china essay topics

China - Essay Examples And Topic Ideas For Free

China, a nation with a profound historical legacy and rapidly evolving contemporary significance, presents a rich tapestry of topics for exploration. Essays on China might delve into its ancient civilizations, dynastic histories, and the myriad contributions to science, art, and philosophy. The discourse could extend to the examination of modern China, the Chinese revolution, the era under Mao Zedong, and the subsequent economic reforms that catapulted China into a global economic powerhouse. Additionally, discussions might explore China’s political system, its human rights record, and its contemporary socio-political issues like the Hong Kong protests or the Uighur crisis. The international dimensions of China’s rise, its relationships with other global powers, and its ambitions as expressed through initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative could also form a significant aspect of the discussion. The multifaceted nature of China’s history, culture, and modern-day standing provides a rich array of avenues for scholarly exploration and discussion. We’ve gathered an extensive assortment of free essay samples on the topic of China you can find at PapersOwl Website. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Imperialism in China

The Age of New Imperialism, from around 1870 to 1914, was a time when European powers sought to take control and claim territories throughout Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. In order to do this, industrialization was required to produce the equipment and factories necessary to make these products. An example of new imperialism was British imperialism in China, where Britain, and other countries, fought to gain power in China's economy through trade. British imperialism in China additionally led to […]

Continuity and Change in China 1950’s to Present

Continuity and Change in China 1950 ?s to 1990's Today, a nation like China is the most influential on the Earth with a diverse economy, a billion population, considerable technical ability and innovation, and the most striking military power in Asia. It is believed that China will overtake the United States as the world's preeminent superpower. China's strength which is seen today is a positive impact of many years of historical hard times.A few centuries ago, beginning from the 1950s, […]

What Walmart Needs to Succeed in Indian Market

Introduction Walmart has already dominated the Americas and China Markets and have set their sights on the Indian market. However, Walmart must overcome the strict government barriers, frustrating bureaucracy, and poor infrastructure in order succeed in the Indian market with the lessons Walmart learned from previous ventures. Background Sam Walton opened the first Walmart in Rogers, Arkansas in 1962 to bring great opportunity and value to his customers after being inspired with the success of his dime store. Walmart soon […]

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China’s One Child Policy

China is considered to be the highly populated country across the world. History says that China has the largest population which has ever been witnessed. By 1979 China's population was estimated to be approximately one billion. This number of people made the country to look for a way they can do to reduce this population before it was too late. That's when they came with a policy of one child. This policy has affected this country negatively. Firstly, according to […]

Internet Censorship in China

An original supporter of internet censorship was Deng Xiaoping, a Chinese politician. Deng Xiaoping had a famous saying that "If you open a window for fresh air for longer than 10 hours, you have to expect some flies to blow in". Deng Xiaoping, as well as many other Chinese politicians, were the main reason internet censorship exists today. Using this analogy, the Communist Party of China decided that it would be best for them to be proactive in "swatting flies". […]

British Imperialism in India

British imperialism was an event that greatly impacted both India's past and present. British imperialism in India was able to occur because of the country's trading system, and the weakening of the Moghuls, and British wanted to control India because, India was seen as a good source of both labor and raw materials and this was necessary for British industrialization. As stated previously British imperialism had a large, lasting effect on India. It opened India to western ideals, opened them […]

Big Trouble in Little China and the Hero’s Journey

Trying to solve big problems on your own is not always the best way to handle a situation, no matter the size. Today, I will be demonstrating the heroes journey and the lesson learned of the main character in the fantastic 80’s fantasy-comedy, Big Trouble in Little China. Big Trouble in Little China tells the story of Jack Burton, a big-talking semi-truck driver, who must help his best friend Wang Chi save Chi’s green-eyed fiancee from a group of San […]

People in China and the Cryptocurrency Ban

Boasting the world's second largest economy, China is a central focal point for any cryptocurrency business. Starting earlier this year, that became a whole lot harder when China instituted a ban on all cryptocurrency related activity. By August, that even included popular communication apps where people simply discussed cryptocurrency markets and news. The ban has been enforced by shutting down Chinese-based crypto trading exchanges, leaving Chinese bitcoin buyers with no way to trade the popular asset. This has prompted the […]

The Industrial Revolution Analysis

The Industrial Revolution was one of the most important turning points in all of human history, and to many, the Revolution along with its problems, is a thing of the distant past. However, this could not be further from the truth. While developed countries such as United States and England have passed the Industrial Age for the most part, developing areas such as China still have citizens who see similar issues as those during the Industrial Revolution, and little to […]

Cold War in China, Cold War in Cuba, and Space Race

Today, I'm going to write a research paper about, Origins of the cold war, Cold War in China, Cold War in Cuba, and Space Race. These four topics are all related to the horrible tragedies that happened during the Cold War. A lot of families suffered during this war. A lot of the soldiers have died during this war. I will start off with my first topic, which is Origins of the Cold War. I hope you enjoy reading my […]

An Issue of Fracking in China

Fracking is a current technique many oil and gas companies around the world are using to reach new levels of oil, gas, and geothermal energy not able to be reached until now. "Fracking is the process of drilling down into the earth before a high-pressure water mixture is directed at the rock to release the gas inside. Water, sand, and chemicals are injected into the rock at high pressure which allows the gas to flow out to the head of […]

Imperialism in the Eastern Countries

From its origin as a small enterprise, the East India Company emerged in 1600 as a powerful commercial and political organization established by the English businessmen. Its early presence shaped India and its surroundings and officially brought western people into Asia's early modern landscape. During the period of 1700 to 1900, the world was expanding rapidly, and many western countries took on their journey of imperialism to obtain more control over world trade and expand their territories. Certain factors such […]

Women’s Rights in China

Despite all the protest that international women's rights movement from the Seneca Falls in 1848 to the National American Woman Suffrage Association in 1890, and the National Women party in 1916. In China women never had the privilege to show what they are capable of doing because that was not a ladylike thing in their family. Women have always been the primary abduction target since the early 1900s to 2005 because it was unacceptable that they had a higher population […]

China and Imperialism

Since the seventeenth century, China had confined itself from whatever is left of the world and declined to receive Western ways. The Chinese allowed exchange yet just at the Port of Canton, where the privileges of European traders were at the impulse of the ruler. Colonialism in China started with the First Opium War (1839-1842), when the Chinese government attempted to stop the British from bringing in opium. This brought about a war in which Britain's unrivaled military and mechanical […]

Water Pollution in China

The challenge of rising water pollution in China poses a huge threat to existing water bodies that greatly benefit indigenous people, industries, and government. This water pollution was the result of effluents from large industrial areas, which drained the chemicals of rivers and other related streams. The escalating impasse of China's water pollution requires quick and practical measures aimed at protecting a few uncontaminated water bodies and stopping further pollution of those already polluted. These efforts will help protect aquatic […]

Internal Migration and Discrimination in India and China

Introduction In 2001 it was identified that out of 1.02 billion people in India, 307 million that is 30% of the population are the migrant which is slightly more than what is was 27.4% in 1991 excluding the province of Jammu and Kashmir. As per the 2001 census Maharashtra received the largest number of migrants, the number of migrant were 7.9 million and Delhi received second largest number of migrant having 5.6 million migrant populations. During the period of 1991 […]

Chinese Exclusion and Discrimination

In the 1800's there was an influx of Chinese Immigrants in the West Coast of the United States. Many Chinese immigrants came from Southern China in hopes to earn income and escape poverty. Chinese Immigrants left their homeland in anticipation of the American Dream, unexpectedly, let down by America's social, political, and economic discrimination. While many Chinese intend to return home after earning sufficient income, many intended to remain on America soil. Although the Chinese immigrant held a crucial role […]

Christianity in China

The unique culture of the Chinese dates back thousands of years, and even through efforts of new ideologies it has been able to retain is most valuable core principles. Christianity, for example, was a new idea presented to the Chinese. What began as a small group of missionaries grew into an accepted religion practiced in the country. The presence of Protestant Christians in China has grown ten percent annually since 1979. That percentage of the population who follow Christianity have […]

IPhones from China to Canada and Korea

As the Canadian and the Korean governments are geared towards helping importers and the industry in general, they subject all products being imported to a regulatory check to ensure their compliance with certain requirements and conditions (Rodriguez 12). IPhones being among the products imported from this country, therefore, needs to comply with certain special requirements for them to be allowed for shipping to Canada, Korea, and other countries. This paper explores various requirements that the shipping and distribution team should […]

Essay about IPhones from China to Canada and Korea

An iPhone is a smartphone that is manufactured by the apple company. This type of phone is consists of a computer, iPod, digital camera, and a cellular phone all in it. This kind of a phone is also screen touch. The apple company says that the phone uses the iOs operating system. To get a better knowledge of the iPhone, we can trace its history a little bit. Back on January 9th, 2007, Steve Jobs introduced the iPhone. The first […]

Women’s Roles Feminism and the Culture of Resistance in China

Introduction - What is Feminism? Feminist activism has been challenging to incorporate in Chinese society because women have been depicted inconsistently by the Chinese government for many years. The government aims to “be progressive in many respects, whilst simultaneously seeking to repress and control efforts to further gender equality.” According to author Lydia H. Liu, “China has enslaved women and forced them into submission for many thousands of years.” Majority of Chinese women have been and still are being restricted […]

The Emergence of a New Cold War: Implications and Challenges

On October 4th, 2018 a speech was given in the Hudson Institute, the think tank and research center dedicated to nonpartisan analysis of United States and international economic, security, and political issues (Hudson Institute), in Washington D.C., Maryland. Vice President Mike Pence, addressed a speech to China's leaders/government. Pence formally addressed the matter that there will be a new, tougher approach toward Beijing. Pence's speech was very straightforward, surprising Beijing of the 'alleged offenses' in only one public indictment, speaking […]

China Free Trade Agreement

The article that I deemed fit and choose is a China free trade agreement. The information concerning the trade agreement stroke the globe and the mails on 7th October 2017 barely two years since the ideas crept up. It was all in the media, magazines and the Chinas FTA network. The article from the name articulates all the agreement that the nation have made or are in the process of making with various countries of their interest, to enter with […]

China-Australia Free Trade Agreement

The article speaks about the agreement on China-Australia Free trade agreement. The concerns or fears raised is about opening floodgates for Chinese workers to enter Australia. The Australians were concerned about this because Chinese might come in plenty and flood the markets. The article seeks to clarify to the Australian people that that was not the case and in fact, the number of the Chinese worker in Australia had dropped. The CHafta (Chinese-Australian free Agreement) is a deal between the […]

Gender Inequality in China

"Mao Zedong once said, “women hold up half the sky.” This famous quote has been interpreted by people for nearly one-hundred years. All interpretations tying back to one basic core idea that women hold just as much priority in the world as men do. However, in present-day China, social standards are far from equal between the two genders. Men still earn more money than their female counterparts, the gender ratio of the country is still out of balance, and boys […]

China’s Urban Housing Problem and Underground Housing 

China’s urban housing problem is characterized by many factors. With approximately one million citizens residing underground the countries capital. It is safe to say that China has an urban housing problem. Worldwide, Beijing is the third most expensive city to live in. Additionally, the average monthly salary of persons living in the city is less than the average monthly salary. This means a lot of persons living in the city cannot afford housing. This has led to very deplorable living […]

The Mughal Dynasty and Emperor Akbar

During the years 1500-1750 we learn about many empires that have risen and fall due to many different factors. From the years 1526-1627 the Mughal Dynasty was the dominant power in South Asia. This empire was ruled by Emperor Akbar who in time became one of the most powerful men in the entire world. Some factors that contributed to the prosperity and stability of this empire is military strength, trade, and agriculture. During Akbar’s time as emperor his armies controlled […]

The Popularity of Fast Food Festaurants in China

Today's cities are fast-paced. Whether it's senior white-collar workers or ordinary workers, the pace of work is very fast, and often the time for eating is very short, so eating fast food can save a lot of time, and will not waste a lot of time on the issue of eating, delaying work. Fast food that has already been matched doesn't need to worry about what to eat, but can be used immediately Meal is the topic, which can be […]

Structure of the Great Wall of China

Have you ever wondered why the Great Wall of China built or it is shaped in such a way? The Great Wall of China, as its name suggests, is located on the northern border of China. It is the longest man-made structure and currently one of the seven wonders of the world and carries a significant symbol in the Chinese culture. This research report will explore why the Great Wall is shaped the way it is, why was it built, […]

The China Air Pollution

The problem that I will be discussing in this essay is about the pollution in China. The air quality is becoming worse and worse in China each year. Air pollution has been a major issue in China for many years, first record of China having unhealthy and unsafe air quality was back in January of 2005. They are still in the process of reducing the levels of nitrogen dioxide in their air. The water pollution has also been in an […]

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Essay on China

Students are often asked to write an essay on China in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on China

Geography of china.

China, located in East Asia, is the world’s third-largest country. It has diverse landscapes, including mountains, deserts, and rivers. The highest point is Mount Everest.

Population and Culture

China has the largest population globally. Its culture is rich and diverse, with a long history that includes inventions like paper and compass.

Chinese Economy

China is a global economic powerhouse, known for manufacturing and exporting goods. It also has a growing technology industry.

Chinese Cuisine

Chinese food is popular worldwide. It varies by region, with famous dishes like Peking Duck and Dim Sum.

Chinese Festivals

China is known for its colorful festivals, such as Chinese New Year and the Mid-Autumn Festival, both filled with traditional customs and celebrations.

Also check:

• 10 Lines on China
• Paragraph on China

250 Words Essay on China

Introduction.

China, officially known as the People’s Republic of China, is the world’s most populous country, with a rich history that stretches back thousands of years. It has a unique blend of ancient traditions and modern innovation, shaping its global influence.

Historical Significance

China’s history is marked by dynastic rule, beginning with the semi-mythical Xia around 2100 BCE. The Great Wall, Terracotta Army, and the Forbidden City testify to the grandeur of these eras. The last dynasty, the Qing, gave way to a republic in 1912, marking a significant shift in China’s political landscape.

Modern China

Modern China is characterized by its rapid economic growth since the late 20th century. China’s economic reforms have transformed it into the world’s second-largest economy. This economic boom has brought significant changes in its socio-economic structure and global standing.

Global Influence

China’s global influence is undeniable. It’s a permanent member of the UN Security Council and a significant player in global trade. However, its rise has also sparked debates on issues such as human rights, territorial claims, and trade practices.

China’s journey from an ancient civilization to a modern powerhouse is a testament to its resilience and adaptability. Despite challenges, it continues to shape the world stage, making it a fascinating subject of study. Understanding China’s past and present is crucial for deciphering its future trajectory.

500 Words Essay on China

China, officially known as the People’s Republic of China, is a country located in East Asia. It is the world’s most populous country, boasting a population of over 1.4 billion. China’s rich history, diverse culture, and rapid economic growth have made it a global powerhouse.

Historical Overview

China’s history spans over five millennia, making it one of the world’s oldest civilizations. The country has seen the rise and fall of powerful dynasties, each leaving an indelible mark on its culture and society. China’s last imperial dynasty, the Qing, ended in 1911, paving the way for the Republic of China. However, civil unrest and power struggles culminated in the Chinese Communist Party’s victory in 1949, establishing the People’s Republic of China.

Economic Growth

China’s economic transformation in recent decades is nothing short of remarkable. The country has transitioned from a centrally planned economy to a more market-oriented one. China’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has grown at an unprecedented rate, lifting millions out of poverty and turning China into the world’s second-largest economy. This economic boom is largely attributed to the “Reform and Opening-up” policy initiated by Deng Xiaoping in the late 1970s.

Culture and Society

Chinese culture is a fusion of numerous ethnic traditions, deeply influenced by Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. The Chinese language, cuisine, martial arts, and traditional Chinese medicine are significant cultural exports. China’s societal structure has evolved over time, with the traditional emphasis on collectivism giving way to an increasing individualism, particularly among the younger generation.

Political System

China is a socialist state under the people’s democratic dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants. The Chinese Communist Party holds the ultimate authority, with the President serving as the state head. The political structure has been criticized for its lack of transparency and suppression of dissent, posing challenges for human rights.

China’s Global Influence

China’s rapid growth has significantly increased its global influence, both economically and politically. It is a major player in international trade, technology, and infrastructure development. However, its assertive foreign policy, territorial disputes, and alleged human rights abuses have generated controversy and tension with other nations.

China’s journey from an ancient civilization to a modern global superpower is truly fascinating. Its complex history, dynamic economy, rich culture, and evolving political landscape make it a critical player in shaping the 21st century. As China continues to evolve, it will undoubtedly remain a significant entity on the global stage, presenting both opportunities and challenges for the international community.

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Essay Samples on China

Discovering the beauty and diversity of asia.

Asia is one of the many continents in our world. Having a population of 4.5 billion overall, and is accompanied by two of the most highly populated countries in the world. China and India are found in Asia, both having a rather large population. Being...

The Mogao Caves - a Unique Tribute to Ancient China

Out of the rough, sheer cliff looms an immense series of detailed caves and grottoes, each one riddled with lost secrets, intricate art, and precious statues. Torch in hand, you step across the ancient threshold of a ground-breaking discovery, tracing the footsteps of monks from...

• Ancient Civilizations
• History of Asia

Overpopulation in China: A Growing Crisis

Overpopulation is a crisis that stands alongside climate change. As it is one of the biggest challenges facing humanity today. It is one of the main problems for the environment, humans, and for the whole ecosystem (Howell, 2009). This results to many problems such as...

• Overpopulation

Mao Zedong as An Important Historical Figure

Mao Zedong is one of China’s most known leaders, some love him and some hate him. He like many leaders had his ups and downs. Making many attempts to modernize china and better the economy. He made reforms like “Great Leap Forward” and the “cultural...

• Chinese Culture

Change And Continuity in Canadian Society Over Time

The world had witnessed major changes in East Asia from their society, economy, and political aspects. Concurrently, they also reserve their culture values and fundamental ideologies or belief systems from their pasts. The twentieth century is an era fulfilled with the revolution, war, and reform....

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The Issue Of Sexual Harrasment And Victim Blaming In China

According to the ecological framework proposed by Bronfenbrenner (1979) and later developed by Belsky (1980), sexual misconduct occurs due to risk markers that lie at multiple levels of the victim’s environment, which they divide into several levels: the ontogenic, the microsystem, the exosystem, and the...

• Sexual Harassment
• Victim Blaming

The Impact Of Great Wall Of China On Chinese Population

How did the Great Wall of China sway the Chinese, and the remainder of the world? 'The Long Fortress,' otherwise called the Great Wall of China, has an extremely fascinating foundation. In building the Great Wall of China, China needed to experience numerous new and...

The Great Wall Of China And Its Significance

The Great Wall of China stretches about 5,500 miles long crossing deserts, mountains, grasslands, and plateaus. It took more than 2,000 years to build this incredible manmade structure. Many people died to build this wall. It displays the changes between the agricultural and nomadic civilizations....

Panda Conservation Groups In China

Introduction I choose this topic about the Conserving panda in china because there only about 1600 pandas around the world, because of in the southwestern part of china are separated, causing panda to spread in patches, there cannot come to exchange DNA and another reason...

• Wildlife Conservation

Overview Of The Domestic Politics Of Philippines And Its Harsh Relationship With China

The news of the budding friendship of our country with China has sparked several controversies and protests especially after the dispute over the West Philippine Sea last 2016. The citizens of the Philippines believe that our country is setting itself up for trouble for building...

• International Relations
• Philippine Government

Critical Success Factors And Customer Expectation In Budget Hotel Segment

This study examined the CSFs in China’s budget hotel operations and development from the perspectives of various stakeholders, namely, the customer, the industry professional, the government authority, and the hotel investor. Interviews were conducted to gain a deeper understanding of the industry professional, government authority...

• Hospitality

Analysis Of Mattel's Strategy To Bring Popularity To Barbie Doll In Chinese Market

Introduction of the Company In the age of digitalization, new technology has replaced toys completely, however, Lego still has found a way out and successfully launched a film breaking the Chinese market and making significant profits and growth. Barbie, in the interim, in a market...

• Barbie Doll

Remarking Bai Xianyong’s Glory By Blossom Bridge: Homesickness, Memory And Experience

Bai Xianyong’s Taipei People is one of the most important and classical novels in modern and contemporary China history, which consist of 14 different short stories of different characters. These characters came from different classes and they were with different background and worked in the...

• Book Review
• Homesickness

Analysis Of Taoist Rituals And Beliefs

The Chinese practiced 2 main religions Taoism and Buddhism. Taoism was found in the 6th century by Lao-Tzu he wrote his philosophy and beliefs in a book which is called Tao Te Ching. Everyone who practiced Taoism believed everything to do with nature has two...

Why Muslims Should Break Their Silence And Speak Up Against China

China, the great power of today’s world, is becoming one of the fastest developing countries economically, military, and culturally. Economically, China is ranked to be the second largest economy around the world and let’s not forget the history of this country when it comes to...

The Life Voyage Of Zheng He: A Prominent Navigator In Chinese History

Zheng He was the one of the most prominent navigators in the history of China. It is believed that he sailed and explored the Indian Ocean seven times with a fleet of more than 300 ships loaded with gold, silver and other treasures, and a...

Analysis of the Advantages of Asian Economy and How It Can Be Applied to Belgium

About ASEAN We’ve have spoken about this topic multiple times during Asian Business classes. An organization that unifies the Southern part of Asia. ASEAN was discovered on August 8th 1967 in Thailand. The main finders of this organization is Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and of course...

• Economic Growth

Examination of Copper: Definition and Origin

Copper is a soft pure reddish-orange metal first found in Mesopotamians, around 6000 years ago. Its price is often viewed as one of the early indicators economic health. The demand for the metal grew 3 percent in China in 2018 with growing investment in the...

The Importance of Open Source Software for Chinese Tech Firms

As companies plow more and more investment into AI research, China has finally woken up to the realisation of open source and how it can shape the development of a field that’s becoming more and more attractive. Over the last few years, open source has...

• Open Source Software

The Characteristics of Islam and Muslims in China

When I was young, I think that Muslim is only in the Malaysia, India, and Indonesia, but actually no, Muslim are all over the world such as China, Russia, and so on. Thus, I decided to study about Muslim in China, because some of the...

The Rise of the West and State of China Under the Ming Dynasty

Looking back on world’s history, the 1500s were a major turning point. Civilizations in this century played a huge role in shaping the world to be what it is right now. Cultures of the Ming Empire, Ottomans and Europeans led to ascend of the predominant...

• Civilization
• Ming Dynasty

Comparison of the Human Wellbeing in China and Australia

Human Wellbeing refers to the aspect and growth experienced by people as entities and as an association. The World Health Organisation (WHO) outlined the condition of life as an associate with a quote “individual’s impression of their situation in the activity within the situation of...

• Human Development Index

Analysis of Foreign Affairs Between China and European Union

China's Policy Papers, EU-China Summit and One Belt One Road Initiative The EU and China are both characterized by multiple identities: they can't be considered as conventional nations because, in reality, they are two huge, assorted, multiethnic and multinational political entities. These diverse personalities become...

• Foreign Policy

Comparison of The Roman Empire and The Han Dynasty During Their History

Abstract In this paper, I will discuss the differences between both the Roman Empire and the Han empire. In this paper, I will discuss detailed information on both empires, rulers of both empires, and wars between both empires over the course of the empire's lifespan....

• Han Dynasty

Ancient Chinese and Roman Approaches To Warfare

War traces back to the beginning of civilization, with the earliest pictographs of war dating to around 3500 BCE. Political entities, nations, and city-states fight wars to resolve disputes and armies made up of soldiers or mercenaries carry out the conflict on a battlefield. Carl...

• Ancient Rome

The History of Chinatown and Chinese Immigration in Manhattan

Chinatown in New York was first established in about 1870 s which is a “Home” for large numbers of Chinese immigrants to gather and live together in the United States. Thus, Chinatown can be seen as the historic product of Chinese immigration. With the development...

The Cultural and Traditional Settings of Singapore's Chinatown

The mid-day sun was merciless, roasting the streets of Chinatown. Glorious food scents mixed with the rich tatse of garlic, onions, and stir-fry perfumed the air, an alluring mix that lured us to an alley. Before us, picturesque rustic Chinese shophouses elegantly mirrored the orange...

The Authoritarian Roles in Kipling's Opinions Addressed in His Work

In the article “The White Man’s Burden”, Kipling discusses about how the message about the sacrifice of whites during the war in Philippines along the world. Kipling’s poem has been a periodic or critical in some kind of fashion while delivering the message poem to...

• The Man Who Would Be King

The Secret Identity of Chinese Women in the 1800s China

For a large period of time women throughout the world, especially in China were seen as wives who were intended to cook, clean and take care of their children. Women in rural areas spent their entire days taking care of the house and looking after...

The Political and Economical Effects of Ming Dynasty on China

The Ming Dynasty ruled China from 1368 to 1644 A.D., during which China's populace would double. Known for its exchange development to the outside world that built up social ties with the West, the Ming Dynasty is likewise associated with its show, writing and famous...

Ming Dynasty: The Worst Six Weeks of Beijing History

China has been under the rule of the Qing Dynasty for the last 40 years. However, many residents were alive during the Ming-Qing transition and still remember the last days of the late Ming Dynasty. Many Ming and Manchu residents alike agree that the events...

The Emergence of Porcelain Production with the Ming Dynasty

Introduction The Ming dynasty (1368-1644) was an age of “cultural restoration and expansion”. Official kiln was constructed in Jingdezhen to create ceramics exclusively use by the court which led to an introduction of court-dictated styles in the crafts, emphasising edifying and realistic representation. Characters, scenery,...

The History of Censorship in China

Imagine this: a world without Google, Youtube, or Instagram. The horror. Such a scenario would be almost inconceivable to any internet user who regularly relies on search engines to have easy access to endless information, streaming services to procrastinate on work, and social media to...

Importance of Qin’s Terracota Warriors Tomb in Historical Side

First emperor in china was Qin Shi Huang who was the first king of Qin. Qin Shi Huang is believed to have had remarkable leadership skill and a superb mastery of the arts of war. He is also known as anti-intellectual king but also remains...

• Terracotta Army

Similarities Between the Terracotta Warriors Emperor Qin Mausoleum and Ancient Egyptians Tombs

A funerary artwork under the name of Terracota warriors from mausoleum of the first Qin emperor of China was based on the first emperor to unite China, Qin Shihaung (259-210 B.C.E). Qin Shihaung wanted to achieve immortality, leading him to build himself a tomb in...

The Chinese Terracotta Armies: Loyal Warriors of the Emperor

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The TWOC Gaokao Essay Guide

• June 15, 2017

Photo Credit:

Our tips for the most mind-boggling prompts from this year’s essay tests.

As anyone with standardized-testing experience knows, one of the most frustrating sections in any exam is the essay-writing segment. Unlike a multiple-choice questions, there’s as it’s impossible to just guess the right answer based on your favorite letter from A to D.

The gaokao is no different in this respect and, with the exam period finally over , we take a look at some of the essay prompts offered in various regions and what we think they mean.

[ Editor’s note: The examiners’ approach varies widely from city to city. For example, Beijing offers two essay topics along with a detailed summary of different requirements. Shanghai simply offers a single topic, and a suggested word count. Our own suggested safe answers are merely that—suggestions—based on what previous years’ examinees have answered and online commentary by test prep experts. ]

Shanghai Gaokao Language Exam

Fortunetelling. Life is full of variables. Some are very happy to have their fortune told, others are not. Please write an essay that discusses your thoughts.

Requirements: Come up with your own title and write at least 800 words.

Safe answer: Take a stance on whether people should listen to predictions and forecasts, both on micro and macro levels.

Beijing Gaokao Language Exam  

Write at least 700 words on one of the following two topics:

1) Regarding Bonds

This essay topic is more flexible, down to earth, can be related to family, society and ethnicity, ideas of a nation. There is much that can be written on this topic.

Bonds connect people and things. Public feeling requires the agglomeration of bonds, power requires bonds to act together. In today’s world, globalization, cultural exchange, historical inheritance, social stability, and harmonious campuses all require bonds. Please write an argumentative essay on the theme of “Regarding Bonds.”

Requirements: Take a clear position, make abundant use of evidence, arrive at reasonable argument.

2) My Country, I Take Photos for You

Our republic will celebrate its 100th birthday in 2049. Pretend that you will be tasked with taking pictures that demonstrate the great achievements in the revival of the Chinese civilization. What kind of images will you choose? Please be creative, and write a narrative essay on the theme of “My Country, I Take Photos for You.”

Requirements: Be plausible, have narrative and descriptive elements, can write about major themes or describe a small scene as metaphor for a larger theme.

Safe Answer: Regarding Bonds, emphasize the benefits of strong familial bonds, how this makes efficient members of society, and why this makes China great

Safe Answer: “My Country, I Take Photos for You” offers examples of China’s achievements, so discuss these. There are some moments that should not be illustrated and discussed, as they do not shine a positive light on China, even if they play an important role in the country’s history.

Tianjin Gaokao Language Exam

Please write an essay according to the following requirements:

We grow up surrounded by elders and think that we understand them. However, each elder is like a thick book. Once reopened, we discover their life truths, traditions, and the imprints of the generation. In turn, we find out more about ourselves, recognize their growth and maturity in our childhood, and realize our similarities and differences.

At the age of 18, we have grown up. When we reread [our elders] today, it is as adults that we converse with them and recognize their souls in rational encounter. Please combine analysis of your life experiences and write an essay around the theme of “Rereading the Book on Elders.”

Requirements: 1) Write from your own perspective, with your own title; 2) No style restrictions (except poems and songs), write in a distinctive style; 3) At least 800 words; 4) No plagiarism.

Safe Answer: Explain why listening and respecting elders is important, and how they have positively affected your growth. Examples of lessons learned and positive influences are a must.

Guangdong Gaokao Language Exam

Read the following passage and write the essay according to the requirements:

According to a survey of foreign students studying in China, the key words that they closely watching are: One Belt, One Road; pandas; square dancing; Chinese cuisine; the Great Wall; bike-sharing; Peking opera; air pollution; beautiful villages; food safety; high-speed rail; and mobile payments

Please choose two to three of the above key words that represent what you know about China, and write an essay to help young foreigners understand China. You are required to pick key words that are naturally connected. Pick an angle, write with a distinct style, choose your own title, and do not plagiarize. Must write more than 800 words.

Safe Answer: Please write a promotional piece to attract young foreigners to China by using key phrases that they know and would find appealing.

Sichuan Gaokao Language Paper

This year marks the 40th anniversary since gaokao was restored. In these years, gaokao has helped the country select its brightest minds, promote educational reform and social progress, and has had many other great achievements. These 40 years, the gaokao has inspired dreams, embodied the memories and emotions of many generations of students, and has seen countless families shed tears and sweat as well as their laughter and celebration.

Think back, the 1977 gaokao singled a turning point for a generation. Now today, you are together with millions of candidates, ready to take on the exam.

With either “My Views on Gaokao” or “My Gaokao” as your sub-heading, please write an essay. You are required to choose an angle and direction, write in a distinct style, and choose your own title. Do not plagiarize or write less than 800 words.

Safe Answer: Let us know how much you love the gaokao system, how it has shaped the great minds in the country, and why you were super excited for this exam period.

Try the gaokao English exam here .

Ethan Yun is a contributing writer at The World of Chinese.

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Review on Modern China

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Chinese Culture

China is one of the Four Ancient Civilizations (alongside Babylon, India and Egypt), according to Chinese scholar Liang Qichao (1900). It boasts a vast and varied geographic expanse, 3,600 years of written history, as well as a rich and profound culture. Chinese culture is diverse and unique, yet harmoniously blended — an invaluable asset to the world.

Our China culture guide contains information divided into Traditions, Heritage, Arts, Festivals, Language, and Symbols. Topics include Chinese food, World Heritage sites, China's Spring Festival, Kungfu, and Beijing opera.

China's Traditions

China's heritage.

China's national heritage is both tangible and intangible, with natural wonders and historic sites, as well as ethnic songs and festivals included.

As of 2018, 53 noteworthy Chinese sites were inscribed on UNESCO's World Heritage List: 36 Cultural Heritage, 13 Natural Heritage, and 4 Cultural and Natural Heritage .

China's Performing Arts

• Chinese Kungfu
• Chinese Folk Dance
• Chinese Traditional Music
• Chinese Acrobatics
• Beijing Opera
• Chinese Shadow Plays
• Chinese Puppet Plays
• Chinese Musical Instruments

Arts and Crafts

• Chinese Silk
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• Ancient Chinese Furniture
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• Chinese Lanterns
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• Ancient Porcelain
• Chinese Calligraphy
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• Chinese Cloisonné
• Four Treasures of the Study
• Chinese Seals

China's Festivals

China has several traditional festivals that are celebrated all over the country (in different ways). The most important is Chinese New Year, then Mid-Autumn Festival. China, with its "55 Ethnic Minorities", also has many ethnic festivals. From Tibet to Manchuria to China's tropical south, different tribes celebrate their new year, harvest, and other things, in various ways.

Learning Chinese

Chinese is reckoned to be the most difficult language in the world to learn, but that also must make it the most interesting. It's the world's only remaining pictographic language in common use, with thousands of characters making up the written language. Its pronunciation is generally one syllable per character, in one of five tones. China's rich literary culture includes many pithy sayings and beautiful poems.

Symbols of China

Every nation has its symbols, but what should you think of when it comes to China? You might conjure up images of long coiling dragons, the red flag, pandas, the Great Wall… table tennis, the list goes on…

Top Recommended Chinese Culture Tours

• China's classic sights
• A silent night on the Great Wall
• Relaxing in China's countryside
• China's past, present, and future
• The Terracotta Amy coming alive
• Experience a high-speed train ride
• Feed a lovely giant panda
• Explore China's classic sights
• Relax on a Yangtze River cruise
• Walk on the the Great Wall.
• Make a mini warrior with a local family.
• Pay your respects at the pilgrim's holy palace.

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Five of the best books to understand modern China

From a poetic memoir of social repression to a study of the lasting impact of the Cultural Revolution – these titles are a good place to start if you want to know more about the country and its people

I t is the world’s second-biggest economy, the next big threat to global security and a country ruled by an authoritarian regime that is increasingly making its power felt beyond its borders. But the most important part of China is the population of 1.4 billion diverse, tricky and resilient people whose choices are often very distant from the decision-makers in Beijing. These books are an introduction to the forces that have shaped China’s recent past and the people living in its present.

Red Memory by Tania Branigan

What was the Cultural Revolution? The decade of mass killings, political purges and the ruthless assertion of power “is impossible to understand”, writes Branigan, the Guardian leader writer and former China correspondent. Nevertheless, it is central to understanding China today. Rather than focusing on a historical analysis of how such fervour and hatred tore across the country, Branigan focuses on the people whose lives were upended by that period of social remoulding. Crucially, she argues convincingly, the Cultural Revolution is not just a historical curiosity: its terror, and efforts to forget the depravity wreaked by campaign, continue to be felt.

Leftover Women by Leta Hong Fincher

When Hong Fincher first published her landmark book about gender inequality in China in 2014, China’s birthrate was 14 per 1,000 people. By January 2024, just after the updated 10th anniversary edition of Leftover Women was published, that number had halved . Understanding why more and more women are rejecting the social and political pressure to become mothers also requires understanding why Chinese women are so disenchanted with marriage. In accessible, entertaining prose, Leftover Women guides the reader through the economic and social inequalities embedded in marriages in China that are so off-putting for increasingly educated young women.

The Souls of China by Ian Johnson

In this lively and fascinating book by a veteran chronicler of grassroots China, Johnson explores the inner and outer lives of the hundreds of millions of people who claim adherence to some form of spirituality under the shadow of the officially atheist Chinese Communist party. As well as the Christians and Muslims who have a particularly hard time expressing their religious beliefs – especially the latter group who have seen their mosques razed and communities oppressed at an extraordinary scale in the past decade – Johnson explores the complex and often contradictory role of blended teachings from Buddhism, Taosim and Confucianism. The result is a humane portrait of Chinese society that reveals more about everyday life in China than any political text.

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Owlish by Dorothy Tse, translated by Natascha Bruce

This haunting “anti-fairytale” is about Prof Q, “a hack teacher in a debased, cultureless little city”. He embarks on an extramarital affair with a lifesize ballerina doll in a novel that is absorbing, erotic and at times nightmarish. Owlish, an allegory about Hong Kong, is set in the fictional world of Nevers, which is being remoulded by its more powerful neighbour, Ksana, with the help of obedient bureaucrats, such as the professor’s wife. But Prof Q’s love-blinkered ecstasy leaves him blissfully unaware of the changes happening around him, despite the protests of his students. Translated into English by Bruce, Tse’s evocative prose brings to life Nevers’ – and Hong Kong’s – rich cultural life as well as its changing political landscape.

Waiting to Be Arrested at Night by Tahir Hamut Izgil, translated by Joshua L Freeman

Understanding what life has been like in Xinjiang, the vast region of north-west China where Uyghurs and other mainly Muslim minorities have been subjected to a brutal regime of religious and social repression, is incredibly difficult. Few journalists are able to visit the region; those who have left are often fearful of speaking out because of concern for their relatives at home. So Izgil’s poetic memoir, evocatively translated by Freeman, is an important account. All the more so because it illustrates not just what it is like to have your every move and even your DNA monitored, but also the atmosphere of looming dread that permeates everyday life in Xinjiang.

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Good Government And Politics In China Essay Example

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Law , Government , Communism , Criminal Justice , China , Society , Culture , Politics

Words: 3250

Published: 03/09/2020

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Various factors contributed to the creation of communism in China. These factors include: Confucian culture Confucian culture is a key aspect of the Chinese society as it has played a significant role in the making of a communist culture. In the traditional Chinese society, Confucianism was the governing dogma of the ruling elite. The ideology first came into existence after 200 BCE and remained the country’s orthodox ideal for almost 2000 years. Even though, the introduction of communism resulted in numerous changes in various aspects of the Chinese society, Confucian elements still influence China’s political society. Ritual is a vital element of the Confucian culture as it is the expresses human virtue. This entails the kindness and benevolence that human beings should portray to each other as well as the character that a society shares in common. Over the year’s moral elitism, ideological indoctrination and ideological centralization has typified the Confucian culture, which has provided the central ruler with the power and authority to impose certain values and ideals on citizens. In this sense, as traditionally seen the Chinese emperor defined the appropriate values, which is also evident in the communist culture. The Confucian doctrines promote and support communist ideals and has significantly influenced communism in various ways. Confucianism is viewed as a collectivistic – based ideology that promotes as set of values that direct societal behavior. Therefore, adherence to the set norms will ensure that individuals support collective values of the society. Consequently, Confucianism emphasizes on self- cultivation at the collective and individual level aiming at enhancing human relationship. In this way, the collectivistic nature tends to regulate personal and public life. This nature is evident in the contemporary China, especially, in the CPC (Communist Party of China). Consequently, Confucian culture has been viewed as authoritarian as it requires citizens to accept fully and respect the centralized power of leaders. These elements of Confucianism have contributed to communism in China.

Foreign Invasions and Historical Trauma

The fall of the Chinese imperial state, as well as the Qing Dynasty, resulted due to various factors including external invasions, internal rebellions, and colonization. The failure to successfully rebel against the external invasions had a significant impact on the Chinese political scene. Proponents argue that the failure of the Chinese state in the nineteenth century led to communism. The mid-nineteenth century marked the beginning of colonization by Western powers who affected the political development of the Chinese State. Consequently, the Opium Wars between Britain and China destabilized the Qing dynasty. The defeats and challenges that faced China resulted in major humiliation from the East and West between 1894 and 1902. At the same time, foreign countries were dividing the country into “spheres of influence” as well claiming trading rights to various. The foreign countries included France, Britain, Germany, and Russia, which devastated China’s sovereignty and consequently resulted in nationalistic hatred towards foreigners. These factors led to a historical dislocation and collective trauma shared among the Chinese people. This encouraged a collective response from the Chinese society that promoted the creation of a communist state. The creation of a communist culture was guided by ideological totalism characterized by a series of events such as the 1919 May Fourth Movement, nationalist uprising and the communist movement.

May 4th Movement

The Chinese atmosphere typified by hatred, anger, psychological trauma and humiliation led to the May Fourth Movement. The movement started in 1919 and marked the beginning of the process that introduced new ideologies into the Chinese culture. Central to the ideologies was the Marxism-Leninism, which appealed many radical students and scholars. The students and scholars sought to transform the political culture of the Chinese society after years of humiliation. Students and faculty introduced the movement before the rest of the Chinese population was involved. The movement is considered as a major ideological and cultural upheaval as it attacked numerous aspects of the Chinese tradition, thus changing the societal views. Therefore, the May Fourth Movement sought to recreate a new way of life, culture and way of thinking for the Chinese people and, as a result, marked a historical turning point. The transformation of China’s history resulted in a culture characterized by ideological totalism, which led to a new age of political transformation and reconstruction. The proponents of the movement, students and faculty, believed in a “New Culture Movement” that would transform and remodel the beliefs of the Chinese people. The transformation would lead to a unifying ideology. The movement had a profound influence on communism because revolutionary leaders who founded the CPC such as Mao Zedong Li Dazhao, and Chen Duxiu were involved in the May Fourth Movement.

Russian Communist Revolution

In the course of transforming their culture and civilization, the Chinese society was given hope by the Russian communist revolution. The revolution also referred as the “October Revolution” occurred in 1917 successfully resulted in the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union became a model that the Chinese intellects wanted to emulate. The transformation that occurred in the neighboring state provided the Chinese with a new vision of social transformation and reconstruction. As a result, the May Fourth Movement borrowed the ideals of the Soviets such as the Marxism-Leninism.

Marxist-Leninist ideological totalism

The total vision of transforming the traditional culture based on the Marxist-Leninist ideological totalism resulted in the creation of a communist state. From total disillusionment in their culture and embarrassment due to the failures to fight western powers, the Chinese people began to search for a new perspective and view that would transform the society. As a result, the Chinese scholars opted for Marxism-Leninism’s ideology, which was in use in the Soviet Union with success. In this way, the Chinese political transformation adopted the ideological totalism that in turn ushered in a political transformation. The transformation began with the May Fourth Movement that aimed at transforming and remodeling the attitude and culture of the Chinese people and thus created a collective ideology. The totalistic ideology adopted by the May Fourth scholars had a political influence throughout the country as it became a factor that contributed to communism.

There are various superficial similarities related to the aspects of power, organization, and ideology between traditional and contemporary China. However, it might be difficult to identify the differences, which makes it necessary to focus the nature of the political institutions in both periods. Conversely, it would be vital to focus on the guiding principles, ideologies, the nature, power relationships, and the inner workings of these institutions. By analyzing the aforementioned considerations, it will be possible to determine the ideological, organizational and power differences between traditional and contemporary China. In both the traditional and contemporary China, the party remains to be the center of power. The party is at the top of the power structure pyramid in China’s party-state. In this position, the party represents the nation in totality and assumes total guidance of the nation’s goals. For this reason, the party controls, integrates, intertwines, and commands all state sectors, as well as the political and military institutions. The party captures the functioning and the nature of the political reality and structure in China, both in the traditional and contemporary China. The power structure is totalistic and indivisible in both periods. Ideologically, the formation of the party state follows the “four cardinal principles,” whose purpose is to ensure that the nation prospers. The four cardinal principles include the adherence to Mao Zedong Thought and Marxism-Leninism, adherence to the socialist system, CPC’s leadership, and the proletariat dictatorship. Ideologically, the maintenance of CPC’s leadership means maintaining political leadership over state policy. This position calls for the maintenance of absolute leadership over the state apparatus, which are inclusive of the military as well as other facets of democratic dictatorship. Maintaining leadership of the party requires adherence to the principles of managing governmental cadres, which overrides ideology and multi-party cooperation. In order to outline the differences in power, organization, and ideology between the two periods, it would be vital to take note of the formation of the Chinese political culture. In traditional China, political actions were taking place in the subject cultural contexts that were inclusive of Confucianism and Chinese civilization. These contexts comprised of the dominant forces shaping the Chinese political development. The progress was characteristically violent, revolutionary, communistic, and experienced peasant uprising. Contrary to traditional China, there is a possibility of determining that the changes in the political changes in contemporary China are somewhat insignificant. However, the sectors that experienced significant changes were inclusive of the legal, economic, and social areas. For this reason, several Chinese political analysts posit that the reforms and changes led to regime changes in the post-Mao government. The alterations include the characteristic movement away from communism that features the Leninist party-state, which is presumably outdated. In spite of the insignificant changes of the power structure, there were attempts to create a loosened-up political environment. Some of the considerations that would create such an environment included the creation of a more tolerant orientation towards debates on political reforms. Such a consideration could not take place in traditional China, where the party exercised power over anything political or social in nature. The other changes were inclusive of the creation of more press freedom, as well as the lifting of a number of political taboos within the policy line of the ruling party. Some of the organizational differences existing between traditional and contemporary China comprised of the implementation of political reforms based on pragmatism and rationality. The reform considerations were administrative in nature. The reform processes were inclusive of the separation of the functions of the state from those the party had the right to perform. In this case, the reforms were necessary for decentralizing the decision-making processes, ensuring the streamlining of the administration and increasing the effectiveness of work. Conversely, the reforms were vital for regularizing the state’s legal system. Even though, the decentralization of administrative power did not go through, the implementation of regularization of the legal system was rational. Changes to economic decision-making initiatives were necessary for ensuring a freer market. For this reason, the changes were not for altering the regime in China, but for rationalizing the legislative, legal, and administrative systems within the existing political climate. The changes were necessary for the institutionalization of the aforementioned sectors to ensure that there are actual economic achievements.

The post-Mao regime has not moved away from Leninist-party state ideologies. The political nucleus that drives the China's system after the rule of Mao is still embedded in communism. Political overhaul in the government of China has not yet happened, a factor that also depicts the deep-rooted ideologies of the Mao's political system of communism. Nonetheless, there are significant economic changes that are plausible as well as institutional and administrative changes. However, these changes are not adequate to declare that the communist system of rule after Mao's regime has gone to depletion. The ideas, techniques and procedures of running the China's government are still in the container of communism, a despotic system that oppresses people. Empirical evidence from different government bodies and social organizations shows that China is still perpetrating communism despite controversies on the subject. Some analysts are hell-bent on insisting that the system of rule in China has completely changed in the post-Mao regime. The most notable evidence that depicts the perpetration of communism in post-Mao regime is the usage of state organizations as facades to hide the oppressive techniques used by the state. Party organizations use the state agencies as instruments to complete their ulterior motives in terms of authoritarian leadership. The rationale behind it is that state agencies possess the real power that is necessary for any government to run. The usage of state agencies fulfills the predominance of the party organizations, in this case, the Leninist-party state, in all societal aspects. Some of the state agencies that the post-Mao regime uses as a smoke-screen in perpetrating the hardcore ideologies are NPC, PLA and CPPCC. They manipulate these state agencies into providing an environment that allows communism to thrive at the expense of the Chinese citizens. The effect that the despotic system of rule has brought to the country has cultivated misery, repressive systems and a dearth of democracy in matters concerning legislative affairs. Moreover, China's military synthesized with other security forces are also highly politicized to guarantee the party state of an unwavering political power that is not prone to opposition and incessant threats. As aforementioned, empirical explanations and researches maintain that, the post-Mao regime is politically tantamount to the past Mao's era in terms of the relationship of party states. During Mao's era, the Communist Party of China (CPC) was the conduit through which all government and state progressions were pipelined through in a bid to produce a stagnancy of tyrannical ideologies, principles and rules. The same trend has been perpetrated to the post-Mao's era, a factor that shows that China has not walked away from the ideological structures that were planted by Mao's era. Conversely, CPC leadership has also fused the power of a legion of state institutions to ensure that all the operations in those bodies strictly follow the principles of the party. It is unfortunate that such an authoritarian party emblems the state institutions with a soiled reputation in terms of governance since the repression, corruption and totalitarianism that exudes from them is unbearable. For the numerous reasons and empirical evidence described above, it is evident that the regime of Mao has internally not changed. The economic changes that China has faced in the three decades of post-Mao era are remarkable changes but, unfortunately, do not qualify to declare that China's regime of rule has changed. Concisely, the system has experienced a "change of regime" and not a "change within the regime" since all the ideologies, principles, practices of communism are still present in the post-Mao era.

What legal changes have taken place in post-Mao China The criterion that is presumably relevant in determining the legal changes in post-Mao China would be through the definition of the rule of law. The rule of law refers to the legal due process that limits the exercise of power, thereby indicating that individuals as well as organizations are equal before the law. In spite of this description, there is no evidence supporting the fact that post-Mao China changed to identify with the rule of law. Instead, post-Mao China uses the rule of law to exercise control over the society, achieve the country’s policy goals, and maintain the existing economic and political order. However, some of the legal changes are inclusive of enforcing contracts in order to encourage market changes. Conversely, the legal changes comprised of passing administrative and criminal law in order to control arbitrary intervention from the government and to curb corruption. Enacting property law was for the protection of the profits earned by the government. With the aforementioned changes, it would be plausible to argue that the changes focus on the supreme lawmaker, whose function is to determine the manner in which laws are made. The supreme legislator, CPC, determines the political context of enforcing the laws, thereby defining, and promulgating the constitutional rules. Reasons for the definition and promulgation are to give directives to administrative organs. Conversely, it will be the responsibility for the governmental agencies to make laws needed by the party for exercising control. The legal changes that are seen in the constitution of China in the post-Mao China have affected the legal system's nature in numerous ways. Firstly, the reinforcement of the administrative and criminal laws by the supreme legislator, CPC, to restrain the capricious intervention in the government has polarized a part of the judicial system of China. The reason behind this is that the CPC has an authoritarian voice that restricts the court system to operate independently, a factor that has made the legal system of China become ineffective since all the principles it adheres to are all under the CPC's passive repressive constitution. To seek justice in China has become a Herculean task since the judges in the legal systems are largely biased and fearful of the tyrannical punishments before them if they pass the right judgment on government bigwigs among other setbacks. In effect, the legal system in post-Mao era is flawed and fraught with unnecessary fear among the juries arising from the laid foundations of despotism and autocratic principles of the party-state, CPC. However, despite the fever, that has infected a legion of the juries in the legal systems; a modicum of positive reforms has been realized in the post-Mao China legal systems. Post-Mao China has changed from the "rule by policy" to "a combination of rule by law and policy" system, a dynamic that has enabled law professionals and advisors to have largesse of mandate to perform legal tasks. Similarly, the National People's Congress (NPC) has undergone a rationalization, a factor that has also seen its fortification as well as the NPCSC (National People's Congress Standing Committee). In effect, organizational changes have been massive; hence, workers are experiencing an avalanche of relief in terms of the minimum wages to earn as stipulated in the China's constitution.

Has post-Mao China established rule of law? Why?

The post-Mao regime has not fully established rule by law, as the regime has shifted from “rule by policy” to a rule by a blend of both law and policy. As a result, vital matters such as decision-making have remained restricted to a select group, and thus, the Chinese people do not have a say over essential matters concerning the state. Therefore, the legal system remains the same because the CPC control the law-making process and implementation as well as the legislative initiation. Even though there is an effective legal system, bureaucracies and law administrators, the regime seldom respect the law, as they tend to take the principles and ideology of the party as the guide in any legal action. This is because the legal system is not viewed as an independent body as the courts are considered as an arm of the regime. In this case, post-Mao China has failed to establish rule of law since the government utilizes the law to regulate and suppress justice and the dissatisfied and thus it protects and promotes the monopolistic power of the ruling party. The post-Mao China legal system and law have ensured that the ruling class is “legally protected” from actions that might sabotage the socialist economy and interest of the regime. Thus, the party leaders can protect and retain their monopolistic power, policies, ideology, and objectives in the name of the law.

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China Feels Boxed In by the U.S. but Has Few Ways to Push Back

China seeks to project military power in the seas around its coastline, yet also faces pressure to mend relations with neighbors for the good of its economy.

By David Pierson and Olivia Wang

Reporting from Hong Kong

President Biden’s effort to build American security alliances in China’s backyard is likely to reinforce the Chinese leader Xi Jinping’s view that Washington is leading an all-out campaign of “containment, encirclement and suppression” of his country. And there is not much Mr. Xi can do about it.

To China, Mr. Biden’s campaign looks nothing short of a reprise of the Cold War, when the world was split into opposing blocs. In this view, Beijing is being hemmed in by U.S. allies and partners, in a cordon stretching over the seas on China’s eastern coast from Japan to the Philippines, along its disputed Himalayan border with India , and even across the vast Pacific Ocean to a string of tiny, but strategic , island nations.

That pressure on China expanded Thursday when Mr. Biden hosted the leaders of Japan and the Philippines at the White House, marking the first-ever trilateral summit between the countries. American officials said the meeting was aimed at projecting a united front against China’s increasingly aggressive behavior against the Philippines in the South China Sea and against Japan in the East China Sea. Mr. Biden described America’s commitment to defense agreements with Japan and the Philippines as “ironclad.”

The summit ended with agreements to hold more naval and coast guard joint exercises, and pledges of new infrastructure investment and technology cooperation. It builds on a groundbreaking defense pact made at Camp David last August between Mr. Biden and the leaders of Japan and South Korea, as well as on plans unveiled last year to work with Australia and Britain to develop and deploy nuclear-powered attack submarines.

Mr. Biden has also sought to draw India, China’s chief rival for influence with poorer countries, closer to Washington’s orbit through a security grouping called the Quad. And a high-profile visit to Washington by the Indian leader last year has intensified Chinese suspicions about India.

“China is clearly alarmed by these developments,” said Jingdong Yuan, director of the China and Asia Security Program at the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. “Chinese interpretations would be that the U.S. and its allies have clearly decided that China needs to be contained.”

In response, China has been bolstering its own ties with partners like Russia and North Korea. As recently as Tuesday, the Chinese and Russian foreign ministers, meeting in Beijing, warned the United States not to replicate the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in Asia. Zhao Leji, a senior Chinese leader, traveled to Pyongyang this week and pledged to “strengthen strategic coordination” between the countries.

The United States and its allies are “stoking confrontation in the name of cooperation, flexing muscles in the name of peace, and sowing chaos in the name of order,” the Global Times, a Communist Party newspaper, wrote in an editorial this week. On Friday, China’s coast guard patrolled the waters near the disputed islands in the East China Sea known in China as Diaoyu and in Japan as Senkaku.

But aside from pointed words and the perfunctory maritime patrol, Beijing’s options to push back against U.S. pressure appear limited, analysts said, especially as China contends with slowing economic growth and mounting trade frictions.

Its military, while rapidly modernizing, is untested and would be taking an immense risk by confronting a U.S.-led alliance. Beijing’s resolve is currently being challenged in the South China Sea, amid a standoff with Manila over disputed waters.

Tensions with the Philippines have been running high since President Ferdinand Marcos Jr., came into power in 2022 and adopted a more muscular foreign policy, which included resisting China’s vast claims to waters near its shores. Chinese boats have rammed and pointed lasers at Philippine ships, and last month a Chinese coast guard vessel injured three Philippine soldiers with a water cannon.

China has depicted the Philippines as another pawn of the United States and Japan, and sought to portray itself as a victim of U.S. aggression.

Analysts say that dismissive approach, coupled with China’s buildup of artificial islands in the South China Sea replete with military installations and airstrips, has changed the calculus of the Philippines and motivated it to embrace the United States.

China “should know better, as its own activities asserting very aggressively its territorial claims in the South China Sea would push the Philippines toward strengthening ties with the U.S.,” Mr. Yuan said.

Similarly, the Camp David summit last year underscored the depths of Tokyo’s and Seoul’s unease about China’s growing assertiveness, prompting the two Asian neighbors to set aside decades of lingering tension over colonial occupation and World War II.

Whether Mr. Biden’s strategy succeeds in deterring China in the long run remains to be seen. Nationalists in China view American alliances as fragile and subject to the whims of each U.S. presidential election. Then there’s Mr. Xi, who perceives the West to be in structural decline, and China’s ascendance as Asia’s dominant power to be inevitable.

“The Americans should not think so highly of themselves. They could not solve Afghanistan or Ukraine,” said Zheng Yongnian, an influential political scientist at the Chinese University of Hong Kong’s campus in Shenzhen. He said that China still hoped to resolve its disputes peacefully. “The reason we are not touching the Philippines is not that we are afraid of the United States.”

China has also launched a diplomatic blitz targeting nonaligned powers such as Indonesia, Saudi Arabia and South Africa. And tiny island nations in the Pacific, which hold great strategic value in the contest for naval supremacy, have also been beneficiaries of China’s charm offensive.

On Tuesday, Mr. Xi hosted President Wesley Simina of the Federated States of Micronesia, an archipelago nation of over 100,000 people that has long been part of the U.S. sphere of influence. Mr. Simina was treated to an honor guard and a red carpet en route to a meeting in the Great Hall of the People, where Mr. Xi promised more Chinese largess.

“China is ready to continue to provide support to the development of island countries to the best of its ability,” Mr. Xi said.

Days earlier, Beijing took the highly unusual step of welcoming Indonesia’s president-elect, Prabowo Subianto, and giving him a meeting with Mr. Xi. Such an honor is usually reserved for a leader after inauguration, and could reflect regret for not courting Mr. Marcos more aggressively after he took power.

Still, Beijing’s room to maneuver against Washington is limited by its struggling economy, which has been hit by a property crisis and a cratering of foreign investment. China has been increasing exports, but that has already caused friction with countries concerned about a flood of cheap Chinese goods.

The broader American pressure campaign may also be nudging China to avoid escalating tensions further. Despite its differences with the United States, China is engaging in talks between the countries’ leaders and senior officials . Relations with some neighbors, such as Australia , are slowly thawing. Analysts have noted that Beijing has also avoided escalating its military presence around Taiwan in recent months, despite the island’s election of a leader the Communist Party loathes .

“They are definitely being more cautious and demonstrating a willingness to engage,” Ja Ian Chong, an associate professor of political science at the National University of Singapore, said of Beijing. “They are realizing there are actual risks to letting frictions escalate. We just haven’t seen any substantive compromises yet.”

David Pierson covers Chinese foreign policy and China’s economic and cultural engagement with the world. He has been a journalist for more than two decades. More about David Pierson

Olivia Wang is a Hong Kong-based reporter and researcher who covers mainland China and Hong Kong. More about Olivia Wang