined, you should clearly specify a hypothesis in the study protocol. A hypothesis is a statement about the expected results that predicts the effect of the independent on the dependent variable. A research hypothesis is essential to frame the experimental and statistical plan (statistics will be discussed in Unit II of this volume) and is also important to support the aim of the study in a scientific manuscript.

Types of Research Questions

To refine the research question and form the research hypothesis, we will discuss three types of research questions that investigate group differences, correlations, or descriptive measures. This classification is particularly important in discussing which statistical analysis is appropriate for your research question [ 5 ].

Basic/complex difference (group comparison) questions : Samples split into groups by levels associated with the independent variable are compared by considering whether there is a difference in the dependent variable. If you have only one independent variable, the question is classified as a basic difference question (e.g., drug A will reduce time to primary closure in a 5-mm punch biopsy vs. placebo) and you would rely on a t-test or one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the analysis. If you have two or more independent variables (e.g., drugs A and B led to a 15-mg/dl reduction in LDL cholesterol versus placebo, but there was no reduction with only drug A), this then becomes a complex difference question and is analyzed by other statistical methods, such as a factorial ANOVA.

Basic/complex associational (relational/correlation) questions : The independent variable is correlated with the dependent variable. If there is only one dependent variable and one independent variable (e.g., is there a relationship between weight and natriuretic peptide levels?), it is called a basic associational question , and in this situation, a correlation analysis is used. If there is more than one independent variable associated with one dependent variable (e.g., smoking and drinking alcohol are associated with lung cancer), it is called a complex associational question , and multiple regression is used for statistical analysis.

Basic/complex descriptive question : The data are described and summarized using measures of central tendency (means, median, and mode), variability, and percentage (prevalence, frequency). If there is only one variable, it is called a basic descriptive question (e.g., how much MRSA isolates occur after the 15th day of hospitalization?); for more than one variable, a classification of basic/complex descriptive question is used.

Where Should You State Your Research Question?

Finally, where should you state your hypothesis? You may be writing for a research grant, research protocol, or manuscript. Usually, research questions should be stated in the introduction, immediately following the justification (“so what”) section. Research questions should be clearly stated in the form of a hypothesis, such as “We hypothesize that in this particular population (P), the new intervention (I) will improve the outcome (O) more than the standard of care (C).”

A Research Question Should Be Developed over Time

It is important that the investigator spend a good amount of time developing his or her study question. During this process, everything we discussed in this chapter needs to be reviewed and the research question then needs to be refined as this process takes place. A good planning, starting with the research question, is one of the key components for a study’s success.

Related Topics for Choosing the Research Question

Selecting the appropriate control in surgical studies or other challenging situations.

Let’s think about various situations. Can we use placebo (sham) or another procedure as a control in a surgical trial? What exactly can be considered a placebo in surgical studies? How do we control for a placebo effect in surgical procedures?

Placebos can be used for the control group in clinical studies in comparison to a new agent if no standard of care is available. In order to fully assess the placebo effect in the control arm, participants have to be blinded. The control group could either have no surgery at all or undergo a “sham” procedure, but both options might be unethical depending on the given patient population [ 6 ]. In surgical studies, the control group usually receives the “traditional” procedure. In all cases, blinding might be very challenging and even impossible on certain levels (e.g., the surgeon performing the procedure). What about acupuncture? What would you consider a good control? What about cosmetic procedures?

Using Adverse Events as the Primary Research Question

Important questions concerning adverse effects can be answered in a clinical trial. However, as the typical clinical trial is performed in a controlled setting, the information regarding adverse effects is not always generalizable to the real-world setting. Thus, the clinical translation of the results needs careful consideration when carrying out a safety-focused study. The adverse reports from phase 4 (post-marketing marketing surveillance) are considered more generalizable information in drug development, although minimum safety data from phase 1 are required to proceed to subsequent study phases.

Also, it might not be easy to formulate a specific research question regarding adverse effects, as they might not be fully known in the early stage of drug development. This will also make it difficult to power the study properly (e.g., how many patients do we need to examine to show the statistically meaningful difference?).

When the Research Question Leads to Other Research Questions

Medical history is filled with interesting stories about research questions. And sometimes, it is not the intended hypothesis to be proven that yields a big discovery. For example, Sildenafil (Viagra) was initially developed by Pfizer for the treatment of cardiovascular conditions. Although clinical trials showed Sildenafil to have only little effect on the primary outcomes, it was quickly realized that an unexpected but marked “side effect” occurred in men. Careful investigation of clinical and pharmacological data generated the new research question, “Can Sildenafil improve erectile dysfunction?” This question was then answered in clinical trials with nearly 5,000 patients, which led to Sildenafil’s FDA approval in 1998 as the first oral treatment for male erectile dysfunction [ 7 ]. The investigator must be attentive to novel hypothesis that can be learned from a negative study.

Case Study: Finding the Research Question

Dr. L. Heart is a scientist working on cardiovascular diseases in a large, busy emergency room of a tertiary hospital specialized in acute coronarian syndromes. While searching PUBMED, she found an interesting article on a new drug—which animal studies have demonstrated to be a powerful anti-thrombotic agent—showing its safety in healthy volunteers. She then feels that it would be the right time to perform a phase II trial, testing this new drug in patients presenting myocardial infarction (MI). She sees this as her big career breakthrough. However, when Dr. Heart starts writing a study proposal for the internal review board (ethics committee), she asks herself, “What is my research question?” 1

Defining the research question is, perhaps, the most important part of the planning of a research study. That is because the wrong question will eventually lead to a poor study design and therefore all the results will be useless; on the other hand, choosing an elegant, simple question will probably lead to a good study that will be meaningful to the scientific community, even if the results are negative. In fact, the best research question is one that, regardless of the results (negative or positive), produces interesting findings. In addition, a study should be designed with only one main question in mind.

However, choosing the most appropriate question is not always easy, as such a question might not be feasible to be answered. For instance, when researching acute MI, the most important question would be whether or not a new drug decreases mortality. However, for economic and ethical reasons, such an approach can only be considered when previous studies have already suggested that the new drug is a potential candidate. Therefore, the investigator needs to deal with the important issue of feasibility versus clinical relevance. Dr. Heart soon realized that her task would not be an easy one, and also that this task may take some time; she kept thinking about one of the citations in an article she recently read: “One-third of a trial’s time between the germ of your idea and its publication in the New England Journal of Medicine should be spent fighting about the research question.” 2

“So What?” Test for the Research Question

Dr. Heart knows that an important test for the research question is to ask, “So what?” In other words, does the research question address an important issue? She knows, for example, that the main agency funding in the United States, the NIH (National Institutes of Health), considers significance and innovation as important factors to fund grant applications. Dr. Heart also remembers something that her mentor used to tell her at the beginning of her career: “A house built on a weak foundation will not stand.” She knows that even if she has the most refined design and uses the optimal statistical tests, her research will be of very little interest or utility if it does not advance the field. But regarding this point, she is confident that her research will have a significant impact in the field.

Next Step for the Research Question: How to Measure the Efficacy of the Intervention

Dr. L. Heart is in a privileged position. She works in a busy hospital that receives a significant amount of acute cardiovascular patients. She also has received huge departmental support for her research, meaning that she can run a wide range of blood exams to measure specific biological markers related to death in myocardial infarction. Finally, she has a PhD student who is a psychologist working with quality of life post-MI. Therefore, she asks herself whether she should rely on biological markers, on the assessment of quality of life, or if she should go to a more robust outcome to prove the efficacy of the new drug. She knows that this is one of the most critical decisions she has to make. It was a Friday afternoon. She had just packed up her laptop and the articles she was reading, knowing that she will have to make a decision by the end of the weekend.

Dr. Heart is facing a common problem: What outcome should be used in a research study? This needs to be defined for the research question. She knows that there are several options. For instance, the outcome might be mortality, new MI, days admitted to the emergency room, quality of life, specific effect of disease such as angina, a laboratory measure (cholesterol levels), or the cost of the intervention. Also, she might use continuous or categorical outcomes. For instance, if she is measuring angina, she might measure the number of days with angina (continuous outcome) or dichotomize the number of angina days in two categories (less than 100 days with angina vs. more or equal to 100 days with angina). She then lays out her options:

Use of clinical outcomes (such as mortality or new myocardial infarction) : She knows that by using this outcome, her results would be easily accepted by her colleagues; however, using these outcomes will increase the trial duration and costs.

Use of surrogates (for instance, laboratorial measurements) : One attractive alternative for her is to use some biomarkers or radiological exams (such as a catheterism). She knows a colleague in the infectious disease field who only uses CD4 for HIV trials as the main outcome. This would increase the trial feasibility. However, she is concerned that her biomarkers might not really represent disease progression.

Use of quality of life scales : This might be an intermediate solution for her. However, she is still concerned with the interpretation of the results if she decides to use quality of life scales.

More on the Response Variable: Categorical or Continuous?

Even before making the final decision, Dr. Heart needs to decide whether she will use a continuous or categorical variable. She wishes now that she knew the basic concepts of statistics. However, she calls a colleague, who explains to her the main issue of categorical versus continuous outcomes—in summary, the issue is the trade-off of power versus clinical significance.

A categorical outcome usually has two categories (e.g., a yes/no answer), while a continuous outcome can express any value. A categorical approach might be more robust than a continuous one, and it also has more clinical significance, but it also decreases the power of the study due to the use of less information. 3 She is now at the crossroad of feasibility versus clinical significance.

Choosing the Study Population

Now that Dr. Heart has gone through the difficult decision of finding the best outcome measure, she needs to define the target population—that is, in which patients is she going to test the new drug? Her first idea is to select only patients who have a high probability of dying—for instance, males who smoke, are older than 75 years, with insulin-dependent diabetes and hypercholesterolemia. “Then,” she thinks, “it will be easier to prove that the new drug is useful regardless of the population I study. But does that really sound like a good idea?”

The next step is to define the target population. Dr. Heart is inclined to restrict the study population, as she knows that this drug might be effective to a particular population of patients and therefore this increases her chances of getting a good result. In addition, she does remember from her statistical courses that this would imply a smaller variability and therefore she would gain power (power is an important currency in research, as it makes the study more efficient, decreasing costs and time to complete the study). On the other hand, she is concerned that she might put all her efforts in one basket—this is a risky approach, as this specific population might not respond, and she knows that broadening the population also has some advantages, for instance, the results would be more generalizable and it would be easier to recruit patients. But this would also increase the costs of the study.

But How about Other Ideas?

After a weekend of reflection, Dr. Heart called the staff for a team meeting and proudly explained the scenario and stated her initial thoughts. The staff was very eager to start a new study, and they made several suggestions: “We should also use echocardiography to assess the outcome!”; “Why don’t we perform a genotypic analysis on these patients?”; “We need to follow them until one year after discharge.” She started to become anxious again. What should she do with these additional suggestions? They all seem to be good ideas.

When designing a clinical trial, researchers expose a number of subjects to a new intervention. Therefore, they want to extract as much data as possible from studies. On the other hand, it might not be possible to ask all of the questions, since this will increase the study’s duration, costs, and personnel. Also, researchers should be aware that all the other outcomes assessed will be exploratory (i.e., their usefulness remains in suggesting possible associations and future studies) because studies are designed to answer a primary question only—and, as a principle of statistics, there is a 5% probability of observing a positive result just by chance (if you perform 20 tests, for instance, one of them will be positive just by chance!). But Dr. Heart knows that she can test additional hypotheses as secondary questions. She knows that there is another issue to go through: the issue of primary versus secondary questions.

Defining Her Hypothesis

After going through this long process, Dr. Heart is getting close to her research question. But now she needs to define the study hypotheses. In other words, what is her educated guess regarding the study outcome?

An important step when formulating a research question is to define the hypothesis of the study. This is important in terms of designing the analysis plan, as well as estimating the study sample size. Usually, researchers come up with study hypotheses after reviewing the literature and preliminary data. Dr. Heart can choose between a simple and a complex hypothesis. In the first case, her hypothesis would only have one dependent variable (i.e., the response variable) and one independent variable (e.g., the intervention). Complex hypotheses have more than one independent and/or dependent variable and might not be easy to use in planning the data analysis.

By the end of the day, Dr. Heart was overwhelmed with the first steps to put this study together. Although she is confident that this study might be her breakthrough and she needs to get her tenure track position at the institution where she works, she also knows she has only one chance and must be very careful at this stage. After wrestling with her thoughts, she finished her espresso and walked back to her office, confident that she knew what to do.

Case Discussion

Dr. Heart is a busy and ambitious clinical scientist and wants to establish herself within the academic ranks of her hospital. She has some background in statistics but seems to be quite inexperienced in conducting clinical research. She is looking for an idea to write up a research proposal and rightly conducts a literature research in her field of expertise, cardiovascular diseases. She finds an interesting article about a compound that has been demonstrated to be effective in an animal model and safe in healthy volunteers (results of a phase I trial). She now plans to conduct a phase II trial, but struggles to come up with a study design. The most vexing problem for her is formulating the research question.

Dr. Heart then reviews and debates aspects that have to be considered when delineating a research question. The main points she ponders include the following: determining the outcome with regard to feasibility (mainly concerning the time of follow-up when using a clinical outcome) versus clinical relevance (when using a surrogate outcome) and with regard to the data type to be used for the outcome (categorical vs. continuous); the importance of the research proposal (the need for a new anticoagulant drug); whether to use a narrow versus broad study population; whether to include only a primary or also secondary questions; and whether to use a basic versus complex hypothesis. Important aspects that Dr. Heart has not considered include the following: whether to test versus a control (although not mandatory in a phase II trial, it deserves consideration since she is investigating the effects of an anticoagulant and therefore adverse events should be expected, thus justifying the inclusion of a control arm) or to test several dosages (to observe a dose-response effect); logistics; the budget; and the overall scope of her project.

All these aspects are important and need careful consideration, but you have to wonder how this will help Dr. Heart come up with a compelling research question. Rather than assessing each aspect separately and making decisions based on advantages and disadvantages, it is recommended to start from a broad research interest and then develop and further specify the idea into a specific research question.

While Dr. Heart should be applauded for her ambition, she should also try to balance the level of risk of her research given her level of experience.

Finally, we should also question Dr. Heart’s motives for conducting this study. What is her agenda?

Case Questions for Reflection

What are the main challenges faced by Dr. Heart?

Should she be really concerned with the study question?

Which variable response should she choose? Justify your choice to your colleagues (remember, there is no right or wrong).

How should she select the study population?

Should her study have secondary questions?

Finally, try to create a study question for Dr. Heart in the PICOT format, depending on your previous selections.

Further Reading

Haynes B , et al., Clinical epidemiology: how to do clinical practice research forming research questions; part 1. Performing clinical research , 3rd ed. Haynes B , Sackett DL , Guyatt GH , and Tugwell P ; 2006 : 3–14

Portney LG , Watkins MP. Foundations of clinical research: applications to practice . 3rd ed. Pearson; 2008 : 121–139.

Google Scholar

Google Preview

Surrogate Outcomes

D’Agostino RB. Debate: The slippery slope of surrogate outcomes. Curr Contr Trials Cardiovasc Med . 2000 ; 1: 76–78. 10.1186/CVM-1-2-076

Echt DS , Liebson PR , Mitchell LB , et.al., Mortality and morbidity in patients receiving encainide, flecainide, or placebo: The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial. N Eng J Med . 1991 ; 324: 781–788. 10.1056/NEJM199103213241201

Web of Science

Feng M , Balter JM , Normolle D , et al. Characterization of pancreatic tumor motion using Cine- MRI: surrogates for tumor position should be used with caution. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys . 2009 July 1; 74(3): 884–891. 10.1016/j.ijrobp.2009.02.003

Katz R. Biomarkers and surrogate markers: an FDA perspective. NeuroRx . 2004 April; 1(2): 189–195. 10.1602/neurorx.1.2.189

Lonn E. The use of surrogate endpoints in clinical trials: focus on clinical trials in cardiovascular diseases. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Safety . 2001 ; 10: 497–508. 10.1002/pds.654

Composite Endpoint

Cordoba G , Schwartz L , Woloshin S , et al. Definition, reporting, and interpretation of composite outcomes in clinical trials: systematic review. BMJ . 2010 ; 341: c3920. 10.1136/bmj.c3920

Kip KE , Hollabaugh K , Marroquin OC , et al. The problem with composite end points in cardiovascular studies. The story of major adverse cardiac events and percutaneous coronary intervention. JACC . 2008 ; 51(7): 701–707. 10.1016/j.jacc.2007.10.034

Examples of Ancillary Studies

Krishnan JA , Bender BG , Wamboldt FS , et al. Adherence to inhaled corticosteroids: an ancillary study of the Childhood Asthma Management Program clinical trial. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012 ; 129 (1): 112–118. 10.1016/j.jaci.2011.10.030

Udelson JE , Pearte CA , Kimmelstiel CD , et al. The Occluded Artery Trial (OAT) Viability Ancillary Study (OAT-NUC): influence of infarct zone viability on left ventricular remodeling after percutaneous coronary intervention versus optimal medical therapy alone. Am Heart J . 2011 Mar; 161(3): 611–621. 10.1016/j.ahj.2010.11.020

Controls, Sham/Placebo

Finnissa DG , Kaptchukb TJ , Millerc F et.al., Placebo effects: biological, clinical and ethical advances. Lancet . 2010 February 20; 375(9715): 686–695. 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61706-2

Macklin R. The ethical problems with sham surgery in clinical research. N Engl J Med . 1999 Sep 23; 341(13): 992–996. 10.1056/NEJM199909233411312

Pilot Studies

Lancaster GA , Dodd S , Williamson PR. Design and analysis of pilot studies: recommendations for good practice. J Eval Clin Pract . 2002 ; 10(2): 307–312. 10.1111/j..2002.384.doc.x

1. The Belmont Report. Office of the Secretary. Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research . The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979 .

2. Ferguson L. External validity, generalizability, and knowledge utilization. J of Nursing Scholarship . 2004 ; 36:1, 16–22. 10.1111/j.1547-5069.2004.04006.x

3. CONSORT statement, http://www.consort-statement.org/consort-statement/ ]

4. Echt DS , Liebson PR , Mitchell LB , et al. Mortality and morbidity in patients receiving encainide, flecainide, or placebo: The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial. N Engl J Med . 1991 ; 324: 781–788. 10.1056/NEJM199103213241201

5. Morgan GA , Harmon RJ. Clinician’s guide to research methods and statistics: research question and hypotheses. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2000 ; 39(2): 261–263. 10.1097/00004583-200002000-00028

6. Macklin R. The ethical problems with sham surgery in clinical research. N Engl J Med . 1999 Sep 23; 341(13): 992–996. 10.1056/NEJM199909233411312

7. Campbell SF. Science, art and drug discovery: a personal perspective. Clin Sci (Lond) . 2000 Oct; 99(4): 255–260.

8. Lonn E. The use of surrogate endpoints in clinical trials: focus on clinical trial in cardiovascular disease. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Safety . 2001 ; 10: 497–508. 10.1002/pds.654

9. Kip KE , Hollabaugh K , Marroquin OC , et al. The problem with composite end points in cardiovascular studies: the story of major adverse cardiac events and percutaneous coronary intervention. JACC . 2008 ; 51(7): 701–707 10.1016/j.jacc.2007.10.034

10. Katz R. Biomarkers and surrogate markers: an FDA perspective. NeuroRx . 2004 April; 1(2): 189–195. 10.1602/neurorx.1.2.189

Dr. André Brunoni and Professor Felipe Fregni prepared this case. Course cases are developed solely as the basis for class discussion. The situation in this case is fictional. Cases are not intended to serve as endorsements or sources of primary data. All rights reserved to the authors of this case.

Riva JJ , Malik KM , Burnie SJ , Endicott AR , Busse JW . What is your research question? An introduction to the PICOT format for clinicians. J Can Chiropr Assoc . 2012 Sep; 56(3):167–71 .

These concepts will be discussed in details in Unit II of this volume.

• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Institutional account management
• Rights and permissions
• Get help with access
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, automatically generate references for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Research process
• Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Published on 30 October 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 12 December 2023.

A research question pinpoints exactly what you want to find out in your work. A good research question is essential to guide your research paper , dissertation , or thesis .

All research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

Table of contents

How to write a research question, what makes a strong research question, research questions quiz, frequently asked questions.

You can follow these steps to develop a strong research question:

• Choose your topic
• Do some preliminary reading about the current state of the field
• Narrow your focus to a specific niche
• Identify the research problem that you will address

The way you frame your question depends on what your research aims to achieve. The table below shows some examples of how you might formulate questions for different purposes.

Using your research problem to develop your research question

Note that while most research questions can be answered with various types of research , the way you frame your question should help determine your choices.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them. The criteria below can help you evaluate the strength of your research question.

Focused and researchable

Feasible and specific, complex and arguable, relevant and original.

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis – a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

As you cannot possibly read every source related to your topic, it’s important to evaluate sources to assess their relevance. Use preliminary evaluation to determine whether a source is worth examining in more depth.

This involves:

• Reading abstracts , prefaces, introductions , and conclusions
• Looking at the table of contents to determine the scope of the work
• Consulting the index for key terms or the names of important scholars

An essay isn’t just a loose collection of facts and ideas. Instead, it should be centered on an overarching argument (summarised in your thesis statement ) that every part of the essay relates to.

The way you structure your essay is crucial to presenting your argument coherently. A well-structured essay helps your reader follow the logic of your ideas and understand your overall point.

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (‘ x affects y because …’).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses. In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, December 12). Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 1 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/the-research-process/research-question/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, how to write a research proposal | examples & templates, how to write a results section | tips & examples, what is a research methodology | steps & tips.

Designing a Research Question

• First Online: 29 November 2023

Cite this chapter

• Ahmed Ibrahim 3 &
• Camille L. Bryant 3  

359 Accesses

This chapter discusses (1) the important role of research questions for descriptive, predictive, and causal studies across the three research paradigms (i.e., quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods); (2) characteristics of quality research questions, and (3) three frameworks to support the development of research questions and their dissemination within scholarly work. For the latter, a description of the P opulation/ P articipants, I ntervention/ I ndependent variable, C omparison, and O utcomes (PICO) framework for quantitative research as well as variations depending on the type of research is provided. Second, we discuss the P articipants, central Ph enomenon, T ime, and S pace (PPhTS) framework for qualitative research. The combination of these frameworks is discussed for mixed-methods research. Further, templates and examples are provided to support the novice health scholar in developing research questions for applied and theoretical studies. Finally, we discuss the Create a Research Space (CARS) model for introducing research questions as part of a research study, to demonstrate how scholars can apply their knowledge when disseminating research.

• Research purpose
• Research objective
• Question formation
• Research question
• PICO framework
• PPhTS framework

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Onwuegbuzie A, Leech N. Linking research questions to mixed methods data analysis procedures 1. Qual Rep. 2006;11(3):474–98. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2006.1663 .

Article   Google Scholar  

Creswell JW, Poth CN. Qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches. 4th ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage; 2018.

Google Scholar  

Johnson B, Christensen LB. Educational research: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.; 2020.

White P. Who’s afraid of research questions? The neglect of research questions in the methods literature and a call for question-led methods teaching. Int J Res Method Educ. 2013;36(3):213–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743727x.2013.809413 .

Lingard L. Joining a conversation: the problem/gap/hook heuristic. Perspect Med Educ. 2015;4(5):252–3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40037-015-0211-y .

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Dillon JT. The classification of research questions. Rev Educ Res. 1984;54(3):327–61. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543054003327 .

Dillon JT. Finding the question for evaluation research. Stud Educ Eval. 1987;13(2):139–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-491X(87)80027-5 .

Smith NL. Toward the justification of claims in evaluation research. Eval Program Plann. 1987;10(4):309–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/0149-7189(87)90002-4 .

Smith NL, Mukherjee P. Classifying research questions addressed in published evaluation studies. Educ Eval Policy Anal. 1994;16(2):223–30. https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737016002223 .

Shaughnessy JJ, Zechmeister EB, Zechmeister JS. Research methods in psychology. 9th ed. New York: McGraw Hill; 2011.

DeCuir-Gunby JT, Schutz PA. Developing a mixed methods proposal a practical guide for beginning researchers. Thousand Oaks: Sage; 2017.

Book   Google Scholar  

Creswell JW, Guetterman TC. Educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. 6th ed. New York: Pearson; 2019.

Ely M, Anzul M, Friedman T, Ganer D, Steinmetz AM. Doing qualitative research: circles within circles. London: Falmer Press; 1991.

Agee J. Developing qualitative research questions: a reflective process. Int J Qual Stud Educ. 2009;22(4):431–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518390902736512 .

Johnson RB, Onwuegbuzie AJ. Mixed methods research: a research paradigm whose time has come. Educ Res. 2004;33(7):14–26. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x033007014 .

Creamer EG. An introduction to fully integrated mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks: Sage; 2018.

Swales J. Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1990.

Swales J. Research genres: explorations and applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2004.

Kendall PC, Norris LA, Rifkin LS, Silk JS. Introducing your research report: writing the introduction. In: Sternberg RJ, editor. Guide to publishing in psychology journals. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2018. p. 37–53. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108304443.005 .

Thomson P, Kamler B. Writing for peer reviewed journals: strategies of getting published. Abingdon: Routledge; 2013.

Lingard L. Writing an effective literature review: Part I: Mapping the gap. Perspectives on Medical Education. 2018;7:47–49.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Johns Hopkins University School of Education, Baltimore, MD, USA

Ahmed Ibrahim & Camille L. Bryant

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ahmed Ibrahim .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA

April S. Fitzgerald

Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA

Gundula Bosch

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Ibrahim, A., Bryant, C.L. (2023). Designing a Research Question. In: Fitzgerald, A.S., Bosch, G. (eds) Education Scholarship in Healthcare. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38534-6_4

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38534-6_4

Published : 29 November 2023

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-031-38533-9

Online ISBN : 978-3-031-38534-6

eBook Packages : Medicine Medicine (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• J Korean Med Sci
• v.37(16); 2022 Apr 25

A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

Popular Searches

Critical research questions for powerful learning networks.

September 19, 2017 | By Cricket Fuller and Austin Beck

Education Innovation Clusters (EdClusters) leverage the power of multi-sector networks to support innovative teaching and learning in regions across the country. This year we embarked on a research initiative to learn more about how regional EdCluster ecosystems work, how they diffuse innovation, and how they best support the development and scale of breakthrough learning tools and practices.

During the first phase of this project – research planning and design – we worked with teams from seven EdClusters as well as network and learning science researchers to workshop research questions and develop research designs. The kinds of research questions these EdClusters have workshopped reflect the range of activities and partners they engage. Collectively, they form the basis for a shared research agenda for Education Innovation Clusters as a whole. We’re excited to continue this conversation with the broader network at the 2017 Education Innovation Clusters convening later this month.

So what have we learned so far? Clear takeaways have emerged:

EdClusters asked research questions that reflect their various stages of maturity. Questions can be grouped into three main categories:

• Descriptive Research – How does the network function and connect? For example, one of the EdClusters asked: What role does student agency play in connecting to and advancing community vitality?
• Intervention Research – How does a particular program or change get implemented and interact within the network? In that vein, one EdCluster asked: How can our network be adapted to increase access to innovative learning opportunities in rural areas?
• Impact Research – How does the network and its initiatives impact outcomes we care about? For example, one region asked: What is the impact on regional education of our online tools and offline activities?

Most EdClusters gravitated toward research designs or approaches that honor the complexity of networks. They include approaches such as:

• Design-based implementation research;
• Mixed methods case studies;
• Network analysis; and
• Research-practice partnerships.

Several topics emerged as common priorities for research that represent the work that EdClusters do. They include:

• Learning technology;
• New metrics/measures for impact;
• Equity and access;
• Economic development; and
• Network evaluation.

The questions these regions ask start a critical conversation around the role networks play in advancing cross-sector partnerships, equitable learning opportunities, and promising innovations at scale in a region. We’re looking forward to publishing a full report on the project later this fall, but below is a sample of research questions the cohort asked:

• What role do networks play in increasing access to innovative educational opportunities in rural areas? How can they be adapted to support learning across urban/rural contexts?
• How can a local education network progress from a “start-up” phase to driving strategy across a region? How does a network engage a range of partners to prioritize and scale new learning initiatives?
• How do online platforms impact the connections in a regional ecosystem? What impact do those connections have on partners, schools, and learners?
• What metrics can be developed to assess the impact of a personalized learning initiative scaled across a network with multiple partners? How do networks collect and analyze data to inform improvement?
• How do regional education networks impact regional economic development? What role does student agency play in connecting to and advancing community vitality? How does a local network allocate resources to maximize reach, social capital, and productivity?
• How can we develop a shared measurement tool for education organizations across a region to assess deeper learning competencies? What are ways to bring stakeholders together around education data that will lead to an increase regional innovation and economic development?
• Who are the major stakeholder groups in an urban education ecosystem? How do they interact, and what values/priorities drive the interactions? What role would an inclusive network play in the development of shared initiatives and collective action around innovative learning?

Education Innovation Clusters are bringing partners together to tackle big challenges and scale promising solutions in education. The questions EdClusters are asking about how they function and impact learning are thus critical to advancing our understanding of just how powerful these networks can be.

Related Articles

April 1, 2024, where to find digital promise at #aera24 in philadelphia.

By KellyAnn Tsai

March 28, 2024

Unlock success: transform organizational training with micro-credentials.

By Rita Fennelly-Atkinson

March 26, 2024

Bridging the research and practice gap through strategic convenings.

By Dr. Deblina Pakhira and Gabrielle Lue

March 25, 2024

8 new districts join the league of innovative schools.

By Emma Mills

Sign up for updates!

• Link to facebook
• Link to linkedin
• Link to twitter
• Link to youtube
• Writing Tips

The Four Types of Research Paradigms: A Comprehensive Guide

• 5-minute read
• 22nd January 2023

In this guide, you’ll learn all about the four research paradigms and how to choose the right one for your research.

Introduction to Research Paradigms

A paradigm is a system of beliefs, ideas, values, or habits that form the basis for a way of thinking about the world. Therefore, a research paradigm is an approach, model, or framework from which to conduct research. The research paradigm helps you to form a research philosophy, which in turn informs your research methodology.

Your research methodology is essentially the “how” of your research – how you design your study to not only accomplish your research’s aims and objectives but also to ensure your results are reliable and valid. Choosing the correct research paradigm is crucial because it provides a logical structure for conducting your research and improves the quality of your work, assuming it’s followed correctly.

Three Pillars: Ontology, Epistemology, and Methodology

Before we jump into the four types of research paradigms, we need to consider the three pillars of a research paradigm.

Ontology addresses the question, “What is reality?” It’s the study of being. This pillar is about finding out what you seek to research. What do you aim to examine?

Epistemology is the study of knowledge. It asks, “How is knowledge gathered and from what sources?”

Methodology involves the system in which you choose to investigate, measure, and analyze your research’s aims and objectives. It answers the “how” questions.

Let’s now take a look at the different research paradigms.

1.   Positivist Research Paradigm

The positivist research paradigm assumes that there is one objective reality, and people can know this reality and accurately describe and explain it. Positivists rely on their observations through their senses to gain knowledge of their surroundings.

In this singular objective reality, researchers can compare their claims and ascertain the truth. This means researchers are limited to data collection and interpretations from an objective viewpoint. As a result, positivists usually use quantitative methodologies in their research (e.g., statistics, social surveys, and structured questionnaires).

This research paradigm is mostly used in natural sciences, physical sciences, or whenever large sample sizes are being used.

2.   Interpretivist Research Paradigm

Interpretivists believe that different people in society experience and understand reality in different ways – while there may be only “one” reality, everyone interprets it according to their own view. They also believe that all research is influenced and shaped by researchers’ worldviews and theories.

As a result, interpretivists use qualitative methods and techniques to conduct their research. This includes interviews, focus groups, observations of a phenomenon, or collecting documentation on a phenomenon (e.g., newspaper articles, reports, or information from websites).

3.   Critical Theory Research Paradigm

The critical theory paradigm asserts that social science can never be 100% objective or value-free. This paradigm is focused on enacting social change through scientific investigation. Critical theorists question knowledge and procedures and acknowledge how power is used (or abused) in the phenomena or systems they’re investigating.

Find this useful?

Subscribe to our newsletter and get writing tips from our editors straight to your inbox.

Researchers using this paradigm are more often than not aiming to create a more just, egalitarian society in which individual and collective freedoms are secure. Both quantitative and qualitative methods can be used with this paradigm.

4.   Constructivist Research Paradigm

Constructivism asserts that reality is a construct of our minds ; therefore, reality is subjective. Constructivists believe that all knowledge comes from our experiences and reflections on those experiences and oppose the idea that there is a single methodology to generate knowledge.

This paradigm is mostly associated with qualitative research approaches due to its focus on experiences and subjectivity. The researcher focuses on participants’ experiences as well as their own.

Choosing the Right Research Paradigm for Your Study

Once you have a comprehensive understanding of each paradigm, you’re faced with a big question: which paradigm should you choose? The answer to this will set the course of your research and determine its success, findings, and results.

To start, you need to identify your research problem, research objectives , and hypothesis . This will help you to establish what you want to accomplish or understand from your research and the path you need to take to achieve this.

You can begin this process by asking yourself some questions:

• What is the nature of your research problem (i.e., quantitative or qualitative)?
• How can you acquire the knowledge you need and communicate it to others? For example, is this knowledge already available in other forms (e.g., documents) and do you need to gain it by gathering or observing other people’s experiences or by experiencing it personally?
• What is the nature of the reality that you want to study? Is it objective or subjective?

Depending on the problem and objective, other questions may arise during this process that lead you to a suitable paradigm. Ultimately, you must be able to state, explain, and justify the research paradigm you select for your research and be prepared to include this in your dissertation’s methodology and design section.

Using Two Paradigms

If the nature of your research problem and objectives involves both quantitative and qualitative aspects, then you might consider using two paradigms or a mixed methods approach . In this, one paradigm is used to frame the qualitative aspects of the study and another for the quantitative aspects. This is acceptable, although you will be tasked with explaining your rationale for using both of these paradigms in your research.

Choosing the right research paradigm for your research can seem like an insurmountable task. It requires you to:

●  Have a comprehensive understanding of the paradigms,

●  Identify your research problem, objectives, and hypothesis, and

●  Be able to state, explain, and justify the paradigm you select in your methodology and design section.

Although conducting your research and putting your dissertation together is no easy task, proofreading it can be! Our experts are here to make your writing shine. Your first 500 words are free !

Share this article:

Post A New Comment

Got content that needs a quick turnaround? Let us polish your work. Explore our editorial business services.

4-minute read

The Benefits of Using an Online Proofreading Service

Proofreading is important to ensure your writing is clear and concise for your readers. Whether...

2-minute read

6 Online AI Presentation Maker Tools

Creating presentations can be time-consuming and frustrating. Trying to construct a visually appealing and informative...

What Is Market Research?

No matter your industry, conducting market research helps you keep up to date with shifting...

8 Press Release Distribution Services for Your Business

In a world where you need to stand out, press releases are key to being...

3-minute read

How to Get a Patent

In the United States, the US Patent and Trademarks Office issues patents. In the United...

The 5 Best Ecommerce Website Design Tools 

A visually appealing and user-friendly website is essential for success in today’s competitive ecommerce landscape....

Make sure your writing is the best it can be with our expert English proofreading and editing.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Working with sources
• What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples

What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples

Published on May 30, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.

Critical thinking is the ability to effectively analyze information and form a judgment .

To think critically, you must be aware of your own biases and assumptions when encountering information, and apply consistent standards when evaluating sources .

Critical thinking skills help you to:

• Identify credible sources
• Evaluate and respond to arguments
• Assess alternative viewpoints
• Test hypotheses against relevant criteria

Table of contents

Why is critical thinking important, critical thinking examples, how to think critically, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about critical thinking.

Critical thinking is important for making judgments about sources of information and forming your own arguments. It emphasizes a rational, objective, and self-aware approach that can help you to identify credible sources and strengthen your conclusions.

Critical thinking is important in all disciplines and throughout all stages of the research process . The types of evidence used in the sciences and in the humanities may differ, but critical thinking skills are relevant to both.

In academic writing , critical thinking can help you to determine whether a source:

• Is free from research bias
• Provides evidence to support its research findings
• Considers alternative viewpoints

Outside of academia, critical thinking goes hand in hand with information literacy to help you form opinions rationally and engage independently and critically with popular media.

Scribbr Citation Checker New

The AI-powered Citation Checker helps you avoid common mistakes such as:

• Missing commas and periods
• Incorrect usage of “et al.”
• Ampersands (&) in narrative citations
• Missing reference entries

Critical thinking can help you to identify reliable sources of information that you can cite in your research paper . It can also guide your own research methods and inform your own arguments.

Outside of academia, critical thinking can help you to be aware of both your own and others’ biases and assumptions.

Academic examples

However, when you compare the findings of the study with other current research, you determine that the results seem improbable. You analyze the paper again, consulting the sources it cites.

You notice that the research was funded by the pharmaceutical company that created the treatment. Because of this, you view its results skeptically and determine that more independent research is necessary to confirm or refute them. Example: Poor critical thinking in an academic context You’re researching a paper on the impact wireless technology has had on developing countries that previously did not have large-scale communications infrastructure. You read an article that seems to confirm your hypothesis: the impact is mainly positive. Rather than evaluating the research methodology, you accept the findings uncritically.

Nonacademic examples

However, you decide to compare this review article with consumer reviews on a different site. You find that these reviews are not as positive. Some customers have had problems installing the alarm, and some have noted that it activates for no apparent reason.

You revisit the original review article. You notice that the words “sponsored content” appear in small print under the article title. Based on this, you conclude that the review is advertising and is therefore not an unbiased source. Example: Poor critical thinking in a nonacademic context You support a candidate in an upcoming election. You visit an online news site affiliated with their political party and read an article that criticizes their opponent. The article claims that the opponent is inexperienced in politics. You accept this without evidence, because it fits your preconceptions about the opponent.

There is no single way to think critically. How you engage with information will depend on the type of source you’re using and the information you need.

However, you can engage with sources in a systematic and critical way by asking certain questions when you encounter information. Like the CRAAP test , these questions focus on the currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose of a source of information.

When encountering information, ask:

• Who is the author? Are they an expert in their field?
• What do they say? Is their argument clear? Can you summarize it?
• When did they say this? Is the source current?
• Where is the information published? Is it an academic article? Is it peer-reviewed ?
• Why did the author publish it? What is their motivation?
• How do they make their argument? Is it backed up by evidence? Does it rely on opinion, speculation, or appeals to emotion ? Do they address alternative arguments?

Critical thinking also involves being aware of your own biases, not only those of others. When you make an argument or draw your own conclusions, you can ask similar questions about your own writing:

• Am I only considering evidence that supports my preconceptions?
• Is my argument expressed clearly and backed up with credible sources?
• Would I be convinced by this argument coming from someone else?

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• ChatGPT vs human editor
• ChatGPT citations
• Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
• Using ChatGPT for your studies
• What is ChatGPT?
• Chicago style
• Paraphrasing

 Plagiarism

• Types of plagiarism
• Self-plagiarism
• Avoiding plagiarism
• Academic integrity
• Consequences of plagiarism
• Common knowledge

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Critical thinking refers to the ability to evaluate information and to be aware of biases or assumptions, including your own.

Like information literacy , it involves evaluating arguments, identifying and solving problems in an objective and systematic way, and clearly communicating your ideas.

Critical thinking skills include the ability to:

You can assess information and arguments critically by asking certain questions about the source. You can use the CRAAP test , focusing on the currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose of a source of information.

Ask questions such as:

• Who is the author? Are they an expert?
• How do they make their argument? Is it backed up by evidence?

A credible source should pass the CRAAP test  and follow these guidelines:

• The information should be up to date and current.
• The author and publication should be a trusted authority on the subject you are researching.
• The sources the author cited should be easy to find, clear, and unbiased.
• For a web source, the URL and layout should signify that it is trustworthy.

Information literacy refers to a broad range of skills, including the ability to find, evaluate, and use sources of information effectively.

Being information literate means that you:

• Know how to find credible sources
• Use relevant sources to inform your research
• Understand what constitutes plagiarism
• Know how to cite your sources correctly

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search, interpret, and recall information in a way that aligns with our pre-existing values, opinions, or beliefs. It refers to the ability to recollect information best when it amplifies what we already believe. Relatedly, we tend to forget information that contradicts our opinions.

Although selective recall is a component of confirmation bias, it should not be confused with recall bias.

On the other hand, recall bias refers to the differences in the ability between study participants to recall past events when self-reporting is used. This difference in accuracy or completeness of recollection is not related to beliefs or opinions. Rather, recall bias relates to other factors, such as the length of the recall period, age, and the characteristics of the disease under investigation.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Ryan, E. (2023, May 31). What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved April 1, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/critical-thinking/

Is this article helpful?

Eoghan Ryan

Other students also liked, student guide: information literacy | meaning & examples, what are credible sources & how to spot them | examples, applying the craap test & evaluating sources, unlimited academic ai-proofreading.

✔ Document error-free in 5minutes ✔ Unlimited document corrections ✔ Specialized in correcting academic texts

Terms of Use

PLEASE REVIEW THIS DOCUMENT CAREFULLY BECAUSE IT AFFECTS YOUR RIGHTS.

Welcome to granttrainingcenter.com. (Hereafter sometimes referred to as "Service" or "Grant Training Center Member Community"), operated by Grant Training Center. (hereafter sometimes referred to as "Service Provider", "us," or "our"). By using the granttrainingcenter.com website (the "Website") you agree to be bound by these Terms of Use (this "Agreement"), when you become a paid subscriber ("Subscriber" or "Member"). If you wish to become a Subscriber and make use of the Grant Training Center Member Community service (the "Service"), please read these Terms of Use. If you object to anything in this Agreement or the Grant Training Center Member Community Privacy Policy (http://granttrainingcenter.com/privacy), do not use the Website or the Service. This Agreement is subject to change by Grant Training Center at any time, effective upon posting on the Website, and your use of the Service after such posting will constitute acceptance by you of such changes. These terms of service govern the relationship between you and Grant Training Center.

Electronic Agreement. This Agreement is an electronic contract that sets out the legally binding terms of your use of and your relationship to the Service. This Agreement may be modified by Grant Training Center from time to time, such modifications to be effective upon posting by Grant Training Center on the Grant Training Center Member Community Website. This Agreement includes Grant Training Center Member Community's Privacy Policy, and any notices regarding the Website. By accessing the Website or becoming a Registrant or Subscriber, you accept this Agreement and agree to the terms, conditions and notices contained or referenced herein.

Electronic Form. By accessing the Website or becoming a Registrant or Subscriber, you consent to have this Agreement provided to you in electronic form. In order to access and retain this electronic Agreement, you must have access to the World Wide Web, either directly or through devices that access web-based content, and pay any service fees associated with such access. In addition, you must have all the equipment necessary to make such connection to the World Wide Web, including a computer and modem or other access device. Please print a copy of this document for your records. To retain an electronic copy of this Agreement, you may save it to into any word processing program. You have a right to a paper copy of this Agreement. If you would like a paper copy, please email [email protected]. If you request a paper copy of the Agreement, your account will be suspended until you return a signed copy of the paper agreement to Grant Training Center.

Description of the Service. Grant Training Center Member Community is a service that provides users with access to a rich collection of resources, including but not limited to aggregation of funding opportunities, aggregation of nonprofit organization data, etc. You also understand that the Service may include certain communications from us, such as service announcements, administrative messages and survey invitations and that these communications are considered part of subscriptions. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, any new features which augment or enhance the current Service, including the release of new features and properties, shall be subject to this Agreement. You are responsible for obtaining access to the Service, and that access may involve third-party fees (such as Internet service provider or airtime charges). Additionally, you must provide and are responsible for all equipment necessary to access the Service.

Beta Services. From time to time, new features may be added to Grant Training Center Member Community which might be described as "beta" ("Beta Features"). Registrants and Members acknowledge that Beta Features may be untested, non-functional, and/or partly functional features of the Service. If you elect to use a Beta Feature, you do so at your own risk. NOTWITHSTANDING ANYTHING ELSE IN THIS AGREEMENT TO THE CONTRARY, GRANT TRAINING CENTER DOES NOT WARRANT THAT THE BETA FEATURES WILL BE PROVIDED WITH DUE CARE. Do not rely on the Beta Features for any purpose whatsoever. Beta Features may harm and/or interrupt the regular running of your software and/or hardware. Beta Features will be considered part of the Service and all provisions of this Agreement relating to the Service will apply to the Beta Features.

Proprietary Rights. Grant Training Center Member Community owns and retains all proprietary rights in the Website and the Service. The Website contains the copyrighted material, trademarks, and other proprietary information of Grant Training Center Member Community. Except for that information which is in the public domain or for which you have been given written permission, you may not copy, modify, publish, transmit, distribute, perform, display, or sell any such proprietary information. You may not post, distribute, or reproduce in any way any copyrighted material, trademarks, or other proprietary information without obtaining the prior written consent of the owner of such proprietary rights.

No Resale or Redistribution of Service. Except as expressly authorized by Grant Training Center Member Community, you agree not to reproduce, duplicate, copy, sell, trade, resell, modify, create derivative works, or exploit for any commercial purposes, any portion of the Service or the Software, use of the Service, or access to the Service or computer code that powers the Service (hereafter sometimes "Software").

Copyright Abuse. We respond expeditiously to notices of claimed copyright infringement and terminate users or account holders who are "repeat infringers." Pursuant to the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, we respond to notices of copyright infringement if they conform to the requirements of 17 USC 512(c) by including the following information:

a. The signature of a person authorized to act on behalf of the owner of the infringed copyright;

b. Identification of the copyrighted work or works claimed to have been infringed;

c. Identification of the material that is claimed to be infringing or to be the subject of infringing activity and that is to be removed;

d. Information reasonably sufficient to permit the us to contact you (e.g., the address, telephone number, or email address);

e. A statement that you have a good faith belief that use of the material is not authorized by the copyright owner; and

f. A statement signed under penalty of perjury, that information in the complaint is accurate and that the complaining party is authorized to act on behalf of the copyright owner.

Notices must be sent to Grant Training Center 1901 N Fort Myer Drive, Suite 1016, Arlington, VA 22209 or via email to [email protected]

Account Access. You must provide your legal full name, a valid email address, and any other information requested in order to complete subscription process. You must provide a valid email address to become a Registrant. Your login may only be used by one person. A single login shared by multiple people is not permitted. You are responsible for maintaining the security of your account and password. Grant Training Center cannot and will not be liable for any loss or damage from your failure to comply with this security obligation.

Age Requirements. This website's content is intended for adults and we will not knowingly collect personal information from children under 13 years of age. If you are a parent or legal guardian of a child under age 13 who you believe has submitted personal information to this site, please contact us at [email protected] immediately. You must be at least eighteen (18) years of age to subscribe to Grant Training Center Member Community. Membership in the Service is void where prohibited. By using the Website, you represent and warrant that you have the right, authority and capacity to enter into this Agreement and to abide by all of the terms and conditions of this Agreement.

Unauthorized Users. You must be a human. Accounts registered by "bots" or other automated methods are not permitted.

Unauthorized Uses. You must not modify, adapt or hack the Service or modify another website so as to falsely imply that it is associated with the Service or Grant Training Center. You may not reverse engineer or reuse source code that is in public view. This includes any and all javascript. The code is Grant Training Center's copyright. You shall not transmit any worms or viruses or any code of a destructive nature. You agree neither to modify the Software in any manner or form, nor to use modified versions of the Software, including (without limitation) for the purpose of obtaining unauthorized access to the Service. You agree not to access the Service by any means other than through the interface that is provided by Grant Training Center for use in accessing the Service. You acknowledge that the Service is not intended for permanent storage and agree not to use the Service for archiving or back-up purposes. If Grant Training Center determines, in its sole discretion, that you are violating any of these Terms, we may use technical measures to block or restrict your access or use of the Services.

User Spam. Grant Training Center Member Community provides a facility that enables users to send email messages / private messages to others. Users must not use this facility to send unsolicited, bulk or indiscriminate messages, whether or not for commercial purposes. Only messages for the purpose of grant collaboration are allowed.

Receipt of Unwanted Messages. In the unlikely event that you receive any message from Grant Training Center Member Community or sent using Grant Training Center Member Community's systems that may be considered to be spam, please contact Grant Training Center Member Community at [email protected] and the matter will be investigated.

Blocking of IP Addresses. In order to protect the integrity of the Service, Grant Training Center reserves the right at any time in its sole discretion to block Registrants and Members from certain IP addresses from accessing the Website.

Subscription; Pricing. In order to access features and services, including the ability to use many of our tools, you must become a paying Subscriber to the service by agreeing to enter into a subscription with us. Please see our granttrainingcenter.com/membership_description for a description of the current subscription plans and their prices (hereafter "Subscription Policies").

Please note that the Subscription Policies that are disclosed to you in subscribing to the service are deemed part of this Agreement. Further, Grant Training Center may change Service features and functionality from time to time. For purposes of this Agreement the term "Member" includes all paying subscribers, regardless of renewal term or price level, unless where its usage indicates otherwise. The Subscription Fee is payable in United States dollars (including, if any, all applicable taxes).

Subscriptions; Charges on your Billing Account.

a. General. You agree to pay Grant Training Center the subscription fee ("Subscription Fee") specified in the granttrainingcenter.com/membership_description during the subscription period ("Subscription Period"). The Subscription Period varies depending on the plan you sign up for. We currently offer annual subscriptions.

b. Payment Method. A valid credit card or other allowed payment type is required to subscribe to the Service. Payment is made to Grant Training Center through Paypal. Your complete billing information is not stored on Grant Training Center servers. You agree to make payment using that selected Payment Method. Grant Training Center reserves the right to correct any errors or mistakes that it makes even if it has already requested or received payment.

c. Auto-Renewal of Your Subscription Period. You will be entitled to receive the Service only during the subscription period ("Subscription Period"). The subscription will not automatically renew at the end of your subscription period.

h. Cancellation. You may cancel your account at any time by contacting us (granttrainingcenter.com/about_contact). If you are a Registrant, all of your Content (text and files) will be immediately deleted from the Service upon cancellation. This information cannot be recovered once your account is cancelled. If you are a Subscriber and cancel your Subscription prior to the end of the Subscription Period, then Grant Training Center will terminate your access to the Service and delete all your Content (text and files) at the end of the subscription period, and cease billing you for the Service for the consequent Subscription Periods. However, you remain responsible for all charges incurred prior to Grant Training Center terminating access to your account.

i. Collection. Members will pay on all amounts past due, that have not been disputed specifically in writing and in reasonable good faith, an interest charge of one and one-half percent (1.5%) per month computed from the due date of each payment, or the maximum rate permitted by law. Member will be liable for attorneys' fees and collection costs arising from Grant Training Center's efforts to collect unpaid balances.

Modifications to Service. Grant Training Center reserves the right at any time to modify or discontinue, temporarily or permanently, the Service (or any part thereof) with or without notice. You agree that Grant Training Center shall not be liable to you or to any third party for any modification, suspension or discontinuance of the Service.

Reliance on Content, Advice, Etc. Any content that may be posted on the Website is for informational and entertainment purposes only and is not intended to replace or substitute for any professional, financial, legal, or other advice. If you have specific concerns or a situation arises in which you require professional advice, you should consult with an appropriately trained and qualified specialist. Grant Training Center does not: (i) guarantee the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information on the Service, or (ii) adopt, endorse or accept responsibility for the accuracy or reliability of any opinion, advice, or statement made by any party that appears on the Website. Under no circumstances will Grant Training Center be responsible for any loss or damage resulting from your reliance on information or other content posted on the Website or transmitted to or by any Members.

DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES. THE WEBSITE AND THE SERVICE ARE PROVIDED "AS-IS" AND ON AN "AS-AVAILABLE" BASIS. TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW, GRANT TRAINING CENTER, ITS SUBSIDIARIES, AFFILIATES, OFFICERS, AGENTS, AND OTHER PARTNERS AND EMPLOYEES, EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY AND ALL WARRANTIES, WHETHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THOSE OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, WARRANTY OF TITLE AND NON-INFRINGEMENT. GRANT TRAINING CENTER CANNOT GUARANTEE AND DOES NOT PROMISE ANY SPECIFIC RESULTS FROM THE USE OF THE WEBSITE AND/OR SERVICE. SPECIFICALLY, BUT NOT BY WAY OF LIMITATION, GRANT TRAINING CENTER DOES NOT WARRANT RECOVERY OF DATA RESULTING FROM DELAYS OR SERVICE INTERRUPTION CAUSED BY GRANT TRAINING CENTER'S OR YOUR NEGLIGENCE, ERRORS AND OMISSIONS. GRANT TRAINING CENTER SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIMS ANY RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE ACCURACY, MARKETABILITY OR QUALITY OF ANY OF THE INFORMATION OBTAINED AND/OR SERVICES PROVIDED UNDER THIS AGREEMENT. YOU AGREE THAT YOU MUST EVALUATE, AND BEAR ALL RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH, THE USE OF ANY WEBSITE CONTENT AND SERVICES, INCLUDING ANY RELIANCE ON THE ACCURACY, COMPLETENESS, OR USEFULNESS OF SUCH CONTENT. IN THIS REGARD, YOU ACKNOWLEDGE THAT YOU MAY NOT RELY ON ANY CONTENT CREATED BY GRANT TRAINING CENTER OR SUBMITTED TO GRANT TRAINING CENTER. USE OF THE WEBSITE AND THE SERVICES MAY RESULT IN TECHNICAL MALFUNCTION, DELAY, MISDELIVERY, OR OTHER PROBLEMS WITH OTHER SYSTEMS, PROGRAMS, OR COMPUTER HARDWARE. GRANT TRAINING CENTER CANNOT AND DOES NOT GUARANTEE COMPATIBILITY WITH OTHER SYSTEMS AND HARDWARE.

Third-Party Content. Certain content, Products, and services available via the Service may include materials from third parties. In addition, Grant Training Center may provide links to certain third-party Websites. You acknowledge and agree that Grant Training Center is not responsible for examining or evaluating the content or accuracy of any such third-party material or Websites. Links to other Websites are provided solely as a convenience to you. Because Grant Training Center has no control over such sites and resources, you acknowledge and agree that Grant Training Center is not responsible for the availability of such external sites or resources, and does not endorse and is not responsible or liable for any Content, advertising, products or other materials on or available from such sites or resources. You agree that you will not use any third-party materials in a manner that would infringe or violate the rights of any other party, and that Grant Training Center is not in any way responsible for any such use by you.

LIMITATION OF LIABILITY. EXCEPT IN JURISDICTIONS WHERE SUCH PROVISIONS ARE RESTRICTED, IN NO EVENT WILL GRANT TRAINING CENTER, ITS SUBSIDIARIES, AFFILIATES, OFFICERS, AGENTS, AND OTHER PARTNERS AND EMPLOYEES, BE LIABLE TO YOU OR ANY THIRD PERSON FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, EXEMPLARY, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL OR PUNITIVE DAMAGES, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO, DAMAGES FOR LOSS OF PROFITS, GOODWILL, USE, DATA OR OTHER INTANGIBLE LOSSES (EVEN IF GRANT TRAINING CENTER HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES), RESULTING FROM: (I) THE USE OR THE INABILITY TO USE THE SERVICE; (II) THE COST OF PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS AND SERVICES RESULTING FROM YOUR INABILITY TO ACCESS OR OBTAIN ANY GOODS, DATA, INFORMATION OR SERVICES THROUGH OR FROM THE SERVICE; (III) UNAUTHORIZED ACCESS TO OR ALTERATION OF YOUR TRANSMISSIONS OR DATA; (IV) STATEMENTS OR CONDUCT OF ANY THIRD PARTY ON THE SERVICE; (V) ANY CONTENT POSTED ON THE WEBSITE OR TRANSMITTED TO REGISTRANTS OR MEMBERS; (VI) ANY INACCURATE OR OUT-OF-DATE CONTENT PRODUCED BY THE TOOLS OR PUBLISHED IN THE GUIDES OR WEBSITE; (VII) ANY OTHER MATTER RELATING TO THE SERVICE. NOTHWITHSTANDING ANY PROVISION TO THE CONTRARY, GRANT TRAINING CENTER'S LIABILITY TO YOU FOR ANY CAUSE WHATSOEVER, AND REGARDLESS OF THE FORM OF THE ACTION, WILL AT ALL TIMES BE LIMITED TO THE AMOUNT PAID, IF ANY, BY YOU TO GRANT TRAINING CENTER IN THE TWELVE (12) MONTHS PRIOR TO THE CLAIMED INJURY OR DAMAGE.

Disclaimers and Limitations. Some jurisdictions do not allow the exclusion of certain warranties or the limitation or exclusion of liability for incidental or consequential damages. Accordingly, some of the above limitations and disclaimers of warranties may not apply to you to the extent such jurisdiction's law is applicable to you and these terms.

Indemnity by You. You agree to indemnify and hold Grant Training Center, its subsidiaries, affiliates, officers, agents, and other partners and employees, harmless from any loss, liability, claim, or demand, including reasonable attorneys' fees, made by any third party due to or arising out of your use of the Service in violation of this Agreement and/or arising from a breach of this Agreement and/or any breach of your representations and warranties and/or your negligent or willful acts, and/or the violation by you of Grant Training Center's or any third party's rights, including without limitation privacy rights, other property rights, trade secret, proprietary information, trademark, copyright, or patent rights, and claims for libel slander, or unfair trade practices in connection with the use or operation of the Service. Your obligation to indemnify will survive the expiration or termination of this Agreement by either party for any reason.

No Third Party Beneficiaries. You agree that, except as otherwise expressly provided in this Agreement, there shall be no third party beneficiaries to this Agreement.

Interstate Nature of Communications on Grant Training Center Network. When you register or subscribe with Grant Training Center Member Community, you acknowledge that in using Grant Training Center Member Community services to send electronic communications (including but not limited to search queries, sending messages to the knowledge base, uploading files and photos, and other Internet activities), you will be causing communications to be sent through Grant Training Center's computer networks located in various locations in the United States. As a result, and also as a result of Grant Training Center's network architecture and business practices and the nature of electronic communications, even communications that seem to be intrastate in nature can result in the transmission of interstate communications regardless of where you are physically located at the time of transmission. According, by agreeing to this Agreement, you acknowledge that use of the service results in interstate data transmissions.

Export Control. Each party agrees that it will comply with all applicable export control laws and regulations with respect to the Deliverables.

Term. This Agreement will remain in full force and effect while you use the Website and/or are a Member. You may cancel your Subscription at any time, for any reason. Grant Training Center may terminate your Subscription by sending notice to you at the email address you provide in your application for membership, or such other email address as you may later provide to Grant Training Center. If Grant Training Center terminates your membership in this Service because you have breached this Agreement, you will not be entitled to any refund of unused Subscription Fees. All decisions regarding the termination of accounts shall be made in the sole discretion of Grant Training Center. Grant Training Center is not required, and may be prohibited, from disclosing a reason for the termination of your account. Even after your membership or subscription is terminated, this Agreement will remain in effect. All terms that by their nature may survive termination of this Agreement shall be deemed to survive such termination. Such termination of the Service will result in the deactivation or deletion of your Account or your access to your Account, and the forfeiture and relinquishment of all Content in your Account. Grant Training Center reserves the right to refuse service to anyone for any reason at any time.

Dispute Resolution. All disputes related to or arising out of Services performed pursuant to this Agreement shall be resolved exclusively by binding arbitration in Virginia, USA in accordance with the JAMS Streamlined Arbitration Rules & Procedures, by one commercial arbitrator with substantial experience resolving intellectual property and commercial contract disputes, who shall be selected from the appropriate list of JAMS arbitrators, and judgment on the award rendered by the arbitrator may be entered in any court of competent jurisdiction. Each party hereby consents to arbitration in Virginia, USA for the foregoing purposes.

Relationship of Parties. For all purposes under this Agreement Grant Training Center and you shall not be construed as being parties to a joint venture, franchise, partnership or agency relationship. Neither you nor Grant Training Center have authority, apparent or otherwise, to represent, contract for or on behalf of, or in any other way legally bind the other party hereto in any fashion. Essentially there is no relationship at all beyond Grant Training Center providing the services mentioned in this agreement.

Assignment. Neither party shall have the right to assign this Agreement to another person or entity, except that Service Provider may assign and transfer its rights and obligations or this Agreement without consent to a successor to all or substantially all its relevant assets or business.

Governing Law; The parties consent to the exclusive jurisdiction and venue of the federal and state courts located in the state of Virginia, USA, without regard to the conflicts of law provisions thereof, in any action arising out of or relating to this Agreement. The parties waive any other jurisdiction to which either party might be entitled by domicile or otherwise.

Attorneys' Fees: In any litigation, arbitration, or other proceeding arising out of or related to this Agreement wherein the Service Provider is required to use legal means and/or the services of a collection agency in order to enforce its rights under this Agreement or seeks a declaration of any rights or obligations under this Agreement, the Service Provider shall be awarded its reasonable attorney fees, and costs and expenses incurred.

Other: The failure of Grant Training Center to exercise or enforce any right or provision of the Terms of Service shall not constitute a waiver of such right or provision. If any provision of this Agreement is held invalid, the remainder of this Agreement shall continue in full force and effect. The Terms of Service constitutes the entire agreement between you and Grant Training Center and govern your use of the Service, superseding any prior agreements between you and Grant Training Center (including, but not limited to, any prior versions of the Terms of Service).

Questions about the Terms of Service should be sent to [email protected]

Your privacy is important to Grant Training Center. This privacy statement provides information about the personal information that Grant Training Center collects, and the ways in which Grant Training Center uses that personal information.

Personal information collection

Grant Training Center may collect and use the following kinds of personal information:

• information about your use of this website (including login activity and usage data);
• information about transactions carried out over this website (including communications with other members);
• information that you provide for the purpose of subscribing to the website services (including name, location, phone number, professional profile); and
• any other information that you send to Grant Training Center.

Using personal information

Grant Training Center may use your personal information to:

• administer this website;
• personalize the website for you;
• enable your access to and use of the website services;
• publish information about you on the website;
• send to you products that you purchase;
• supply to you services that you purchase;
• send to you statements and invoices;
• collect payments from you; and
• send you marketing communications.

Where Grant Training Center discloses your personal information to its agents or sub-contractors for these purposes, the agent or sub-contractor in question will be obligated to use that personal information in accordance with the terms of this privacy statement.

In addition to the disclosures reasonably necessary for the purposes identified elsewhere above, Grant Training Center may disclose your personal information to the extent that it is required to do so by law, in connection with any legal proceedings or prospective legal proceedings, and in order to establish, exercise or defend its legal rights.

Securing your data

Grant Training Center will take reasonable technical and organisational precautions to prevent the loss, misuse or alteration of your personal information.

Grant Training Center will store all the personal information you provide on its secure servers.

Cross-border data transfers

Information that Grant Training Center collects may be stored and processed in and transferred between any of the countries in which Grant Training Center operates to enable the use of the information in accordance with this privacy policy.

In addition, personal information that you submit for publication on the website will be published on the internet and may be available around the world.

You agree to such cross-border transfers of personal information.

Updating this statement

Grant Training Center may update this privacy policy by posting a new version on this website.

You should check this page occasionally to ensure you are familiar with any changes.

Other websites

This website contains links to other websites.

Grant Training Center is not responsible for the privacy policies or practices of any third party.

Contact Grant Training Center

If you have any questions about this privacy policy or Grant Training Center's treatment of your personal information, please write:

• by email to [email protected]; or
• by post to Grant Training Center, 1901 N Fort Myer Drive, Suite 1016, Arlington VA 22209.

Critical Questions to Clarify Your Research

How you will construct the direction and destination of your proposal depends on the initial questions that you ask. As you move from generating the topic, to gathering the background information, to adding focus to your research, you should begin with the open-ended questions of “how” and “why”, while at all times considering the “so what” question of your topic. In other words, why does this topic matter to you and why should it matter to others?

The questions that follow are catalysts that will help provide initial answers to where your research will start, but after answering them, you may discover that it might not be where your research will end up. These questions will not only shape your search for the answer(s) to the problem, but will also increase your understanding of additional and alternative information that will be needed to clarify the road map and direction of your project.

Although the list of questions that will assist you in constructing and focusing your project can be extensive, the ones below center on the idea, purpose, focus, approach and institutional support:

Idea questions : What is the argument you are making about your idea? Why is your idea timely, urgent, compelling, and unique? Why does your idea matter? How might others challenge your idea? What kind of sources will you need to support your idea?

Purpose questions : What is the purpose of your research? How will you achieve the purpose? What will change once your proposal is implemented? How will you know that changes have taken place as you implement the proposal?

Narrowing your focus questions : Why is your proposal needed to advance the studies within your field? How are your preliminary data relevant? Why did you choose this way of approaching the gap in knowledge versus other options? What results will be evaluated in your project? How will you evaluate the results? What difficulties might appear within your research plan? How is your research limited?

Justifying the research questions: Who cares about the postulation of your argument? How is present opinion divided? How important is it to have the right answer? What are the implications of various possible answers?

Research methods questions: What are the variables to be measured during your research project? What population and samples will be used in your research project, including explanations of sampling and procedures? What methods will you apply to collect primary and secondary information? What might be any relevant biases in your methods and the means by which these biases would be overcome?

Institutional questions : How will this project capitalize on your institution’s/department’s strengths? How will this project help your institution/department overcome some of its weaknesses? How will your institution/department support you to succeed?

Science begins by first asking relevant questions and then seeking answers. The manner in which your research will unfold will emerge from the critical questions that you will need to answer prior to building your research proposal. These questions will assist you in solidifying your idea and eventually lead you to critical, significant, and substantive insights into the purpose, focus, and methods of your research proposal.

• Latest Posts

Mathilda Harris

Latest posts by mathilda harris ( see all ).

• Can AI Write your Grant Proposal? - January 8, 2024
• Three Essentials for Grant Success: Ingredients, Preparation, and Presentation - December 11, 2023
• How Does Grant Writing Experience Help Me Get a Job? - August 21, 2023

2 comments on “ Critical Questions to Clarify Your Research ”

Very good post. I’m going through some of these issues as well..

Nice article.thanks

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published.

83 Qualitative Research Questions & Examples

Qualitative research questions help you understand consumer sentiment. They’re strategically designed to show organizations how and why people feel the way they do about a brand, product, or service. It looks beyond the numbers and is one of the most telling types of market research a company can do.

The UK Data Service describes this perfectly, saying, “The value of qualitative research is that it gives a voice to the lived experience .”

Read on to see seven use cases and 83 qualitative research questions, with the added bonus of examples that show how to get similar insights faster with Similarweb Digital Research Intelligence.

What is a qualitative research question?

A qualitative research question explores a topic in-depth, aiming to better understand the subject through interviews, observations, and other non-numerical data. Qualitative research questions are open-ended, helping to uncover a target audience’s opinions, beliefs, and motivations.

How to choose qualitative research questions?

Choosing the right qualitative research questions can be incremental to the success of your research and the findings you uncover. Here’s my six-step process for choosing the best qualitative research questions.

• Start by understanding the purpose of your research. What do you want to learn? What outcome are you hoping to achieve?
• Consider who you are researching. What are their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs? How can you best capture these in your research questions ?
• Keep your questions open-ended . Qualitative research questions should not be too narrow or too broad. Aim to ask specific questions to provide meaningful answers but broad enough to allow for exploration.
• Balance your research questions. You don’t want all of your questions to be the same type. Aim to mix up your questions to get a variety of answers.
• Ensure your research questions are ethical and free from bias. Always have a second (and third) person check for unconscious bias.
• Consider the language you use. Your questions should be written in a way that is clear and easy to understand. Avoid using jargon , acronyms, or overly technical language.

Types of qualitative research questions

For a question to be considered qualitative, it usually needs to be open-ended. However, as I’ll explain, there can sometimes be a slight cross-over between quantitative and qualitative research questions.

Open-ended questions

These allow for a wide range of responses and can be formatted with multiple-choice answers or a free-text box to collect additional details. The next two types of qualitative questions are considered open questions, but each has its own style and purpose.

• Probing questions are used to delve deeper into a respondent’s thoughts, such as “Can you tell me more about why you feel that way?”
• Comparative questions ask people to compare two or more items, such as “Which product do you prefer and why?” These qualitative questions are highly useful for understanding brand awareness , competitive analysis , and more.

Closed-ended questions

These ask respondents to choose from a predetermined set of responses, such as “On a scale of 1-5, how satisfied are you with the new product?” While they’re traditionally quantitative, adding a free text box that asks for extra comments into why a specific rating was chosen will provide qualitative insights alongside their respective quantitative research question responses.

• Ranking questions get people to rank items in order of preference, such as “Please rank these products in terms of quality.” They’re advantageous in many scenarios, like product development, competitive analysis, and brand awareness.
• Likert scale questions ask people to rate items on a scale, such as “On a scale of 1-5, how satisfied are you with the new product?” Ideal for placement on websites and emails to gather quick, snappy feedback.

Qualitative research question examples

There are many applications of qualitative research and lots of ways you can put your findings to work for the success of your business. Here’s a summary of the most common use cases for qualitative questions and examples to ask.

Qualitative questions for identifying customer needs and motivations

These types of questions help you find out why customers choose products or services and what they are looking for when making a purchase.

• What factors do you consider when deciding to buy a product?
• What would make you choose one product or service over another?
• What are the most important elements of a product that you would buy?
• What features do you look for when purchasing a product?
• What qualities do you look for in a company’s products?
• Do you prefer localized or global brands when making a purchase?
• How do you determine the value of a product?
• What do you think is the most important factor when choosing a product?
• How do you decide if a product or service is worth the money?
• Do you have any specific expectations when purchasing a product?
• Do you prefer to purchase products or services online or in person?
• What kind of customer service do you expect when buying a product?
• How do you decide when it is time to switch to a different product?
• Where do you research products before you decide to buy?
• What do you think is the most important customer value when making a purchase?

Qualitative research questions to enhance customer experience

Use these questions to reveal insights into how customers interact with a company’s products or services and how those experiences can be improved.

• What aspects of our product or service do customers find most valuable?
• How do customers perceive our customer service?
• What factors are most important to customers when purchasing?
• What do customers think of our brand?
• What do customers think of our current marketing efforts?
• How do customers feel about the features and benefits of our product?
• How do customers feel about the price of our product or service?
• How could we improve the customer experience?
• What do customers think of our website or app?
• What do customers think of our customer support?
• What could we do to make our product or service easier to use?
• What do customers think of our competitors?
• What is your preferred way to access our site?
• How do customers feel about our delivery/shipping times?
• What do customers think of our loyalty programs?

Qualitative research question example for customer experience

• 🙋‍♀️ Question: What is your preferred way to access our site?
• 🤓 Insight sought: How mobile-dominant are consumers? Should you invest more in mobile optimization or mobile marketing?
• 🤯 Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods: While using this type of question is ideal if you have a large database to survey when placed on a site or sent to a limited customer list, it only gives you a point-in-time perspective from a limited group of people.
• 💡 A new approach: You can get better, broader insights quicker with Similarweb Digital Research Intelligence. To fully inform your research, you need to know preferences at the industry or market level.
• ⏰ Time to insight: 30 seconds
• ✅ How it’s done: Similarweb offers multiple ways to answer this question without going through a lengthy qualitative research process. 

First, I’m going to do a website market analysis of the banking credit and lending market in the finance sector to get a clearer picture of industry benchmarks.

Here, I can view device preferences across any industry or market instantly. It shows me the device distribution for any country across any period. This clearly answers the question of how mobile dominate my target audience is , with 59.79% opting to access site via a desktop vs. 40.21% via mobile

I then use the trends section to show me the exact split between mobile and web traffic for each key player in my space. Let’s say I’m about to embark on a competitive campaign that targets customers of Chase and Bank of America ; I can see both their audiences are highly desktop dominant compared with others in their space .

Qualitative question examples for developing new products or services

Research questions like this can help you understand customer pain points and give you insights to develop products that meet those needs.

• What is the primary reason you would choose to purchase a product from our company?
• How do you currently use products or services that are similar to ours?
• Is there anything that could be improved with products currently on the market?
• What features would you like to see added to our products?
• How do you prefer to contact a customer service team?
• What do you think sets our company apart from our competitors?
• What other product or service offerings would like to see us offer?
• What type of information would help you make decisions about buying a product?
• What type of advertising methods are most effective in getting your attention?
• What is the biggest deterrent to purchasing products from us?

Qualitative research question example for service development

• 🙋‍♀️ Question: What type of advertising methods are most effective in getting your attention?
• 🤓 Insight sought: The marketing channels and/or content that performs best with a target audience .
• 🤯 Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods: When using qualitative research surveys to answer questions like this, the sample size is limited, and bias could be at play.
• 💡 A better approach: The most authentic insights come from viewing real actions and results that take place in the digital world. No questions or answers are needed to uncover this intel, and the information you seek is readily available in less than a minute.
• ⏰ Time to insight: 5 minutes
• ✅ How it’s done: There are a few ways to approach this. You can either take an industry-wide perspective or hone in on specific competitors to unpack their individual successes. Here, I’ll quickly show a snapshot with a whole market perspective.

Using the market analysis element of Similarweb Digital Research Intelligence, I select my industry or market, which I’ve kept as banking and credit. A quick click into marketing channels shows me which channels drive the highest traffic in my market. Taking direct traffic out of the equation, for now, I can see that referrals and organic traffic are the two highest-performing channels in this market.

Similarweb allows me to view the specific referral partners and pages across these channels. 

Looking closely at referrals in this market, I’ve chosen chase.com and its five closest rivals . I select referrals in the channel traffic element of marketing channels. I see that Capital One is a clear winner, gaining almost 25 million visits due to referral partnerships.

Next, I get to see exactly who is referring traffic to Capital One and the total traffic share for each referrer. I can see the growth as a percentage and how that has changed, along with an engagement score that rates the average engagement level of that audience segment. This is particularly useful when deciding on which new referral partnerships to pursue.  

Once I’ve identified the channels and campaigns that yield the best results, I can then use Similarweb to dive into the various ad creatives and content that have the greatest impact.

These ads are just a few of those listed in the creatives section from my competitive website analysis of Capital One. You can filter this list by the specific campaign, publishers, and ad networks to view those that matter to you most. You can also discover video ad creatives in the same place too.

In just five minutes ⏰ 

• I’ve captured audience loyalty statistics across my market
• Spotted the most competitive players
• Identified the marketing channels my audience is most responsive to
• I know which content and campaigns are driving the highest traffic volume
• I’ve created a target list for new referral partners and have been able to prioritize this based on results and engagement figures from my rivals
• I can see the types of creatives that my target audience is responding to, giving me ideas for ways to generate effective copy for future campaigns

Qualitative questions to determine pricing strategies

Companies need to make sure pricing stays relevant and competitive. Use these questions to determine customer perceptions on pricing and develop pricing strategies to maximize profits and reduce churn.

• How do you feel about our pricing structure?
• How does our pricing compare to other similar products?
• What value do you feel you get from our pricing?
• How could we make our pricing more attractive?
• What would be an ideal price for our product?
• Which features of our product that you would like to see priced differently?
• What discounts or deals would you like to see us offer?
• How do you feel about the amount you have to pay for our product?

Get Faster Answers to Qualitative Research Questions with Similarweb Today

Qualitative research question example for determining pricing strategies.

• 🙋‍♀️ Question: What discounts or deals would you like to see us offer?
• 🤓 Insight sought: The promotions or campaigns that resonate with your target audience.
• 🤯 Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods: Consumers don’t always recall the types of ads or campaigns they respond to. Over time, their needs and habits change. Your sample size is limited to those you ask, leaving a huge pool of unknowns at play.
• 💡 A better approach: While qualitative insights are good to know, you get the most accurate picture of the highest-performing promotion and campaigns by looking at data collected directly from the web. These analytics are real-world, real-time, and based on the collective actions of many, instead of the limited survey group you approach. By getting a complete picture across an entire market, your decisions are better informed and more aligned with current market trends and behaviors.
• ✅ How it’s done: Similarweb’s Popular Pages feature shows the content, products, campaigns, and pages with the highest growth for any website. So, if you’re trying to unpack the successes of others in your space and find out what content resonates with a target audience, there’s a far quicker way to get answers to these questions with Similarweb.

Here, I’m using Capital One as an example site. I can see trending pages on their site showing the largest increase in page views. Other filters include campaign, best-performing, and new–each of which shows you page URLs, share of traffic , and growth as a percentage. This page is particularly useful for staying on top of trending topics , campaigns, and new content being pushed out in a market by key competitors.

Qualitative research questions for product development teams

It’s vital to stay in touch with changing consumer needs. These questions can also be used for new product or service development, but this time, it’s from the perspective of a product manager or development team. 

• What are customers’ primary needs and wants for this product?
• What do customers think of our current product offerings?
• What is the most important feature or benefit of our product?
• How can we improve our product to meet customers’ needs better?
• What do customers like or dislike about our competitors’ products?
• What do customers look for when deciding between our product and a competitor’s?
• How have customer needs and wants for this product changed over time?
• What motivates customers to purchase this product?
• What is the most important thing customers want from this product?
• What features or benefits are most important when selecting a product?
• What do customers perceive to be our product’s pros and cons?
• What would make customers switch from a competitor’s product to ours?
• How do customers perceive our product in comparison to similar products?
• What do customers think of our pricing and value proposition?
• What do customers think of our product’s design, usability, and aesthetics?

Qualitative questions examples to understand customer segments

Market segmentation seeks to create groups of consumers with shared characteristics. Use these questions to learn more about different customer segments and how to target them with tailored messaging.

• What motivates customers to make a purchase?
• How do customers perceive our brand in comparison to our competitors?
• How do customers feel about our product quality?
• How do customers define quality in our products?
• What factors influence customers’ purchasing decisions ?
• What are the most important aspects of customer service?
• What do customers think of our customer service?
• What do customers think of our pricing?
• How do customers rate our product offerings?
• How do customers prefer to make purchases (online, in-store, etc.)?

Qualitative research question example for understanding customer segments

• 🙋‍♀️ Question: Which social media channels are you most active on?
• 🤓 Insight sought: Formulate a social media strategy . Specifically, the social media channels most likely to succeed with a target audience.
• 🤯 Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods: Qualitative research question responses are limited to those you ask, giving you a limited sample size. Questions like this are usually at risk of some bias, and this may not be reflective of real-world actions.
• 💡 A better approach: Get a complete picture of social media preferences for an entire market or specific audience belonging to rival firms. Insights are available in real-time, and are based on the actions of many, not a select group of participants. Data is readily available, easy to understand, and expandable at a moment’s notice.
• ✅ How it’s done: Using Similarweb’s website analysis feature, you can get a clear breakdown of social media stats for your audience using the marketing channels element. It shows the percentage of visits from each channel to your site, respective growth, and specific referral pages by each platform. All data is expandable, meaning you can select any platform, period, and region to drill down and get more accurate intel, instantly.

This example shows me Bank of America’s social media distribution, with YouTube , Linkedin , and Facebook taking the top three spots, and accounting for almost 80% of traffic being driven from social media.

When doing any type of market research, it’s important to benchmark performance against industry averages and perform a social media competitive analysis to verify rival performance across the same channels.

Qualitative questions to inform competitive analysis

Organizations must assess market sentiment toward other players to compete and beat rival firms. Whether you want to increase market share , challenge industry leaders , or reduce churn, understanding how people view you vs. the competition is key.

• What is the overall perception of our competitors’ product offerings in the market?
• What attributes do our competitors prioritize in their customer experience?
• What strategies do our competitors use to differentiate their products from ours?
• How do our competitors position their products in relation to ours?
• How do our competitors’ pricing models compare to ours?
• What do consumers think of our competitors’ product quality?
• What do consumers think of our competitors’ customer service?
• What are the key drivers of purchase decisions in our market?
• What is the impact of our competitors’ marketing campaigns on our market share ? 10. How do our competitors leverage social media to promote their products?

Qualitative research question example for competitive analysis

• 🙋‍♀️ Question: What other companies do you shop with for x?
• 🤓 Insight sought: W ho are your competitors? Which of your rival’s sites do your customers visit? How loyal are consumers in your market?
• 🤯 Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods:  Sample size is limited, and customers could be unwilling to reveal which competitors they shop with, or how often they around. Where finances are involved, people can act with reluctance or bias, and be unwilling to reveal other suppliers they do business with.
• 💡 A better approach: Get a complete picture of your audience’s loyalty, see who else they shop with, and how many other sites they visit in your competitive group. Find out the size of the untapped opportunity and which players are doing a better job at attracting unique visitors – without having to ask people to reveal their preferences.
• ✅ How it’s done: Similarweb website analysis shows you the competitive sites your audience visits, giving you access to data that shows cross-visitation habits, audience loyalty, and untapped potential in a matter of minutes.

Using the audience interests element of Similarweb website analysis, you can view the cross-browsing behaviors of a website’s audience instantly. You can see a matrix that shows the percentage of visitors on a target site and any rival site they may have visited.

With the Similarweb audience overlap feature, view the cross-visitation habits of an audience across specific websites. In this example, I chose chase.com and its four closest competitors to review. For each intersection, you see the number of unique visitors and the overall proportion of each site’s audience it represents. It also shows the volume of unreached potential visitors.

Here, you can see a direct comparison of the audience loyalty represented in a bar graph. It shows a breakdown of each site’s audience based on how many other sites they have visited. Those sites with the highest loyalty show fewer additional sites visited.

From the perspective of chase.com, I can see 47% of their visitors do not visit rival sites. 33% of their audience visited 1 or more sites in this group, 14% visited 2 or more sites, 4% visited 3 or more sites, and just 0.8% viewed all sites in this comparison. 

How to answer qualitative research questions with Similarweb

Similarweb Digital Research Intelligence drastically improves market research efficiency and time to insight. Both of these can impact the bottom line and the pace at which organizations can adapt and flex when markets shift, and rivals change tactics.

Outdated practices, while still useful, take time . And with a quicker, more efficient way to garner similar insights, opting for the fast lane puts you at a competitive advantage.

With a birds-eye view of the actions and behaviors of companies and consumers across a market , you can answer certain research questions without the need to plan, do, and review extensive qualitative market research .

Wrapping up

Qualitative research methods have been around for centuries. From designing the questions to finding the best distribution channels, collecting and analyzing findings takes time to get the insights you need. Similarweb Digital Research Intelligence drastically improves efficiency and time to insight. Both of which impact the bottom line and the pace at which organizations can adapt and flex when markets shift.

Similarweb’s suite of digital intelligence solutions offers unbiased, accurate, honest insights you can trust for analyzing any industry, market, or audience.

• Methodologies used for data collection are robust, transparent, and trustworthy.
• Clear presentation of data via an easy-to-use, intuitive platform.
• It updates dynamically–giving you the freshest data about an industry or market.
• Data is available via an API – so you can plug into platforms like Tableau or PowerBI to streamline your analyses.
• Filter and refine results according to your needs.

Are quantitative or qualitative research questions best?

Both have their place and purpose in market research. Qualitative research questions seek to provide details, whereas quantitative market research gives you numerical statistics that are easier and quicker to analyze. You get more flexibility with qualitative questions, and they’re non-directional.

What are the advantages of qualitative research?

Qualitative research is advantageous because it allows researchers to better understand their subject matter by exploring people’s attitudes, behaviors, and motivations in a particular context. It also allows researchers to uncover new insights that may not have been discovered with quantitative research methods.

What are some of the challenges of qualitative research?

Qualitative research can be time-consuming and costly, typically involving in-depth interviews and focus groups. Additionally, there are challenges associated with the reliability and validity of the collected data, as there is no universal standard for interpreting the results.

Related Posts

From AI to Buy: The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Retail

How to Conduct a Social Media Competitor Analysis: 5 Quick Steps

Industry Research: The Data-Backed Approach

Wondering what similarweb can do for you.

Here are two ways you can get started with Similarweb today!