important event in the history of nepal essay

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Important Events in the History of Nepal

1814-1816: This was the period of the Anglo-Nepalese war, which left Nepal with the small amount of land it has today. This war proved the strength of the Nepalese army, and gave them their independence. (1)

1950: This was the year the Delhi Compromise was reached, which was a collaboration with India to overthrow the Ranas, which were under power. This compromise led to elections in Nepal. (1)

1954: This was the year that the Koshi Tappu wetland was leased to India. This led to an influx of Indian workers, who helped construct a dam in the area, so economic benefits that could have come for an increased need in labor were not given to the Nepali people. They also were restricted by the conversion of this area into a Ramsar site, unable to use a majority of the resources the wetland provided.  (1)

1962: King Mahindra instituted the controversial panchayat system where the King maintained rule but had input from councils. This seemed to go under the new democratic nature of Nepal. (1)

1990: Student led protests forced the government to draft a new constitution, pushing Nepal to a multiparty democracy. There were more than 100 political parties and nongovernmental organizations began to get more involved in advocating for policies. (1)

1996: The Communist Party of Nepal- Maoists (CPN-M) launched the peoples war, which was a civil war that lasted 10 years. (1)

2015: The 7.8 scale earthquake struck Nepal and is estimated to have effected over 8 million people. The results of the earthquake were catastrophic: 8,700 deaths, 22,200 injured, 505,000 homes destroyed. The damages are still being felt two years later as many people are still displaced.

The political history of Nepal is perhaps one of the most interesting; after two centuries of monarchical rule led to violent conflict with a struggle for democracy has led to an increasing amount of human security issues. One of the most important issues out of the few selected was the 10 year civil war led by the Maoist communist party. The resulting damages are comparable to the earthquake, although the earthquake displaced many more people. The impact on human security, which Matthew and Upreti define as “something that is achieved when and where individuals and communities have the options necessary to end, mitigate, or adapt to threats to their human, environmental and social rights; have the capacity and freedom to exercise to these options; and actively participate in pursuing these options” (140). The civil war disrupted social rights, as many schools were destroyed in this violent outbreak, as well as young women (an estimated 12,000) were trafficked. 13,000 people were killed over this ten year period and 200,000 people were displaced (1). The connection between this civil war and impact on the environment is also worth noting, as many rural places specifically were destroyed as a result of the violence. This led to an increase in rural to urban migration, as people were forced to relocate. This influx of people can have an influence on air pollution, as well as energy consumption. It can lead to an increase in informal settlements which put stress on the surrounding environments, in terms of resource management, overconsumption as well as contamination. The effect of the CPN-M is still seen as they have recently held the positions of Prime Minister in Nepal, they did not dissipate with the treaty signed but they in fact gained political sway as they took a majority of the seats. Their focus on social equality however does not seem to align with the violence that was a result of their actions. Yet it seems that the party has gained support as they shed light on class inequalities specifically, and unequal distribution of housing among the wealthy elite and the poor.

As we prepare to travel to Nepal and speak with community members in several different wards, it will be interesting to see if there is any long lasting damage in the community, or to note how the people felt about the overthrow. I also think it will be a challenging thing to ask questions about, and the underlying impacts might not be so obvious. To really assess the way climate change has effected these people, we must also consider political instability that disrupted the national security of Nepal, as well as the individual security of community members.

Works Cited:

(1) Matthew, Richard A, and Bishnu Raj Upreti. “Environmental Change and Human Security in Nepal.”  Global Environmental Change and Human Security Account , The MIT Press, 2010, pp. 137–152.

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Itihasaa: An Encyclopedia of Nepali History

An encyclopedia of nepal.

Itihasaa is an Encyclopedia of Nepali History and the Comprehensive Guide to the broader history of Nepal.

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Itihasaa is a Non-Profit and Free Educational Resource with the mission of sharing Nepal’s Invaluable Heritage with the World.

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Articles (A to Z)

Abhay Malla

Abhaya Malla

Abhiman Singh Basnet

Aditya Malla

Administration of Justice Act 2073

Ananta Malla

Anuparam Gupta

Ashok Challa

Bahadur Shah

Bakhtawar Singh Basnet

Bansaraj Pandey

Bhandarkhal Parva

Bhaskara Malla

Bhaskaradeva

Bhattadhikaran

Bhaum Gupta

Bhim Shumsher

Bhimarjunadeva

Bhimsen Thapa

Bhupalendra Malla

Bhupatindra Malla

Bhuvana Malla

Bintipatra Niksari Adda

Bir Shumsher

Birendra Bir Bikram Shah

Cha Thar Ghar

Chandra Shumsher

Chatra Shah

Civil Rights Act 2012

Commandar-in-Chief

Commercial Treaty of 1792

Conquest of Eastern Nepal

Conquest of Kathamndu Valley

Conquest of Kirtipur

Conquest of Makwanpur

Conquest of Nuwakot

Constitution of Kingdom of Nepal 2015

Constitution of Nepal 2019

Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 2047

Dambar Shah

Damodar Pandey

Dev Shumsher

Dharmadhikara

Dharmadhikari

Dibya Upadesh

Drabya Shah

Early Malla Kings of Nepal

Evidence Act 2031

Fourty-Two (42) Saal Parva

Friendship Treaty of 1801

Ganadeva-II

Ganesh Pande

Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah

Gopal and Mahispal Dynasty

Government Cases Act 2049

Government of Nepal Act 2004

Gunakamadeva

Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah

Hajiri Goshwara

Hajuriya General

Harisimhadeva

Indo Nepal Relations in Lichhavi Dyansty

Indra Malla

Interim Constitution of Nepal 2063

Interim Government of Nepal Act 2007

Intrepretation of Laws Act 2010

Jagajjaya Malla

Jagajyotir Malla

Jagat Prakash Malla

Jangi Lath-Rana Generals

Jayabhimadeva

Jayadeva First

Jayadeva Malla

Jayadeva Second

Jayajyotir Malla

Jayanandadeva

Jayaprakash Malla

Jayarajadeva

Jayari Malla

Jayarjunadeva

Jayarudra Malla

Jayasimha Malla

Jayastithi Malla

 Jayatunga Malla

Jisnu Gupta

Jita and Prana Malla         

Jitamitra Malla

Jitari Malla

Juddha Shumsher

Judicial Council Act 2073

Jung Bahadur Rana

Kalu Pandey

Kausi Tosa Khana

Khadga Nissan Adda

Khas Malla Kings of Nepal

Kings of Bhaktapur

Kings of Gorkha

Kings of Kathmandu

Kings of Patan

Kirtiman Singh Basnet

Krishna Shah

Kumari Chowk Adda

Lakshmikamadeva

Laxminarasimha Malla

Legal Aid Act 2054

Legal System of Gorkha

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Legal System of Lichhavi Dynasty

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Lichhavi Administration

Lichhavi Economy

Lichhavi Kings of Nepal

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Mahasamantas

Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah

Mahendra Malla

Mahindra Malla

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Manadeva II

Manadeva III

Manadeva IV

Manavnyayashastra

Medieval Malla Economy

Medieval Malla Society

Mirmunsi-Rana Figures

Mission of Kirkpatrick 1793

Mohan Shumsher

Muluki Ain 1910

Muluki Bandobasta Adda

Muluki Khana

Munsi Khana

Narasimhadeva

Narbhupal Shah

Narendra Malla

Narendradeva

Naresa Malla

Nepal Law Commission Act 2063

Nrpendra Malla

Padma Shumsher

Parthivendra Malla

Paschimadhikaran

Peace and Friendship Treaty 1950

Police Goshwara

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Pratap Malla

Pratap Singh Shah

Prithvi Bir Bikram Shah

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Prithvi Narayan Shah

Prithvipati Shah

Punya Malla

Purandarasimha

Purvadhikaran

Raghavadeva

Rajalladevi

Rajendra Bikram Shah

Rajendra Laxmi Shah

Rajyaprakash Malla

Ramasimhadeva

Rana Administration

Rana Bahadur Shah

Rana Prime Ministers of Nepal

Ranajita Malla

 Ranodip Singh Kunwar

Ratna Malla

Rddinarasimha Malla

Rise and Origin of Lichhavi Dynasty

Rise and Origin of Malla Dynasty

Rise and Origin of Ranas

Rise and Origin of Shah Dynasty

Sadar Daftar Khana

Sadasiva Malla

Sankaradeva

Sankhar Sakhwa

Sardar-Gorkha

Sarvadandanayak

Shah Kings of Nepal

Shaktisimhadeva

Shankaradeva

Shankaradeva Second

Shivadeva II

Siddhi Narsingh Malla

Sino-Nepal Relations in Lichhavi Dynasty

Sivasimha Malla

Special Court Act 2059

Srinivas Malla

State Cases Act 2017

Sugauli Treaty of 1816 A.D

Sulli/Sholla

Summary Procedure Act 2028

Supreme Court Act 2013

Supreme Court Act 2048

Surendra Bikram Shah

Surya Malla

Taksar and Dhansar

Tej-Narsingh Malla

Thirty-Eight (38) Saal Parva

Trade and Commerce Treaty 1950

Trailokya Malla

Tribhuvan Bir Bikram Shah

Twenty-Six (26) Thithis

Vishnu Gupta

Visnu Malla

Visva Malla

Visvajit Malla

Yaksha Malla

Yoganarendra Malla

Yogaprakasa Malla

Articles (Categories)

Pre-history.

Bhima Gupta

Bhuvana Simha

Bhumi Gupta

Dharma Gupta

Harsa Gupta

Visnu Gupta

Yaksha Gupta

Lichhavi Kings

Origin of Lichhavis

Basantadeva

Ganadeva Second

Manadeva Second

Manadeva Third

Manadeva Fourth

Shivadeva Second

Lichhavi Figures

Sankhadar Sakhwa

Malla Kings

Origin of Mallas

Abhay Malla 

Jayadharma Malla

Malla Figures

Jayatunga Malla

Malla Admnistration

Khas Malla Kingdom

Tirhut kingdom, gorkha kingdom.

Origin of Shahs

Partivendra Malla

Rajyaprakasa Malla

Tej Narsingh Malla

Jita And Prana Malla

Unification of Nepal

Conquest of Kathmandu Valley

Conquest of Nuwakot 

Modern Figures

Rana regime.

Origin of Ranas

Ranoddip Singh Kunwar

Modern Events

Forty Two Saal Parva

Thirty Eight Saal Parva

Nepali Civilization

Indo-nepal relation.

Lichhavi Dynasty

Medieval Nepal

Commercial treaty of 1792

Friendship Treaty of 1923

Knox Mission of 1802

Peace And Friendship Treaty of 1950

Sugauli Treaty of 1816

Trade And Commerce Treaty of 1950

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Civil rights Acts 2012

Constitutional Council Act 2066

Education Act 2028

Federation, Province and Local Level Act 2020

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Political Parties Act 2073

Social Practices Act 2033

State Courts Abolition Act 2017

Constitution

Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 2015

Legal System of Nepal

Gorkha Legal System

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Mululi Ain 1910

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Amali-Amaldar

Dharmadhikara/Dharmakachahari

Commander in Chief

Hajuriya Generals

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Kausi Tosakhana

History of Nepal

Brief History of Nepal From Its Origins to the Present Day

The ancient himalayan kingdom from myth to the republic.

The ancient history of Nepal does not present widely reliable historical documents, and is lost in legend. It is said that in ancient times the Kathmandu valley was a lake : the bodhisattva Manjusri, breaking the ground with a sword stroke, created the Chobar gorge, making its waters drain.

Around the eighth century BC the Kirati (or Kiranti) were the first inhabitants of the valley to give themselves an embryonic social organization. In the 6th century BC, according to traditional chronology, Siddhartha Gautama was born (the historical Buddha) near Lumbini, a city located in the southern part of the country on the border with India: the event is witnessed by a commemorative column erected here in the second century BC by the Indian Buddhist emperor Ashoka of the Maurya dynasty.

In the 4th century AD the territory was invaded by the Lichhavi , who introduced Hinduism and its social system ( Muluki Ain ), together with the subdivision of the population into castes.

From the 9th to the 12th century the Thakuri had supremacy over other ethnic groups, followed in the 13th century by the Malla. At that time Nepal was not a unitary kingdom , but a set of states at war with each other. In the Kathmandu Valley itself there were a few independent city-states, each with its own ruler. The rulers of individual cities were often related by kinship, but on occasion they did not hesitate to declare war on each other. The Malla were great patrons: the majority of the historical and artistic vestiges of the country (particularly in the Kathmandu valley) date back to that period.

Nepalese political unity occurred relatively recently: towards the eighteenth century, the decline of the Malla lineage, we witnessed the affirmation of the Shah, the ruling family until 2007, the year of the abolition of the monarchy. Originally from Gorkha, the Shahs progressively subdued the other local potentates until, during the Indra Jatra festival of 1768 , Prithvi Narayan Shah entered Kathmandu with his army and was crowned the first king of unified Nepal.

The Shahs did not show great interest in art, and compared to the previous period they did not make significant contributions in this field, preferring to devote themselves mostly to the consolidation of political power , war and territorial expansionism. The imperialist ambitions of Nepal also included Tibet: when the latter was attacked, China reacted by defeating the Gorkha army, requiring Nepal to pay an annual tribute.

Tensions with British India resulted in the Anglo-Nepalese war (1815–1816) where Nepal suffered a serious defeat. The Sugauli treaty provided for the transfer of part of the Terai and Sikkim to the British East India Company in exchange for the preservation of autonomy.

On the night of September 14, 1846, an event took place that would influence the political life of the country for over a century. An army officer, Jang Bahadur Kunwar, had several members of the Court and the army murdered while they were gathered in the courtyard of Kot (the “massacre of Kot”). Thanks to this unscrupulous action, to his shrewdness, as well as to the weakness of the legitimate king Rajendra, he managed to centralize power on himself, managing to get himself named Maharaja (“great king”), with a guarantee of transmission of the title to his descendants. Thus a diarchy was created with a monarch deprived of all power, and a hereditary government in the hands of the Rana family (new and prestigious surname adopted by Jang Bahadur).

The Frog Period(1846–1951) presents, in addition to shadows, also lights: they abolished slavery and sati, the Hindu custom of throwing the widow (alive) on the funeral pyre of her deceased husband. They were the first to confront the Europeans: during their rule, neoclassical architecture was introduced in Kathmandu , brought by the British to nearby British India. They are also responsible for the first attempts to modernize the country.

In 1947 the Nepalese Congress party was founded by Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala , inspired by the Indian Congress party. Thanks to this new political force, assisted by the government of India, King Tribhuvanmanaged to escape into exile. Rana prime ministers settled then his grandson Gyanendra, a three-year-old boy. Tribhuvan returned from exile in January 1951 and was recognized by popular acclaim as a legitimate ruler. The last hereditary prime minister, Mohan Shamsher, resigned on November 12, 1951.

In 1955, King Tribhuvan died, and the crown passed to his son Mahendra. He called the first elections in the country’s history , which were held in 1959. Victory went to the Nepalese Congress party, and Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala took over as prime minister.

In 1962 the king, dissatisfied with democracy, declared a ban on political parties and decided to restore the ancient Indian system of panchayats, based on local assemblies. This representative system with a pyramid structure remained in force until 1991, and was characterized by the most complete non-partisanism.

In 1972 Mahendra was succeeded by his son Birendra, who did not want to change the institutional structure of the country. After the escalation of violence and popular protest, he was forced to hold a referendum on the current political system in 1981 : a weak majority still spoke out for the maintenance of the panchayat.

In 1990, in an atmosphere of open revolt ( Jana Andolan, that is, popular movement), the king declared the old system fallen, and set about assuming the role of constitutional sovereign.

In the decade 1991–2001 there was a succession of coalition governments without sufficiently strong majorities, and generally without a specific political orientation. In 1996, after an ultimatum, the Nepalese Maoist Communist Party started the guerrilla activity against the government and the monarchy, which was destined to last for a decade.

On 1 June 2001, Crown Prince Dipendra carried out a massacre in the royal palaceas a response to his parents’ refusal to accept the bride of his choice. Dipendra killed his father Birendra and his mother Aishwarya along with a dozen other relatives, then turned the weapon against himself, but did not die on the spot. Despite being in a coma, he was still the crown prince, and was proclaimed king on the hospital bed. He died a few days later and, on June 4, 2001, Uncle Gyanendra, Birendra’s brother, was installed for the second time (the first was from November 1950 to January 1951).

On February 1, 2005, King Gyanendra dismissed the current government led by Sher Bahadur Deuba, declaring a state of emergency, assuming executive power and appointing a council of ministers of his strict confidence.

In the spring of 2006, the second general mobilization for democracy in the history of the country broke out ( Loktantra Andolan, ie the democratic movement, or Jana Andolan II ). On April 21, after a week of uninterrupted mass marches, King Gyanendra renounced absolute power and called on the seven opposition parties to designate a new prime minister. The choice fell on the elderly leader Girija Prasad Koirala, who was sworn in on April 30, 2006. On the same day, Parliament met for the first time since 2002, unanimously approving Koirala’s proposal for the election of a Constituent Assembly.

The Maoists, in fact winners of the civil war against the monarchy, thus entered Parliament, starting a path of disarmament, which however was not accepted by a splinter fringe, intent on fighting for the independence of southern Nepal. In 2007, 150 UN officials arrived (soldiers or ex-military) who had the task of verifying the disarmament of the Maoists. The peace process continued slowly but without violence.

On 24 December 2007, the seven main parties, including the former Maoist rebels and the ruling parties, reached an agreement on the abolition of the monarchy: on 28 December of the same year the transition to the Federal Democratic Republic was approved. The first free elections after nine years took place on 10 April 2008, sanctioning the clear victory of the Maoist party with 220 seats out of 601. On May 28, 2008 the Republic was proclaimed.

On April 25, 2015, a disastrous earthquake, of magnitude greater than 7th, occurred, which claimed many thousands of victims, causing the destruction of numerous cultural heritage sites of UNESCO .

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Culture and Traditions of Nepal: A Journey Through the Heart of Nepalese Heritage

Article 12 Feb 2023 3467 0

Nepal is a country steeped in rich cultural heritage and traditions. With a unique blend of Hindu and Buddhist influences, Nepalese culture is a vibrant and colorful tapestry of festivals, customs, music, and art. In this article, we'll explore the diverse cultural landscape of Nepal, from its religious roots to the unique traditions of its ethnic groups.

A Brief History of Nepal and its Cultural Influences

Nepal has a long and storied history, with influences from Hindu and Buddhist cultures and the presence of various ethnic groups. The country was ruled by a Hindu monarchy until the late 18th century, when it became a Hindu state. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Buddhism gained popularity, and today both religions coexist in Nepal. This fusion of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs and practices has shaped the country's culture and traditions.

Nepal is a landlocked country located in South Asia and is bordered by India and Tibet (China). Its history is rich and diverse, with cultural influences from the Hindu and Buddhist religions. The country has been ruled by various dynasties and kingdoms throughout its history, and its culture has been shaped by these influences as well as by its geographic location and contact with neighboring countries.

The earliest inhabitants of Nepal were likely animist tribes who worshipped nature and natural elements. Over time, Hinduism and Buddhism were introduced to the country, and these religions have played a major role in shaping its culture and traditions. Nepal was officially declared a Hindu kingdom in the 19th century, but the influence of Buddhism has remained strong, particularly in the northern regions of the country.

Today, Nepal is a diverse country with many different ethnic and cultural groups, each with its own unique customs and traditions. Despite this diversity, there is a strong sense of national identity in Nepal, and its people take great pride in their cultural heritage.

Overview of the Major Religions in Nepal and Their Impact on the Country's Culture and Traditions

The majority of Nepalese people practice Hinduism, and it is the dominant religion in the country. Hinduism has had a profound impact on Nepalese culture and traditions, with many customs, festivals, and rituals being rooted in this religion. The festivals of Dashain and Tihar, for example, are celebrated by Hindus in Nepal and are closely tied to Hindu mythology.

Buddhism is also widely practiced in Nepal, particularly in the northern regions of the country. The Kathmandu Valley is home to many Buddhist monasteries, and the Stupa of Swayambhunath is one of the most important Buddhist pilgrimage sites in the world. Buddhism has influenced Nepalese culture in many ways, including the traditional art and architecture of the country.

Traditional Festivals and Celebrations

Nepal is a country with many colorful and vibrant traditional festivals and celebrations. Some of the most important and widely celebrated festivals include:

• Dashain: Dashain is the biggest and most important festival in Nepal and is celebrated by Hindus across the country. The festival celebrates the victory of good over evil and is marked by feasting, dancing, and the exchange of gifts. The festival lasts for 15 days, and families come together to participate in the celebrations.
• Tihar: Tihar is another major festival in Nepal, and it is also celebrated by Hindus. The festival is also known as the Festival of Lights, and it is marked by the lighting of oil lamps and the decoration of homes with flowers and other decorations. During the festival, families come together to offer prayers, sing songs, and exchange gifts.
• Holi: Holi is a spring festival that is celebrated by Hindus and is known as the Festival of Colors. The festival is marked by the throwing of colored powders and the singing of traditional songs. Holi is a time of joy and celebration and is a time when people put aside their differences and come together to celebrate.
• Gai Jatra: Gai Jatra is a traditional festival that is celebrated by the Newar community in Kathmandu. The festival is a time of celebration and remembrance, and it involves the procession of people dressed in cow costumes. The festival is believed to bring comfort to the families of those who have died in the previous year.

These are just a few of the many traditional festivals and celebrations that take place in Nepal. Each festival has its own unique customs and traditions, and they serve as an important part of the country's cultural heritage.

Unique Customs and Traditions of the Ethnic Groups in Nepal

Nepal is home to a rich tapestry of ethnic groups, each with their own unique customs and traditions. These ethnic groups are an important part of Nepalese culture and contribute to the country's diverse heritage.

• Gurungs: The Gurungs are an ethnic group native to the western region of Nepal and are known for their hospitality and bravery. They have a rich tradition of music and dance and are famous for the Ghantu dance, which is performed during festivals and celebrations. The Gurungs are also known for their traditional woven textiles and handicrafts, which are popular among tourists visiting Nepal.
• Tamangs: The Tamangs are an ethnic group native to the central region of Nepal and are known for their rich cultural heritage. They have a tradition of storytelling, passed down from generation to generation, and are famous for their unique instruments like the Madal drum. The Tamangs also have a rich tradition of metalwork, including the creation of traditional knives and other tools.
• Newars: The Newars are an ethnic group native to the Kathmandu Valley and are known for their elaborate wood carvings, metalwork, and traditional festivals. The Newars have a rich history, dating back to the time of the ancient kingdoms in the Kathmandu Valley, and are known for their distinctive architecture and art. The Newars are also famous for their traditional food, which is a fusion of Nepalese, Tibetan, and Indian cuisine.

The customs and traditions of each of these ethnic groups add to the rich cultural heritage of Nepal and provide a unique insight into the country's diverse history. From the traditional music and dance of the Gurungs to the intricate wood carvings of the Newars, each ethnic group offers a unique glimpse into the customs and traditions of Nepal.

An examination of how modern Nepalese society is impacting traditional cultural practices

With the advancement of technology and globalization, modern Nepalese society has brought about changes to traditional cultural practices. The younger generation is becoming more westernized, and traditional customs and beliefs are slowly being replaced by modern ideas. For instance, the younger generation is more likely to celebrate Western holidays like Christmas, rather than traditional festivals like Dashain and Tihar.

Additionally, with the rise of urbanization, many rural Nepalese are moving to cities, and as a result, traditional practices are being lost. Many of the younger generation do not have access to or the opportunity to learn traditional practices from their elders. The influence of modern society has also led to a decline in traditional crafts like wood carving and metalwork.

However, the Nepalese government and cultural organizations are taking steps to preserve and promote traditional cultural practices. The preservation of cultural heritage is seen as an important aspect of Nepalese identity and is necessary for the continuation of traditional practices.

"Nepal has a rich cultural heritage that has been passed down from generation to generation. It is our responsibility to preserve and promote these traditions so that they can continue to be a part of our identity," says a cultural expert from Nepal.

Preservation and promotion of Nepalese culture and traditions

The preservation and promotion of Nepalese culture and traditions are crucial for ensuring the longevity and relevance of this rich cultural heritage. There are several organizations and initiatives aimed at promoting Nepalese culture and traditions, both domestically and internationally.

For instance, the National Museum of Nepal, located in Kathmandu, serves as a hub for showcasing the country's cultural heritage through its exhibits and cultural programs. The museum works to preserve traditional Nepalese artifacts and promote the country's cultural heritage to both domestic and international audiences.

Similarly, the Nepalese government, along with local communities, have been working to preserve traditional festivals and celebrations. For example, the Gai Jatra festival in Kathmandu has been officially recognized as an important cultural event and is protected by the government, ensuring its continuation for future generations.

In addition to these efforts, cultural exchange programs have been established between Nepal and other countries, promoting the country's unique traditions and customs globally. The Gurkha Museum in Winchester, England, for example, showcases the cultural heritage of the Gurkha soldiers and their contributions to the British Army.

Moreover, there are numerous non-government organizations that are working to preserve and promote the cultural heritage of Nepal. These organizations aim to raise awareness about Nepalese culture and traditions, particularly among the younger generation, to ensure that these customs and traditions continue to be passed down from one generation to the next.

In conclusion, Nepal is a country with a rich and diverse cultural heritage that is shaped by its history, religion, and traditions. From the elaborate wood carvings of the Newars to the traditional festivals and celebrations of Dashain, Tihar, and Holi, Nepalese culture is a tapestry of fascinating customs, practices, and art forms. With a focus on preservation and promotion, Nepalese culture will continue to thrive and provide a unique and rich experience for future generations.

"Nepalese culture is like a treasure trove, with something new to discover at every turn. It is our duty to preserve and promote it, so that future generations can experience and appreciate its richness and diversity," says cultural historian, Dr. Bhagat Singh.

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• Culture of Nepal

Culture Name

Alternative name, orientation.

Identification. Nepal is named for the Kathmandu Valley, where the nation's founder established a capital in the late eighteenth century. Nepali culture represents a fusion of Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Mongolian influences, the result of a long history of migration, conquest, and trade.

Location and Geography. Nepal is a roughly rectangular country with an area of 147,181 square miles (381,200 square kilometers). To the south, west, and east it is bordered by Indian states; to the north lies Tibet. Nepal is home to the Himalayan Mountains, including Mount Everest. From the summit of Everest, the topography plunges to just above sea level at the Gangetic Plain on the southern border. This drop divides the country into three horizontal zones: the high mountains, the lush central hills, and the flat, arid Terai region in the south. Fast-moving, snow-fed rivers cut through the hills and mountains from north to south, carving deep valleys and steep ridges. The rugged topography has created numerous ecological niches to which different ethnic groups have adapted. Although trade has brought distinct ethnic groups into contact, the geography has created diversity in language and subsistence practices. The result is a country with over thirty-six ethnic groups and over fifty languages.

Demography. The population in 1997 was just over 22.6 million. Although infant mortality rates are extremely high, fertility rates are higher. High birth rates in rural areas have led to land shortages, forcing immigration to the Terai, where farmland is more plentiful, and to urban areas, where jobs are available. Migration into cities has led to over-crowding and pollution. The Kathmandu Valley has a population of approximately 700,000.

Linguistic Affiliation. After conquering much of the territory that constitutes modern Nepal, King Prithvi Narayan Shah (1743–1775) established Gorkhali (Nepali) as the national language. Nepali is an Indo-European language derived from Sanskrit with which it shares and most residents speak at least some Nepali, which is the medium of government, education, and most radio and television broadcasts. For many people Nepali is secondary to the language of their ethnic group or region. This situation puts certain groups at a disadvantage in terms of education and civil service positions. Since the institution of a multiparty democracy in 1990, linguistic issues have emerged as hotly debated topics.

Symbolism. The culture has many symbols from Hindu and Buddhist sources. Auspicious signs, including the ancient Hindu swastika and Shiva's trident, decorate buses, trucks, and walls. Other significant symbols are the emblems (tree, plow, sun) used to designate political parties.

Prominent among symbols for the nation as a whole are the national flower and bird, the rhododendron and danfe; the flag; the plumed crown worn by the kings; and the crossed kukhris (curved knives) of the Gurkhas, mercenary regiments that have fought for the British Army in a number of wars. Images of the current monarch and the royal family are displayed in many homes and places of business. In nationalistic rhetoric the metaphor of a garden with many different kinds of flowers is used to symbolize national unity amid cultural diversity.

History and Ethnic Relations

The birth of the nation is dated to Prithvi Narayan Shah's conquest of the Kathmandu Valley kingdoms in 1768. The expansionist reigns of Shah and his successors carved out a territory twice the size of modern Nepal. However, territorial clashes with the Chinese in the late eighteenth century and the British in the early nineteenth century pushed the borders back to their current configuration.

National Identity. To unify a geographically and culturally divided land, Shah perpetuated the culture and language of high-caste Hindus and instituted a social hierarchy in which non-Hindus as well as Hindus were ranked according to caste-based principles. Caste laws were further articulated in the National Code of 1854.

By privileging the language and culture of high-caste Hindus, the state has marginalized non-Hindu and low-caste groups. Resentment in recent years has led to the organization of ethnopolitical parties, agitation for minority rights, and talk about the formation of a separate state for Mongolian ethnic groups.

Despite ethnic unrest, Nepalis have a strong sense of national identity and pride. Sacred Hindu and Buddhist sites and the spectacular mountains draw tourists and pilgrims and give citizens a sense of importance in the world. Other natural resources, such as rivers and flora and fauna are a source of national pride.

Hindu castes and Buddhist and animist ethnic groups were historically collapsed into a single caste hierarchy. At the top are high-caste Hindus. Below them are alcohol-drinking ( matwali ) castes, which include Mongolian ethnic groups. At the bottom are untouchable Hindu castes that have traditionally performed occupations considered defiling by higher castes. The Newars of the Kathmandu Valley have a caste system that has been absorbed into the national caste hierarchy.

Historically, members of the highest castes have owned the majority of land and enjoyed the greatest political and economic privileges. Members of lower castes have been excluded from political representation and economic opportunities. The untouchable castes were not permitted to own land, and their civil liberties were circumscribed by law. Caste discrimination is officially illegal but has not disappeared. In 1991, 80 percent of positions in the civil service, army, and police were occupied by members of the two highest castes.

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space

Nepal historically was one of the least urbanized countries in the world, but urbanization is accelerating, especially in the capital, and urban sprawl and pollution have become serious problems. Kathmandu and the neighboring cities of Patan and Bhaktapur are known for pagoda-style and shikhara temples, Buddhist stupas, palaces, and multistory brick houses with elaborately carved wooden door frames and screened windows. Although the largest and most famous buildings are well maintained, many smaller temples and older residential buildings are falling into disrepair.

At the height of British rule in India, the Rana rulers incorporated Western architectural styles into palaces and public buildings. Rana palaces convey a sense of grandeur and clear separation from the peasantry. The current king's palace's scale and fortress-like quality illustrate the distance between king and commoner.

Rural architecture is generally very simple, reflecting the building styles of different caste and ethnic groups, the materials available, and the climate. Rural houses generally have one or two stories and are made of mud brick with a thatched roof. Village houses tend to be clustered in river valleys or along ridge tops.

Food and Economy

Food in Daily Life. Many Nepalis do not feel that they have eaten a real meal unless it has included a sizable helping of rice. Most residents eat a large rice meal twice a day, usually at midmorning and in the early evening. Rice generally is served with dal, a lentil dish, and tarkari, a cooked vegetable. Often, the meal includes a pickle achar, made of a fruit or vegetable. In poorer and higher-altitude areas, where rice is scarce, the staple is dhiro, a thick mush made of corn or millet. In areas where wheat is plentiful, rice may be supplemented by flat bread, roti. Most families eat from individual plates while seated on the floor. Though some urbanites use Western utensils, it is more common to eat with the hands.

Conventions regarding eating and drinking are tied to caste. Orthodox high-caste Hindus are strictly vegetarian and do not drink alcohol. Other castes may drink alcohol and eat pork and even beef. Traditionally, caste rules also dictate who may eat with or accept food from whom. Members of the higher castes were particularly reluctant to eat food prepared by strangers. Consequently, eating out has not been a major part of the culture. However, caste rules are relaxing to suit the modern world, and the tourist economy is making restaurants a common feature of urban life.

Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. At weddings and other important life-cycle events, feasts are generally hosted by the families directly involved, and numerous guests are invited. At such occasions, it is customary to seat guests on woven grass mats on the ground outside one's home, often in lines separating castes and honoring people of high status. Food is served on leaf plates, which can be easily disposed of. These customs, however, like most others, vary by caste-ethnic groups, and are changing rapidly to suit modern tastes.

Basic Economy. The large majority of the people are subsistence farmers who grow rice, maize, millet, barley, wheat, and vegetables. At low altitudes, agriculture is the principal means of subsistence, while at higher altitudes agropastoralism prevails. Many households maintain chickens and goats. However, few families own more than a small number of cows, water buffalo, or yaks because the mountainous topography does not provide grazing land for large animals.

Nepal is one of the poorest countries in the world. This poverty can be attributed to scarce natural resources, a difficult terrain, landlocked geography, and a weak infrastructure but also to feudal land tenure systems, government corruption, and the ineffectiveness of development efforts. Foreign aid rarely goes to the neediest sectors of the population but is concentrate in urban areas, providing jobs for the urban middle class. The name of the national currency is rupee.

Land Tenure and Property. Historically, a handful of landlords held most agricultural land. Civil servants often were paid in land grants, governing their land on an absentee basis and collecting taxes from tenant-farming peasants. Since the 1950s, efforts have been made to protect the rights of tenants, but without the redistribution of land.

Overpopulation has exacerbated land shortages. Nearly every acre of arable land has been farmed intensively. Deforestation for wood and animal fodder has created serious erosion.

Commercial Activities. The majority of commercial activity takes place at small, family-owned shops or in the stalls of sidewalk vendors. With the exception of locally grown fruits and vegetables, many products are imported from India and, to a lesser extent, China and the West. Jute, sugar, cigarettes, beer, matches, shoes, chemicals, cement, and bricks are produced locally. Carpet and garment manufacturing has increased significantly, providing foreign exchange. Since the late 1950s, tourism has increased rapidly; trekking, mountaineering, white-water rafting, and canoeing have drawn tourists from the West and other parts of Asia. The tourism industry has sparked the commercial production of crafts and souvenirs and created a number of service positions, such as trekking guides and porters. Tourism also has fueled the black market, where drugs are sold and foreign currency is exchanged.

Major Industries. There was no industrial development until the middle of the twentieth century. Much of earliest industrial development was accomplished with the help of private entrepreneurs from India and foreign aid from the Soviet Union, China, and the West. Early development focused on the use of jute, sugar, and tea; modern industries include the manufacturing of brick, tile, and construction materials; paper making; grain processing; vegetable oil extraction; sugar refining; and the brewing of beer.

Trade. Nepal is heavily dependent on trade from India and China. The large majority of imported goods pass through India. Transportation of goods is limited by the terrain. Although roads connect many major commercial centers, in much of the country goods are transported by porters and pack animals. The few roads are difficult to maintain and subject to landslides and flooding. Railroads in the southern flatlands connect many Terai cities to commercial centers in India but do not extend into the hills. Nepal's export goods include carpets, clothing, leather goods, jute, and grain. Tourism is another primary export commodity. Imports include gold, machinery and equipment, petroleum products, and fertilizers.

Division of Labor. Historically, caste was loosely correlated with occupational specialization. Tailors, smiths, and cobblers were the lowest, untouchable castes, and priests and warriors were the two highest Hindu castes. However, the large majority of people are farmers, an occupation that is not caste-specific.

Social Stratification

Classes and Castes. Historically, caste and class status paralleled each other, with the highest castes having the most land, capital, and political influence. The lowest castes could not own property or receive an education. Although caste distinctions are no longer supported by law, caste relations have shaped present-day social stratification: Untouchables continue to be the poorest sector of society, while the upper castes tend to be wealthy and politically dominant. While land is still the principal measure of wealth, some castes that specialize in trade and commerce have fared better under modern capitalism than have landowning castes. Changes in the economic and political system have opened some opportunities for members of historically disadvantaged castes.

Political Life

Government. The Shah dynasty has ruled the country since its unification, except during the Rana period from the mid-nineteenth to the mid-twentieth century. During the Rana administration, the Shah monarchs were stripped of power and the country was ruled by a series of prime ministers from the Rana noble family. In 1950, the Shah kings were restored to the throne and a constitutional monarchy was established that eventually took the form of the panchayat system. Under this system, political parties were illegal and the country was governed by local and national assemblies controlled by the palace. In 1990, the Movement for the Restoration of Democracy (People's Movement) initiated a series of popular demonstrations for democratic reforms, eventually forcing the king to abolish the panchayat system and institute a multiparty democracy.

The country is divided administratively into fourteen zones and seventy-five districts. Local and district-level administers answer to national ministries that are guided by policies set by a bicameral legislature made up of a House of Representatives and a National Council. The majority party in the House of Representatives appoints the prime minister. The executive branch consists of the king and the Council of Ministers.

Leadership and Political Officials. The government is plagued by corruption, and officials often rely on bribes to supplement their income. It is widely believed that influence and employment in government are achieved through personal and family connections. The king is viewed with ambivalence. He and his family have been criticized for corruption and political repression, but photos of the royal family are a popular symbol of national identity and many people think of the king as the living embodiment of the nation and an avatar of the god Vishnu.

Social Problems and Control. International attention has focused on the plight of girls who have been lured or abducted from villages to work as prostitutes in Indian cities and child laborers in carpet factories. Prostitution has increased the spread of AIDS. Foreign boycotts of Nepali carpets have helped curb the use of child labor but have not addressed the larger social problems that force children to become family wage earners.

Military Activity. The military is small and poorly equipped. Its primary purpose is to reinforce the police in maintaining domestic stability. Some Royal Nepal Army personnel have served in United Nations peacekeeping forces. A number of Nepalis, particularly of the hill ethnic groups, have served in Gurkha regiments. To many villagers, service in the British Army represents a significant economic opportunity, and in some areas soldiers' remittances support the local economy.

Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

Aid organizations are involved in health care, family planning, community development, literacy, women's rights, and economic development for low castes and tribal groups. However, many projects are initiated without an understanding of the physical and cultural environment and serve the interests of foreign companies and local elites.

Gender Roles and Statuses

Division of Labor by Gender. Only men plow, while fetching water is generally considered women's work. Women cook, care for children, wash clothes, and collect firewood and fodder. Men perform the heavier agricultural tasks and often engage in trade, portering, and other work outside the village. Both men and women perform physically demanding labor, but women tend to work longer hours, have less free time, and die younger. In urban areas, men are far more likely to work outside the home. Increasingly, educational opportunities are available to both men and women, and there are women in professional positions. Women also frequently work in family businesses as shopkeepers and seamstresses.

Children and older people are a valuable source of household labor. In rural families, young children collect firewood, mind animals, and watch younger children. Older people may serve on village councils. In urban areas and larger towns, children attend school; rural children may or may not, depending on the proximity of schools, the availability of teachers, and the work required of them at home.

The Relative Status of Women and Men. Women often describe themselves as "the lower caste" in relation to men and generally occupy a subordinate social position. However, the freedoms and opportunities available to women vary widely by ethnic group and caste. Women of the highest castes have their public mobility constrained, for their reputation is critical to family and caste honor. Women of lower castes and classes often play a larger wage-earning role, have greater mobility, and are more outspoken around men. Gender roles are slowly shifting in urban areas, where greater numbers of women are receiving an education and joining the work force.

Marriage, Family, and Kinship

Hindu castes do not generally approve of cross-cousin marriage, which is preferred among some Mongolian ethnic groups. Among some groups, a brideprice substitutes for a dowry. In others, clan exogamy is an important feature of marriages. Until recently, polygyny was legal and relatively common. Now it is illegal and found only in the older generation and in remote areas. Child marriages were considered especially auspicious, and while they continue to be practiced in rural areas, they are now prohibited by law. Love marriage is gaining in popularity in the cities, where romantic films and music inform popular sentiment and the economy offers younger people economic independence from the extended family.

Domestic Unit. Among landholding Hindu castes, a high value is placed on joint family arrangements in which the sons of a household, along with their parents, wives, and children, live together, sharing resources and expenses. Within the household, the old have authority over the young, and men over women. Typically, new daughters-in-law occupy the lowest position. Until a new bride has produced children, she is subject to the hardest work and often the harshest criticism in her husband's household. Older women, often wield a great deal of influence within the household.

The emphasis in joint families is on filial loyalty and agnatic solidarity over individualism. In urban areas, an increasing number of couples are opting for nuclear family arrangements.

Inheritance. Fathers are legally obligated to leave equal portions of land to each son. Daughters do not inherit paternal property unless they remain unmarried past age thirty-five. Although ideally sons manage their father's land together as part of a joint family, familial land tends to be divided, with holdings diminishing in every generation.

Kin Groups. Patrilineal kin groups form the nucleus of households, function as corporate units, and determine inheritance patterns. A man belongs permanently to the kinship group of his father, while a woman changes membership from her natal kin group to the kin group of her husband at the time of marriage. Because family connections are critical in providing access to political influence and economic opportunities, marriage alliances are planned carefully to expand kinship networks and strengthen social ties. Although women join the husband's household, they maintain emotional ties and contact with their families. If a woman is mistreated in her husband's household, she may escape to her father's house or receive support from her male kin. Consequently, women often prefer to marry men from the same villages.

Socialization

Infant Care. Infants are carried on the mothers' back, held by a shawl tied tightly across her chest. Babies are breast-fed on demand, and sleep with their mothers until they are displaced by a new baby or are old enough to share a bed with siblings. Infants and small children often wear amulets and bracelets to protect them from supernatural forces. Parents sometimes line a baby's eyes with kohl to prevent eye infections.

Child Rearing and Education. Mothers are the primary providers of child care, but children also are cared for and socialized by older siblings, cousins, and grandparents. Often children as young as five or six mind younger children. Neighbors are entitled to cuddle, instruct, and discipline children, who are in turn expected to obey and defer to senior members of the family and community. Children address their elders by using the honorific form of Nepali, while adults speak to children using more familiar language. Because authority in households depends on seniority, the relative ages of siblings is important and children are often addressed by birth order.

Certain household rituals mark key stages in child's development, including the first taste of rice and the first haircut. When a girl reaches puberty, she goes through a period of seclusion in which she is prohibited from seeing male family members. Although she may receive special foods and is not expected to work, the experience is an acknowledgment of the pollution associated with female sexuality and reproductivity.

From an early age, children are expected to contribute labor to the household. The law entitles both girls and boys to schooling; however, if a family needs help at home or cannot spare the money for uniforms, books, and school fees, only the sons are sent to school. It is believed that education is wasted on girls, who will marry and take their wage-earning abilities to another household. Boys marry and stay at home, and their education is considered a wise investment.

The customary greeting is to press one's palms together in front of the chest and say namaste ("I greet the god within you"). Men in urban areas have adopted the custom of shaking hands. In the mainstream culture, physical contact between the sexes is not appropriate in public. Although men may be openly affectionate with men and women with women, even married couples do not demonstrate physical affection in public. Some ethnic groups permit more open contact between the sexes.

Hospitality is essential. Guests are always offered food and are not permitted to help with food preparation or cleaning after a meal. It is polite to eat with only the right hand; the hand used to eat food must not touch anything else until it has been thoroughly washed, for saliva is considered defiling. When drinking from a common water vessel, people do not touch the rim to their lips. It is insulting to hit someone with a shoe or sandal, point the soles of one's feet at someone, and step over a person.

Religious Beliefs. Eighty-six percent of Nepalis are Hindus, 8 percent are Buddhists, 4 percent are Muslims, and just over 1 percent are Christians. On a day-to-day level, Hindus practice their religion by "doing puja, " making offerings and prayers to particular deities. While certain days and occasions are designated as auspicious, this form of worship can be performed at any time.

Buddhism is practiced in the Theravadan form. There are two primary Buddhist traditions: the Buddhism of Tibetan refugees and high-altitude ethnic groups with cultural roots in Tibet and the Tantric form practiced by Newars.

There is a strong animistic and shamanic tradition. Belief in ghosts, spirits, and witchcraft is widespread, especially in rural areas. Spiteful witches, hungry ghosts, and angry spirits are thought to inflict illness and misfortune. Shamans mediate between the human and supernatural realms to discover the cause of illness and recommend treatment.

Religious Practitioners. Many forms of Hindu worship do not require the mediation of a priest. At key rites of passage such as weddings and funerals, Brahmin priests read Vedic scriptures and ensure the correct performance of rituals. At temples, priests care for religious icons, which are believed to contain the essence of the deities they represent. They are responsible for ensuring the purity of the temple and overseeing elaborate pujas.

Buddhist monasteries train young initiates in philosophy and meditation. Lay followers gain religious merit by making financial contributions to monasteries, where religious rites are performed on behalf of the general population. Within Buddhism there is a clerical hierarchy, with highly esteemed lamas occupying the positions of greatest influence. Monks and nuns of all ranks shave their heads, wear maroon robes, and embrace a life of celibacy and religious observance.

Rituals and Holy Places. Nepal occupies a special place in both Hindu and Buddhist traditions. According to Hindu mythology, the Himalayas are the abode of the gods, and are specifically associated with Shiva, one of the three principal Hindu deities. Pashupatinath, a large Shiva temple in Kathmandu, is among the holiest sites in Nepal and attracts Hindu pilgrims from all over South Asia. Pashupatinath is only one of thousands of temples and shrines scattered throughout Nepal, however. In the Kathmandu Valley alone, there are hundreds of such shrines, large and small, in which the major gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon, as well as local and minor divinities, are worshiped. Many of these shrines are constructed near rivers or at the base of pipal trees, which are themselves considered sacred. For Buddhists, Nepal is significant as the birthplace of Lord Buddha. It is also home to a number of important Buddhist monasteries and supas, including Boudha and Swayambhu, whose domeshaped architecture and painted all-seeing eyes have become symbols of the Kathamandu Valley.

Death and the Afterlife. Hindus and Buddhists believe in reincarnation. An individual's meritorious actions in life will grant him or her a higher rebirth. In both religions the immediate goal is to live virtuously in order to move progressively through higher births and higher states of consciousness. Ultimately, the goal is to attain enlightenment, stopping the cycle of rebirth.

In the Hindu tradition, the dead are cremated, preferably on the banks of a river. It is customary for a son to perform the funeral rites. Some Buddhists also cremate bodies. Others perform what are called "sky burials," in which corpses are cut up and left at sacred sites for vultures to carry away.

Medicine and Health Care

Infant mortality is high, respiratory and intestinal diseases are endemic, and malnutrition is widespread in a country where life expectancy is fifty-seven years. Contributing to this situation are poverty, poor hygiene, and lack of health care. There are hospitals only in urban areas, and they are poorly equipped and unhygienic. Rural health clinics often lack personnel, equipment, and medicines. Western biomedical practices have social prestige, but many poor people cannot afford this type of health care. Many people consult shamans and other religious practitioners. Others look to Ayurvedic medicine, in which illness is thought to be caused by imbalances in the bodily humors. Treatment involves correcting these imbalances, principally through diet. Nepalis combine Ayurvedic, shamanic, biomedical, and other systems.

Although health conditions are poor, malaria has been eradicated. Development efforts have focused on immunization, birth control, and basic medical care. However, the success of all such projects seems to correlate with the education levels of women, which are extremely low.

The Arts and Humanities

Graphic Arts. Much of Nepali art is religious. Newari artisans create cast-bronze statuary of Buddhist and Hindu deities as well as intricately painted tangkas that describe Buddhist cosmology. The creation and contemplation of such art constitutes a religious act.

Performance Arts. Dramatic productions often focus on religious themes drawn from Hindu epics, although political satire and other comedic forms are also popular. There is a rich musical heritage, with a number of distinctive instruments and vocal styles, and music has become an marker of identity for the younger generation. Older people prefer folk and religious music; younger people, especially in urban areas, are attracted to romantic and experimental film music as well as fusions of Western and Asian genres.

The State of the Physical and Social Sciences

Universities are underfunded, faculties are poorly paid, and library resources are meager. Nepalis accord less respect to degrees from universities than to degrees obtained abroad and many scholars seek opportunities to study overseas or in India. Despite these limitations, some fine scholarship has emerged, particularly in the social sciences. In the post-1990 period, political reforms have permitted a more open and critical intellectual environment.

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Vinding, Michael. "Making a Living in the Nepal Himalayas: The Case of the Thakali of Mustang District." Contributions to Nepalese Studies 12 (1): 51–105, 1984.

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History Of Nepal

Records mention the Gopalas and Mahishapalas believed to have been the earliest rulers with their capital at Matatirtha, the south-west corner of the Kathmandu Valley. From the 7th or 8th Century B.C. the Kirantis are said to have ruled the valley. Their famous King Yalumber is even mentioned in the epic, ‘Mahabharat’. Around 300 A.D. the Lichhavis arrived from northern India and overthrew the Kirantis. One of the legacies of the Lichhavis is the Changu Narayan Temple near Bhaktapur, a UNESCO World Heritage Site (Culture), which dates back to the 5th Century. In the early 7th Century, Amshuvarma, the first Thakuri king took over the throne from his father-in-law who was a Lichhavi. He married off his daughter Bhrikuti to the famous Tibetan King Tsong Tsen Gampo thus establishing good relations with Tibet. The Lichhavis brought art and architecture to the valley but the golden age of creativity arrived in 1200 A.D with the Mallas.

During their 550 year rule, the Mallas built numerous temples and splendid palaces with picturesque squares. It was also during their rule that society and the cities became well organized; religious festivals were introduced and literature, music and art were encouraged. After the death of Yaksha Malla, the valley was divided into three kingdoms: Kathmandu (Kantipur), Bhaktapur (Bhadgaon) and Patan (Lalitpur). Around this time, the Nepal as we know it today was divided into about 46 independent principalities. One among these was the kingdom of Gorkha with a Shah ruler. Much of Kathmandu Valley’s history around this time was recorded by Capuchin friars who lived in the valley on their way in and out of Tibet.

An ambitious Gorkha King named Prithvi Narayan Shah embarked on a conquering mission that led to the defeat of all the kingdoms in the valley (including Kirtipur which was an independent state) by 1769. Instead of annexing the newly acquired states to his kingdom of Gorkha, Prithvi Narayan decided to move his capital to Kathmandu establishing the Shah dynasty which ruled unified Nepal from 1769 to 2008.

The history of the Gorkha state goes back to 1559 when Dravya Shah established a kingdom in an area chiefly inhabited by Magars. During the 17th and early 18thcenturies, Gorkha continued a slow expansion, conquering various states while forging alliances with others. Prithvi Narayan dedicated himself at an early age to the conquest of the Kathmandu Valley. Recognizing the threat of the British Raj in India, he dismissed European missionaries from the country and for more than a century, Nepal remained in isolation.

During the mid-19th Century Jung Bahadur Rana became Nepal’s first prime minister to wield absolute power relegating the Shah king to mere figureheads. He started a hereditary reign of the Rana Prime Ministers that lasted for 104 years. The Ranas were overthrown in a democracy movement of the early 1950s with support from the-then monarch of Nepal, King Tribhuvan. Soon after the overthrow of the Ranas, King Tribhuvan was reinstated as the Head of the State. In early 1959, Tribhuvan’s son King Mahendra issued a new constitution, and the first democratic elections for a national assembly were held. The Nepali Congress Party was victorious and their leader, Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala formed a government and served as prime minister. But by 1960, King Mahendra had changed his mind and dissolved Parliament, dismissing the first democratic government.

After many years of struggle when the political parties were banned, they finally mustered enough courage to start a People’s Movement in 1990. Paving way for democracy, the then-King Birendra accepted constitutional reforms and established a multiparty parliament with King as the Head of State and an executive Prime Minister. In May 1991, Nepal held its first parliamentary elections. In February 1996, the Maoist parties declared People’s War against monarchy and the elected government.

Then on 1st June 2001, a horrific tragedy wiped out the entire royal family including King Birendra and Queen Aishwarya with many of their closest relatives. With only King Birendra’s brother, Gyanendra and his family surviving, he was crowned the king. King Gyanendra abided by the elected government for some time and then dismissed the elected Parliament to wield absolute power. In April 2006, another People’s Movement was launched jointly by the democratic parties focusing most energy in Kathmandu which led to a 19-day curfew. Eventually, King Gyanendra relinquished his power and reinstated the Parliament. On November 21, 2006, Prime Minister Girija Prasad Koirala and Maoist chairman Prachanda signed the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) 2006, committing to democracy and peace for the progress of the country and people. A Constituent Assembly election was held on April 10, 2008. On May 28, 2008, the newly elected Constituent Assembly declared Nepal a Federal Democratic Republic, abolishing the 240 year-old monarchy. Nepal today has a President as Head of State and a Prime Minister heading the Government.

The Constituent Assembly made significant progress to accomplish the mandate of writing a new democratic constitution of Nepal during its first 4 years term. The country also had an extensive democratic exercise in that direction including collection of public inputs on the contents of the new constitution and intense deliberations in the Assembly. However, due to political disagreements on some of the contentious issues like federal provinces and form of government, the first CA could not accomplish the historic task and there was natural termination of its mandate in 2012. The election of CA II was held in November 2013 and in its first meeting, leaders of political parties set the timeline of 1 year to complete the task of writing the new constitution.

Devastating earthquake of 7.8 magnitude hit Nepal in April 2015 followed by several powerful aftershocks causing loss of life, infrastructure and property in an unimaginable scale. Most mid hill districts of Nepal including Kathmandu valley saw massive devastation. This terrible experience created a sense of urgency among political parties to expedite the constitution writing so that a political process would come to a meaningful conclusion and country can divert all its focus on post disaster reconstruction.

After weeks of zeroing in on most contentious issues, political parties sorted them out paving the way to finalize the constitution. The new constitution of Nepal was promulgated through an overwhelming majority of the votes of CA members on September 20, 2015. With this historic achievement, the decades-long dream of Nepali people to have a constitution made through an elected representative body has now been realized. As per the provisions of the new constitution, elections of the new President, Prime Ministers and some other State positions have been successfully held.

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The earliest description of Nepal was written in 1811 by Sir William Kirkpatrick, An account of the History of Nepaul , and published in London. It was then spelt as such, a typical British pronunciation! Sir Kirkpatrick came to Nepal as an employee of the British East India Company, in 1793 to mediate disputes between Nepal and Tibet. He stayed in Nepal for two weeks and based his accounts on travel and local resource people. He also referred to the ancient vamsawalis , or chronicles, and it is for the first time that they were cited for reference in academic writings. The book provides a description of Nepalese culture, lifestyle, and food and eating habits with hand drawn maps.

Although Kirkpatrick is credited for the first book, a 16-page article was published a little earlier in 1789, "An Account of the Kingdom of Nepal," by Italian Capuchin Friars Giuseppe de Rovato. This article is a rare eye-witness account of the Gorkha conquest of the Kathmandu valley in 1767-69. It is believed to be the first article written by any European on King Prithvi Narayan Shah and his conquests. In 1790, this article was translated to English by Sir John Shore and published in the second volume of the Asiatic Researches from Calcutta. Giuseppe de Rovato describes the Kingdom of Nepal, its politics, and social system in a nutshell. The focus is on the three kingdoms of the valley, spelled as Cat'hmandu, Lelit Pattan, and B'hatgan. He observes with high appreciation the antiquity of these principalities and how the houses, wood doors and windows, streets, temples, and water supply system were well preserved.

The second book to be published on Nepal was An Account of the Kingdom of Nepal and the territories annexed to the dominion by the House of Gorkha also published in the U.K., authored by FB Hamilton. Like the previous book, this book was also commissioned by the British East India Company. Hamilton stayed for 14 months and made an extensive study of the lifestyle of the Nepalis. This book records the complex caste system of Nepal, 64 jatis , and the untouchables and the touchable. It also mentions how the touchable can be purified with holy water if touched by untouchables. The complex geography of the country and the people are also described. Through these books, Nepal was known to the outside world, and people could imagine the life in a closed kingdom.

After a long gap of almost 30 years, in 1857, the next book on Nepal was published by Cavelagh and Captain T. Smith titled, The Nepal Years . This book provides a rough sketch of the government, the army, and the available resources of Nepal while under the rule of Jung Bahadur Rana. T Smith was a resident of the East India Company in Nepal, and much of the narrations are from his five-year stay in the country. The late nineteenth century saw a new dawn in the context of historiography of Nepal. Beginning with Daniel Wright, who wrote the book, History of Nepal , which was sourced from an ancient Buddhist chronicle. This book is flavored with Buddhist legends and mythologies and gives the narrative from the time of the beginning of the universe. It also provides a very precise account of the Ranas, who were the ruling dynasty of Nepal at that time. Following this book was Sketches from Nipal , authored by HA Oldfield. Not only was Oldfield an author, but he was also a genius artist whose paintings of Nepal, particularly the Kathmandu valley, serves as references for many tangible heritages today.

In 1888, Bhagwan Lal Indraji published 23 inscriptions from Nepal . He was the first to mention and write about the stone inscriptions, which were, and still are, considered one of the most reliable sources of history. Cecil Bendall followed suit. He visited Nepal during 1884-85 and published a book, A journey of literary and archeological research of Nepal . Finally, history started being written from authentic and reliable sources.

The early twentieth century saw Sylvain Levi, the first non-British scholar with an intense hunger for oriental knowledge. He had already made extensive researches of the history and culture of Tibet and India before he entered Nepal. He published three volumes of the book Le Nepal in 1905. He made empirical research, as well as took references from the chronicles. The interwoven traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism and its harmonious co-existence seemed to grab his attention. This subject is well narrated, which is witnessed till today. The history of Nepal from the time of Nanya Dev, the Karnat king of Simraungarh from the twelfth century till the time of Prithivi Narayan Shah, forms the main content of this book. In 2005, Dilli Raj Uprety and Bipin Adhikari translated this book to Nepali for wider readership.

1909 saw the first Nepali writer, Padma JB Rana, the youngest son of Janga Bahadur Rana, publish Life of Maharaj Sir Janga Bahadur Rana . It was the first book written in English by a Nepali writer. Being a pure biography, it does not include any other literary source as references. This book is of vital importance about the lifestyle of the Ranas, as it comes from an internal source, who experienced and understood the daily life during the Rana regime.

In 1922, the first book in Nepali language was written by the Nepali author Ambika P. Upadhyaya, Nepal ko Itihas, published from Banaras. It opened a new chapter in the historiography of Nepal and has taken reference of many of the books mentioned earlier. A Few more important books on the history of Nepal were published in 1928. Two volumes of a well-researched and thorough work, Nepal , were published by Percival Landon. This book was commissioned by PM Chandra Shumsher Rana. It provides a sketch of Nepal based on the progress made by various kings, therefore, a historical political narrative. Being commissioned by Chandra Shumsher, a major part is dedicated to his times, which include the religion, customs, forestry, architecture, peace treaties, coinage, armorial bearings and flags, regalia, anthems and titles, the prime ministers of Nepal, law of descent, decorations, weights and measures, residents, envoys, inscriptions, books and articles, and flora and fauna of Nepal. The book includes 191 illustrations and five maps and two genealogical chants of the royal family and the Rana families.

In 1937, Indian historian K.P. Jaiswal made numerous researches and published a book, Chronology and History of Nepal . From this date till 1950 was a period devoid of any major book, only articles were published.

With the advent of democracy in Nepal, post-1950 witnessed a new chapter in the historiography of the country. The mysterious Shangri-La was now open to international media, scholars, and traders to explore the vast richness and diversity of the small country, be it culture, ethnicity, religion, lifestyle, and even topography. The books written hereafter were more analytical and critical. They were no longer filled with praises and biasness of any particular patron. They were now based on authentic literary and archaeological sources. Numerous Nepali historians and authors filled in the many gaps of Nepalese literature, specifically history.

Scholars like Bal Chandra Sharma, Surya Bikram Gyanwali, Rishikesh Shah, Naya Raj Panta, Yogi Narharinath, Mahesh Chandra Regmi, Dilli Raman Regmi, Baburam Acharya, Bhim Bahadur Pande, Danavajra Vajracharya, J.C. Regmi, Surya Bikram Gywali, and Gyan Muni Nepal published numerous articles and books. Around 1952, the Itihas Sanshodhan Mandal , a council to correct the written history, was formed by a group of historians, with Gyan Mani Nepal as one of the lead initiators. They made attempts to interpret original source materials and also correct errors made by previous writers, especially Westerners. The main objective of this institution was to rewrite Nepali history “from Nepal’s perspective.” After 1967, the Department of Archaeology published a journal, Ancient Nepal , devoted to pre-history and field archaeology and history of Nepal, and is still contributing till today. Online editions are available, too.

Today, we have many Nepali organizations dedicated to research and publishing, as well as numerous local scholars, historians, writers, and the like publishing articles and books. These scholarships definitely fill in many voids by local writers. Yet Nepalese history still has many mode gaps that still need research and information. As quoted by Scottish philosopher and satirical writer Thomas Carlyle, ‘History is a great dust heap’; it is never empty or ever complete!

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Essay on Unification of Nepal by Prithivi Narayan Shah and Other Rulers

The Modern history

Prithivi Narayan Shah was the great king and a leader of Nepal. His contributions are boon to the history of Nepal from unifying the boundaries of our country to avoiding other countries to rule over us. To concur the three kingdoms of the Kathmandu Valley Prithivi Narayan Shah had to motivate and finance his army. All the government services and offices were paid by land grants called Jagir.Jagir land system is the system of granting land to the government staffs partly emerged from the sufficient cash circulated in the then underdeveloped country’s economy. Simply it is said as a condition of lack of enough cash to cover all governmental expenses. Prithivi Narayan Shah followed a powerful practice called pajani. Pajani can be defined as an annual review of individual performance which is followed by hiring, firing, dismissal, promotion , transfer or reappointment.

Prithivi Narayan Shah was born on 27th of Poush 1779, son of Narabhupal Shah and Kaushalyawati. He was trained and taught by his eldest mother,Chandrapravawati. He had learned Ramayana, Mahabharat, and Shukranty along with swordsmanship.

He was married to the daughter of HemkarnaSen but could not take her home because of culture differences.

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Narabhupal could not stand the humiliation of his defeat in Nuwakot against the forces of Kantipur and Lalitpur. Thus Prithivi Narayan Shah ascended the throne at the age of 20 on 1799.

From the early age,Prithivi Narayan Shah was captivated by Kathmandu valley and thought of unification. He planned to attack Nuwakot with KajiBirajThapaMagar. But Thapa had delayed in sending the troops to Prithivi Narayan Shah. This was taken as a betrayal and so Shah had attacked Nuwakot under Maheshwor Pant.

The troops had lost badly which gave a lesson to Shah about the troop’s weaknesses. Prithivi Narayan Shah then boosted the troops with training and new armors bought from Banaras.

According to his uncle, UdhyotSen suggested him to win over Nepal and Gorkha. Thus,Gorkha signed a treaty with Lamjung quoting that both will have a harmonious relation with each other and Gorkha’s eastward expansion will not be interfered.

To win over Nuwakot,Prithivi Narayan Shah gave his daughter named Bilaskumari to the king of Salyan, Ranabhim Singh. This was done to stop the west from attacking and treating with Bhaktapur with a promise to grant Sindhupalchok and Palanchowk along with keeping a friendly relation with Kantipur.

Prithvi Narayan Shah conquered nuwakot when they attacked it for the second time in 1801 BS. JayantaRana who was an in charge of Gorkha troops during the reign of Narabhupal Shah was asked to rejoin Gorkha but the offer was rejected. To find out the answer, it was seen that he was already on asylum under Jaya Prakash Malla. For this, JayanataRana was caught and killed in Belkot.

In 1814, Gorkha attacked Kirtipur but lost nearly facing death. Kalu Pandey had lost his life during the battle. so to win over the valley , Prithivi Narayan Shah planned on the economic blockade. He had control over the northern route to Tibet. Makwanpur was on the way of the blocked which was attacked on 1819. Gurgain Khan had sent aid to Makwanpur where 1700 Muslim soldiers and 700 weapons were destroyed.

Again in 1821, Kirtipur was attacked for the second time under Surpratap Shah. He lost his left eye in the battle. After the win in Makwanpur, kirtipurwsas blocked from all sides for three months due to which KajiDhanawanta had to surrender to Gorkha.

On the verse of winning of Kantipur , Jaya Prakash Mallaseeked aid from the East India Company about 2400 armies. By taking the advantage of the geographical condition of the hilly region, Gorkha attacked them on the way and 1600 English soldiers had died. On the night of Indrajatra in 1825 BS, Prithivi Narayan Shah encircled Kantipur palace with Vasma Raj Pandey, Kehar Singh Basnyat ,Tularam Pandey. Jaya Prakash set fired from the gun powder due to which Tularam died. He ran away and Prithivi Narayan Shah took over the place and watched the IndraJatra.

To win over Patan, Prithivi Narayan Shah had sent an envoy to Shree Harsha Mishra to surrrender .He had accepted the envoy. Jaya Prakash Malla and TejNarasinghMalla ran away to Bhaktapur. The six Pradhans who were on power to employ and deploy the King were killed.

In 1826 29th of Kartik, Gorkhali army battled against Bhaktapur. RanajitMalla refused to hand over the Kings of Patan and Kantipur. Malla also did not want any bloodshed. But after 1700 armucausalties and 500 houses destroyed RanjitMallasignalled surrender throwing his crown from his window. After capturing the Kings, Jaya Prakash was sent to Pashupati as his will, Ranajit was sent to Kashi and TejNarasingh was put behind the bars. And thus, Bhaktapur was conquered too.

The unification was continued for years and years. He had supports on armies and armors from various places. Prithivi Narayan Shah is still taken as the greater leader who was devoted to his mother land. Nepal had reached uptoMechi in the east. He died at the age of 52 on Magh 1 1831. After the death of Prithivi Narayan Shah, his eldest son ,Pratap Singh Shah took over the throne who later died after three years of reign. RajendraLaxmi Shah, his wife took the responsibility along with the help of her brother in law, Bahadur Shah. They added more territory to Nepal. But the conflict between them created some obstacles in the process. RajendraLaxmi Shah died after 10 years of unification process. The son of RajendraLaxmi and Pratap Singh Shah, RanaBahadur Shah took over the throne after turning 18 years old, dethroning his uncle,  Bahadur Shah. RanaBahadur had sent his uncle to jail in a fraud case of using money unnecessarily. It was said, RanaBahadur was killed at jailed by pouring hot oil on him.

Writer: Susaan Basel

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Essay on Culture Of Nepal

Students are often asked to write an essay on Culture Of Nepal in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Culture Of Nepal

Introduction.

Nepal, a small country in South Asia, is known for its rich cultural diversity. It is a blend of various ethnic groups, each with unique customs, traditions and languages. This makes the culture of Nepal colorful and fascinating.

Religions in Nepal

Nepal is a religious country with Hinduism and Buddhism being the main faiths. There are also followers of Islam, Christianity, and other religions. These religions influence the daily lives, festivals, and rituals of the Nepalese people.

Languages of Nepal

Nepal is a multilingual country. The official language is Nepali, but more than 123 languages are spoken. Each ethnic group has its own language, adding to the cultural richness.

Traditional Clothing

Nepalese people wear traditional clothing. Men wear ‘Daura Suruwal’ and women wear ‘Sari’ or ‘Kurta Suruwal’. The clothing reflects their ethnic identity and is worn during festivals and special occasions.

Festivals of Nepal

Nepal is known for its numerous festivals. Dashain, Tihar, Holi, and Buddha Jayanti are some of the major festivals. These festivities bring people together in celebration, strengthening social bonds.

Art and Architecture

Nepalese art and architecture is influenced by Hinduism and Buddhism. Temples, palaces, and sculptures display intricate designs and craftsmanship. This showcases the artistic skills of the Nepalese people.

Cuisine of Nepal

Nepalese cuisine is a mix of flavors. Dal Bhat, a lentil soup with rice, is the staple food. Momos, Gundruk, and Dhido are other popular dishes. Each region has its own special dish, reflecting the diversity.

The culture of Nepal is a beautiful mix of various elements. It is a symbol of unity in diversity. Despite the differences, the people of Nepal live in harmony, respecting each other’s cultures.

250 Words Essay on Culture Of Nepal

Introduction to nepal’s culture.

Nepal, a small country in South Asia, is famous for its rich and diverse culture. It is home to various ethnic groups, each with its unique traditions, languages, and customs. This makes Nepal a place where different cultures blend together, creating a beautiful mix.

Religion and Beliefs

Religion is a big part of life in Nepal. Most people follow Hinduism or Buddhism. These religions influence many aspects of daily life, like food, clothing, and festivals. People visit temples and shrines regularly, showing their deep faith.

Language and Communication

In Nepal, many languages are spoken. The main one is Nepali, but there are also many local languages. Despite this, people find ways to communicate and understand each other. This shows the unity in their diversity.

Festivals and Celebrations

Festivals are a major part of Nepal’s culture. They bring joy and unity among people. Dashain, Tihar, and Holi are some of the main festivals. During these times, people gather with family, exchange gifts, and enjoy special meals.

Nepal’s art and architecture are unique and beautiful. You can see this in the temples and old buildings. They are often decorated with detailed carvings and colourful paintings. This highlights the artistic skills of the Nepalese people.

Food and Cuisine

Nepali food is a mix of flavours. The main meal is ‘Dal Bhat’, which is lentil soup, rice, and vegetables. Nepalese people also love momos, which are tasty dumplings.

In conclusion, Nepal’s culture is a colourful mix of traditions, beliefs, and customs. It is a symbol of unity in diversity, making Nepal a truly special place.

500 Words Essay on Culture Of Nepal

Introduction to nepalese culture.

Nepal, a small country nestled in the heart of the Himalayas, is known for its rich and vibrant culture. The culture of Nepal is a unique mix of tradition and novelty. It is a fusion of ancient history and modern influences. The culture is deeply rooted in the people, their rituals, their beliefs, and their daily lives.

Religions and Festivals

Nepal is a country where different religions coexist in harmony. The majority of the people follow Hinduism, followed by Buddhism, Islam, and other religions. This diversity in religions leads to a variety of festivals, each with its unique charm. Dashain, Tihar, Teej, and Buddha Jayanti are some of the major festivals celebrated here. These festivals fill the country with joy and vibrancy, showcasing the unity in diversity.

Language and Literature

Language is an essential part of any culture, and Nepal is no exception. The official language is Nepali, but more than 123 languages are spoken here. This shows the cultural richness and diversity of the country. Nepalese literature is also diverse, with works ranging from ancient scriptures and epics to modern novels and poetry.

Nepal is famous for its distinctive art and architecture. The country is full of ancient temples, palaces, and monuments that reflect the skills of the Newar artisans. Kathmandu Valley, in particular, is a treasure trove of such architectural wonders. The intricate woodwork, stone carvings, and metal crafts are a testament to the artistic prowess of the Nepalese people.

Nepalese cuisine is as diverse as its culture. The food varies from region to region. Dal Bhat (lentil soup with rice), Gundruk (fermented leafy greens), and Momo (dumplings) are some popular dishes. The food is not just about taste but also carries cultural and religious significance.

Music and Dance

Music and dance form an integral part of Nepalese culture. Folk music and dances are popular, with each ethnic group having its unique music and dance forms. Instruments like Madal and Sarangi are commonly used. The dances are usually performed during festivals and special occasions, adding color and rhythm to the celebrations.

Clothing and Attire

Traditional Nepalese clothing is unique and varied. Men typically wear Daura Suruwal while women wear Gunyu Cholo. These outfits are often worn during festivals and special occasions. The clothing reflects the country’s cultural heritage and identity.

In conclusion, the culture of Nepal is a beautiful blend of various elements. It is a culture that respects diversity and celebrates unity. It is a culture that values tradition while embracing change. The culture of Nepal is a mirror of its people – warm, welcoming, and vibrant.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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Insights into the modern political history of Nepal

Deepak Adhikari

Author and geopolitical analyst Sanjay Upadhya explores Nepal’s complex political landscape in his most recent book, ‘Democracy in Turns: A Political Account of Nepal . ’ This is Upadhya’s fifth book. In his earlier works, he tackled Nepal’s political transformation after the end of the Maoist insurgency and the rivalry between China and India in Nepal and wrote about how India adopted British colonial policies vis-à-vis Nepal after its independence from the empire.

A year ago, through the publication of ‘Empowered and Imperiled: Nepal’s Peace Puzzle in Bits and Pieces,’ Upadhya exposed himself as the pseudonymous blogger behind sharp takes on Nepali politics that were published in the popular blog Nepali Netbook , where he wrote under ‘Maila Baje’.

Upadhya attempts to give readers a thorough overview of modern Nepali history, focusing on the political transformation beginning in the 1990s. And like most authors who write about Nepal’s modern history, he begins with the conquest of petty kingdoms by Prithvi Narayan Shah and his armies. When you begin at this historical juncture, you have to narrate the court intrigues and massacres in the palace until the end of the Rana autocracy. The author dutifully paints the period with short brushes.

One admirable quality of ‘Democracy in Turns’ is Upadhya’s presentation of a survey of modern Nepali history, allowing readers to grasp an overview of the country’s political landscape. The title chapter at the end provides a summary of the preceding chapters. The book ends with the Supreme Court’s decision to overturn the parliament dissolution recommended by the Oli government on February 23, 2021. Upadhya has crammed all the significant events of the country’s modern history into 280 pages.

Such an ambitious project is bound to face challenges. Rather than providing new insights or original analysis, the book primarily recycles recent history. While some readers may appreciate the brevity and clarity of the writing style, others might yearn for a more in-depth exploration of the last 30 years of Nepali history.

Upadhya assumes a certain level of familiarity with the inside accounts of recent Nepali history, making it a challenging read for those less versed in the country’s political context. ‘Democracy in Turns’ demands prior knowledge or additional research about these events. Explaining historical events is just as important as chronicling them. The book fails to do this adequately.

One aspect that may disappoint readers is the author’s heavy reliance on international sources such as The New York Times, Time, and The Washington Post. Although these sources provide valuable perspectives, a more extensive inclusion of Nepali language publications would have offered more significant insights. The book may neglect the nuances and complexities of Nepal’s political landscape as experienced by Nepalis because it mostly draws from foreign and English sources. One book that comes to mind for its focus on local sources is ‘ People, Politics and Ideology: Democracy and Social Change in Nepal ’, which covers the two pro-democracy revolutions of 1950 and 1990.

Nevertheless, ‘Democracy in Turns’ does offer insightful commentary in certain instances. An example is when the author exposes the political parties’ deception: “Most parties acknowledged the political, social and economic grievances behind the movement while in opposition. Once in power, they relied on the reinforcement of police units.” The book captures the fast-paced political transformation during the period between the launch of the Maoist insurgency and the subsequent peace process. This roller-coaster period in Nepal’s recent history deserves a book of its own, given the intensity of the events that unfolded over the decade.

The book occasionally suffers from disjointed sentences that fail to build narrative tension—a common pitfall when attempting to condense a lengthy history into concise passages. Some sections present weighty sentences about consequential moves without adequately explaining their implications.

For example, the book talks about the transition from an autocratic Panchayat regime to constitutional monarchy and multi-party democracy in the 1990s: “[Prime Minister Krishna Prasad] Bhattarai then turned to dismantle the structure of the Panchayat regime to facilitate the functioning of the interim government.” The book provides no further elaboration on this, swiftly describing Bhattarai’s subsequent challenges of holding elections and drafting a constitution. The book also seems to display a bias in favour of the Shah monarchy, portraying it as benign while blaming its demise on the political parties and their dysfunction.

The book highlights the Maoist duplicity during the war and their dexterity at playing off power centres in Kathmandu and New Delhi. In contrast, the portrayal of King Gyanendra’s unconstitutional move is watered down, failing to adequately demonstrate the implications of what Indian journalist Siddharth Varadarajan defined as a “monumental folly.”

Here is what happened: The Royal Takeover led to a crackdown on civil spaces, including news media. Gyandendra eschewed anti-corruption agencies such as CIAA and set up an unconstitutional body, appointing his henchmen. The goal was not to crack down on corruption but to weaken the pro-democracy movement. He relied on a coterie of outdated politicians (like Tulsi Giri) who weren’t in sync with changing times.

Despite its limitations, ‘Democracy in Turns’ is a valuable primer on Nepal’s recent political history. It offers readers a starting point from which they can explore and deepen their understanding of the country’s democratic journey. Upadhya gives readers a foundation on which to build further knowledge by summarising the important events.

Democracy in Turns: A Political Account of Nepal

Author: Sanjay Upadhya

Publisher: FinePrint

Deepak Adhikari Adhikari is a freelance journalist based in Kathmandu.

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The Evolution of Tourism in Nepal - A Look at the History and Development of the Industry and its Attractions and Destinations

Explore the evolution of tourism in nepal and discover the history, development and current state of the industry, including its most popular attractions and destinations. get a deeper understanding of how nepal became a tourist hotspot..

About Nepal

- Nepal is a land of eternal beauty and splendor, surrounded by the majestic peaks of the Himalayan mountains.

- It is a land of colorful cultures, ancient history and people, a fascinating scenery, and some of the world's most fascinating landscapes.

- Best known for the world's highest mountain, Mount Everest, which rises to an altitude of 8848.86 meters.

- A visit to Nepal informs you about the many places you can visit in Nepal, famous for the birthplace of Gautam Buddha who laid the inspiration and foundation of Buddhism in the country.

- Nepal with rich traditions of arts, culture, and heritage.

- Kathmandu, Nepal's capital city, is a treasure house of historic artwork and culture.

EVOLUTION OF THE WORD "TOURISM:

In Sanskrit books, there are 3 travel words, derived from the root "atan", which means to go / leave home and go elsewhere.

The 3 words are:

- Going out for pleasure and knowledge.

- Going overseas prominently for financial gain.

- Going out to places of religious merits.

ANCIENT NEPAL TOURISM.

- Ancient history is largely based on cultural significance.

- Manjushree (Tibet) is considered to be the first to arrive in Nepal who cut off Chobar hill and released all the water except for the life of Kathmandu village.

- Ashoka (India) visited Lumbini, erected a pillar of Ashoka (Proof that Buddha was born in Nepal)

- The famous Chinese explorer, Huien Tsang, visited Lumbini in 643 AD.

- Regular visits to Buddhism followere such as Santarakshit (742AD), Padma Sambhav (474AD), Kamalsheel (760AD), Atisha Dipankar (1000AD), Milarepa (1010AD)

Lichchhavi Empire (400-750AD)

• The marital relationship between Amshuverma's daughter, Brikuti and Tibetan king Srong Sten Gampo.
• Established bilateral relations established between Tibet and  Nepal.
• Araniko visited Tibet and flourished Nepali art there.

Malla Dynasty (750-1480AD)

• Under the rule of the Malala king, westerners began coming to Nepal for the purpose of spreading and promoting Christianity.
• Establish good trade relations between Tibet and India.

- During the time of Lichhavi and Malla, great strides in arts and culture were made. The buildings, paintings and sculptures were greatly improved.

- Many temples, monuments, statues and inscriptions, existing festivals which are a tourist attraction.

- Chinese, Tibetans, and Indians used to visit Nepal mainly for religious and commercial reasons.

TOURISM AFTER NEPAL ASSOCIATION  (1767 - 1950 AD)

- 1767 AD:  Prithivi Narayan Shah unified scattered principalities into bigger Nepal.

- 1792 AD: Captain Kirk Patric, a military officer, came to collect facts about Nepal. He wrote the book “An Account of the Kingdom of Nepal” which helped to introduce Nepal to the outside country.

- 1816 AD: Sugauli agreement was signed between Nepal and the British East India Company. The beginning of the regular visit of British citizens to Kathmandu.

- 1850-51 AD:  Rana prime minister Junga Bdr. Rana visited Britain which brought Kingdom of Nepal into limelight in Europe.

- 1911/21 King George V and the Prince of Wales visit Nepal to hunt the Tiber.

- Regular visits by the Prime Minister of Rana to Britain and British officials in Nepal.

- The first record published by foreign tourists to Nepal is found in Percival London's 'Nepal' book, in which 153 Europeans, mostly Englishmen, are reported to have visited Kathmandu in the period between 1881 and 1925 AD.

TOURISM AFTER 1950

- 104 years the Rana Regime autocracy was ended in 1950.

- Slow development in Nepal began to take place.

- A road network was established connecting parts of Nepal with the Indian Border.

- Only finger count foreigners were given permission to enter Nepal. Mainly for the purpose of trading, climbing and pilgrimage purpose before 1950.

- In 1950 Maurice Herzog became the first person to summit Annapurna I.

- 1952 AD: Swiss geographer Tony Hagen was hired by the Nepali Government to map Nepal. She traveled 14000 km in Nepal's Himalayas and retired in 1972 AD.

- A group of wealthy tourists, sponsored students began traveling from England to Nepal through Eastern Europe, Turkey, Kasmir, Manali and Nepal to do research and  climbing purpose.

- 1953 AD: Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay Sherpa climbed Mt. Everest and they were the first to do so.

- The 1950s is considered one of the most important periods in the development of Tourism in Nepal. 14 world-famous over 8000m 7 out of 8 peaks in Nepal were conquered.

- Annapurna I, Everest, Chooyu, Makalu, Kanchenjunga, Manaslu, Lhotse, Dhaulagiri.

- The role of tourism in the mountains is very important in the tourism sector as a whole. In fact, Nepal's tourism industry began with a tour of the mountains.

- 1955 AD: The first tourist visa was issued to Russian citizen Boris Lisanevich, Boris Lisanevich, a legendary hotelier and a pioneer in Nepalese tourism.

- He was invited by King Mahendra to allow Thomas Cook's company to send a visitor to Nepal.

- Boris founded the first hotel "Royal Hotel".

- 1955 AD: The first private airline company "Himalayan Airways" came into operation.

- 1956 AD: The National Tourism Council established a five-year tourism development plan under the Ministry of Industry and Trade.

- 1958 AD: Royal Nepal Airlines Cooperation (RNAC) now NAC came into operation.

- Nepal began direct contact with Indian Cities and this land locked country became easily accessible to other countries.

- Nepal became a member of the International Union Of Official Travel Organization (IUOTO) and now the World Tourism Organization (WTO)

- 1964 AD: Jimmy Robert founded the first travel agency "Mountain Travel Nepal" to organize trekking and climbing.

- Founded "Tiger Tops" in Chitwan National Park began to promote and conserve wildlife.

- Directed attention to the Government of Nepalese on the power of Tourism in Nepal. Became a role model in teaching and applying tourism management in Nepal.

- Jimmy Robert is also regarded as ’The Father of Trekking’ in Nepal.

- His vision, then, was to make mountaineering experience easier and more understandable than it was at first.

1960 & 1970'S HIPPIE CULTURES

- Hippies are a group of young people who followed liberal anti-war philosophy.

- Hippie's main site such as buying and selling Hassish was legal until 1979.

- Jimmy Robert has played a key role in promoting and promoting Nepal as a tourist attraction.

- A good Nepali ambassador as he continues to tell about Nepal's cultural and natural beauty when they return home.

- By 1965, all 8000+ mountains were conquered. It has established Nepal as a major hiking and mountain climbing destination.

- The 1972 NATHM was established by the Government of Nepal through the UNDP / ILO to produce the skilled workers needed by the hospitality and tourism industry.

- More than 20,000 professionals are trained from NATHM in various fields such as hotel management, tour guide and hiking etc.

- 1973: Chitwan National Park (CNP) was established to protect and conserve wildlife.

- 1979: Taan was established to regulate, develop, and promote the Nepali pedestrian sector.

- 1998: The Nepal Tourism Board (NTB) was established to develop the tourism industry.

- 1992: Necon Air (Nepal's first private airline) and Asian Airlines Helicopter (Nepal's first helicopter) came into existence.

Nepal celebrates "Visit Nepal 98" to strengthen Nepalese tourism.

DURING 1950-1998, NEPAL BECAME A HOT PLACE FOR LARGE HOLIDAYS, JOURNALISTS AND CULTIVAL VISITORS.

TOURISM IN NEPAL (1999 TO 2011)

THE DARK PERIOD (1999-2005)

- 1999 Hijacking of Indian Airlines ships from TIA.

- 2001: "Royal Massacre" A Black Day in Nepalise History

- 2005: King Gyanendra Coup and suspended constitution.

- Moisture rebels were active in different parts of Nepal. Travelers could not move about freely and felt insecure.

- MESSAGE TO THE FOREIGN WORLD, NEPAL IS NOT SAFE FROM BEING.

- 50% of travel agencies closed

- Tourism focuses on the urban area only.

- Reduce the length of stay.

- 2006 A peace agreement was signed between the  Government and  Moist Government.

- The message to foreign countries in Nepal, is now safe to travel

-  Tourism slowly starts picking up.

- 2011: Nepal Tourism Year celebrated

- The global economic crisis has brought a collapse to American and European tourists and has been turned into a hot tourist destination for Chinese travelers.

NEPAL AFTER THE 2015 EARTHQUAKE

- On April 25, 2015, a magnitude 7.8 earthquake shook Nepal.

- Nearly 9,000 people died and more than 22,000 were injured.

-  The Mt. Everest climbing season was canceled.

- The historic site of the city, Bimsen Tower (Dharahara) with 61 meters high was collapsed.

- Also on May 12, a magnitude 7.3 earthquake aftershock occurs, resulting in the destruction of schools, health facilities, water and electricity, roads and bridges, and homes.

- All businesses including the tourism industry and markets was collapsed.

- The 10 billion rupees tourism industry was affected.

- The most important Hindu temple in the land of Pashupatinath was also partially damaged.

- The Everest base camp was destroyed, and 18 climbers were killed.

- Many trekking sites got affected.

- According to officials from the Nepalese archeology department, a total of 57 monuments in Kathmandu village were destroyed as a result of the massive earthquake.

Visit Nepal 2020 tourism cancellation and Covid 19 impact on Nepal Tourism

- Tourism revenue in 2018 accounted for 7.9% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and supported more than 1.05 million jobs.

- Nepal hosted 1.19 million foreign tourists by 2019.

- The ‘ Visit to Nepal 2020 ’ campaign, which was officially launched on January 1, 2020.

- It aims to attract 2 million tourists, generate $2 billion and create thousands of new jobs.

- On January 23, the first case of COVID-19 was found in Nepal.

- It has begun to grow worldwide and amid growing public concern.

- Government Suspended the ‘Visit Nepal 2020’ initiative on March 3, 2020.

- After the World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 an epidemic on March 13, the government suspended permissions for mountaineering expeditions and suspended all visas.

- Following the confirmation of the second international prosecution on March 23, the government shut down the country and suspended all national and international flights.

- This was followed by a major cancellation of hotel and guest bookings, which led to an increase in unemployment, loss of income and thousands of lives at risk.

- 2% reduction in international and domestic tourists by January 2020 compared to 2019

- More than 10,000 tourists who entered Nepal before the closure were also left homeless, though many of them eventually returned home.

Places to Visit in Nepal

Kathmandu city.

- Nepal's capital, Kathmandu Valley, is a unique place in Nepal, the center of Nepal's political, commercial and cultural activities.

- The capital is designed for many travelers, and even the name Kathmandu conveys images of spirituality, mystery, and entertainment.

Boudhanath Stupa

- Bodnath is Nepal's largest mosque and is the religious center of Nepal's largest Tibetan community.

- It is a very important monument to Tibetan Buddhists outside of Tibet.

- Listed as a World Heritage Site.

Pashupatinath Temple

- The Pashupatinath Temple, with its magnificent architecture, stands as a symbol of faith, religion, tradition and tradition.

- The existence of the Temple dates back to 400 A.D.

- It is considered the most holy temple of the Hindu Lord Shiva in the world

Swayambhunath

- It is an ancient and mysterious place in all the holy places of Kathmandu Valley.

- Here a round white mound with an umbrella at the top, representing the steps leading to nirvana. The Stupa is hung with prayer flags of many colors.

- Historical records found in stone tablets give evidence that the stupa was already a major attraction for Buddhists by the 5th century A.D. i.e. before the advent of Buddhism in the village.

Pokhara Valley

- Pokhara Valley, a land of breathtaking natural beauty crowned by the majestic Himalayas, offers a breathtaking view of the calm, green hills.

- Pokhara is also known as a major tourist destination.

- Three of the ten highest mountains in the world - Dhaulagiri, Annapurna and Mananaslu are within 30 miles of the city.

- The city also serves as a base for pedestrian crossings in the Annapurna region of the Himalayas.

- Lumbini, the birthplace of Lord Buddha, is the center of millions of Buddhist religions worldwide.

- A solid stone pillar built by the great Indian emperor Ashoka is also here. The account of the Buddha's birth is recorded in it.

- One of the most important historical sites in the world is the UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Mount Everest

- The tallest mountain in the world, measuring 8848.86 meters (29031.69 ft).

- Located in the Solukhumbu district.

- Also known as "Sagarmatha".

- World Heritage Site.  

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