conjunctions in an essay

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Linking/transition words: Things you need to know...

All assignments are written in formal language.   You need to ensure that you demonstrate your knowledge and understanding alongside your ability to answer the question/solve the problem. 

Below are some ideas to help you to develop your structure and flow.

• Linking / transition words and phrases join ideas, sentences and paragraphs together. They should be used within sentences and to move from one idea to another (between sentences).   

These words and phrases indicate the direction, order and flow of ideas. Significantly, they strengthen the quality and structure of your work.

• Redundant Words - less is more.  P articularly when trying to reduce the word count, it is important to look for phrases which can be replaced with a single word.

Linking/Transition Words

Transitions link one main idea to another separated by a semi-colon or full-stop.  When the transition word is at the beginning of the sentence, it should be followed by a comma:

Among other functions, they can signal cause and effect or sequencing (see examples in the table below).

Linking words: conjunctions

Linking words within a sentence  are referred to as coordinating conjunctions.  Do not worry about the term: think about the function.

Conciseness / redundant words

Microsoft Word now has an additional feature within the Edito r - it is called conciseness or wordiness.  

• If you cannot see the Editor menu a quick tip is to hold down the function (fn key at the bottom left of the keyboard) + F7 (top line of keys).
• From the Refinements section - select Conciseness - if there are any suggestions a number will appear in the box alongside this option
• A dotted line will appear under any groups of groups
• Either select the identified text by clicking with your right mouse button OR click on the down down next to the Conciseness menu.
• MS Word will display any alternative words which you can either select and they will be replaced in your text or reject if you want to keep the original phrases.

Examples:  try to replace phrases with a single words which mean the same.

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• Related pages
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• Academic writing Illustrates the main features of academic writing so that you are aware of what it is and what it involves
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• Terms and Definitions Important words appear in your assignments and examinations. The aim of this factsheet is to help you to fully understand what they mean.

Additional resources to help you to improve your confidence and grades:-

• Writing Effectively  demonstrates the importance of: clarity, structure, relevance, argument and precision.
• Writing Mechanics  gives further examples and resources on areas including: sentence structure, vocabulary, spelling, punctuation and grammar.

Linking/Transition words - Scribbr  https://www.scribbr.co.uk/syntax/transition-words-examples/ [Accessed 10 February 2023]

There are many books concerning academic writing, look around Dewey number  808

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Use of Conjunctions in Academic Writing

Published by Alvin Nicolas at August 17th, 2021 , Revised On August 24, 2023

Conjunctions are the glue that holds different parts of the sentence together, including clauses, words, and phrases. There are hundreds of conjunctions in English, including but not limited to  since, for, if, because, for, but, on the contrary, gradually, hence, in fact, another, at last, as soon as, finally, equally, whatever, whoever, however, when, if,  and  in addition.

With conjunctions, you don’t need to write short and choppy sentences. Using simple words like “but”, “however”, or “and”, we can extend our sentences.

The three types of conjunctions are listed below. Each type service its unique purpose, but all help to put together a meaningful  sentence .

• Coordinating
• Correlative
• Subordinating

The following paragraph uses all three types of conjunctions:

Because the student procrastinated for too long, she failed her  essay  and  dissertation  assignments. The tutor provided neither a resit chance  nor any feedback.

How to Use Coordinating Conjunctions in Academic Writing

Coordinating conjunctions are the most common type of conjunctions, and most people are familiar with them.

We use coordinating conjunctions to connect independent clauses,  phrases  and words. With the help of coordinating conjunctions, we can transform short and choppy sentences into longer yet meaningful sentences.

There are seven coordinating conjunctions in English, including  for, and, nor, but, or, yet,  and  so.  You can easily remember them by memorizing the acronym “FANBOYS”.

So what does each of the coordinating conjunctions used for?

For – Explains purpose or reason (does the same job as “because”)

And – Brings two things together.

Nor – Expresses another negative idea concerning an already stated negative idea.

But – Presents contrast.

Or – Shows a choice or a substitute.

Yet – Use to put forward a contrasting idea the flows logically from the preceding idea.

So – Indicates consequence, result, outcome or effect

Coordinating Conjunctions Used in Sentences – Examples

Here are seven sentences using the coordinating conjunctions:

• I love to buy things for my home.?
• I love watching a movie and eating popcorns.
• I am neither happy nor sad.
• I like to get up early in the morning, but it’s painful to wake to the sound of an alarm.
• People often wonder whether they should put a comma before or in a sentence.
• It was early, yet we were all ready for bed after our long hike.
• He could not work from his office, so he worked from home.

Use of Coordinating Conjunctions to Join Words

Coordinating conjunctions can connect two verbs,  adjectives , nouns or other types of word.

• The participants of the research included project managers and site engineers.
• I don’t like to eat crabs orlobsters.
• He was intelligent but careless.

Use of Coordinating Conjunctions to Join Phrases

You can use coordinating conjunctions to join phrases. Following sentences use coordinating conjunctions to join phrases.

• I worked out in the gym and devoured a big meal.
• The results of the study are unquestionably interesting yet eventually unconvincing.
• I love to study at home and eat at a restaurant.

Use of Coordinating Conjunctions to Join Independent Clauses

A clause is a group of words and clauses that can stand on its own as a complete sentence. It includes a verb and a subject.

The researcher contacted several project managers for their research study, but only a handful of them ultimately participated in it.

As evident in the above sentence, the coordinating conjunction “but” demonstrates a relationship between two independent clauses that can stand on their own (expressing a complete thought).

The researcher contacted several project managers for their research study. A handful of them ultimately participated in it.

Use of Punctuation with Coordinating Conjunctions

Never use a comma when connecting two  words  or phrases.

• The data was collected through questionnaire, and interviews.
• I don’t like to eat crabs, or lobsters.
• The data was collected through questionnaire and interviews.
• I don’t like to eat crabs or lobsters.

You should not use the  comma punctuation  with the coordinating conjunctions in the above sentences before the two words or phrases are connected to a single verb (collected and eat).

On the other hand, you will need to use a comma when connecting two independent clauses.

• The data was collected through a questionnaire, and selected respondents also participated in interviews.
• I don’t like to eat crabs, but I do eat lobsters.

The clauses in the above two sentences could stand on their own as completed sentences, and therefore we joined them using comma punctuation.

How to Use Correlative Conjunctions in Academic Writing?

Correlative conjunctions join two equal parts of a single sentence. They are expressed in pairs. You must use both of them at the correct places to make one complete logical and grammatically correct sentence.

Some of the most commonly used correlative conjunctions are as follows:

• Not only/but also
• Neither/nor

In most cases, you should not use comma punctuation with correlative conjunctions. Here are some example sentences using correlative conjunctions.

• Both of them are both emotional and rational.
• Neither Mike nor John knows that I am an FBI agent.
• Not only Amanda but also Neil will miss me.
• I treated them with both love and affection.

How to Use Subordinating Conjunctions in Academic Writing?

The subordinating conjunctions create a relationship between independent and dependent clauses. Essentially, these conjunctions are used to introduce a dependent clause with reference to an independent clause.

Unlike the independent clause, a dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but it cannot stand on its own as a whole sentence. A dependent clause cannot express a complete and independent thought, so it should always be attached to an independent clause.

• Because I didn’t pay attention to the details. I wasn’t able to achieve the desired grade in the exam.
• Because I didn’t pay attention to the details, I wasn’t able to achieve the desired grade in the exam.
• I wasn’t able to achieve the desired grade in the exam because I didn’t pay attention to the details.

You can notice in the above examples that the clause “I didn’t pay attention to the details” is an independent clause but the subordinating conjunction “because” turned it into a dependent clause. Now the clause “because I didn’t pay attention to the detail” is an incomplete sentence on its own. It should be connected with an independent clause to make a meaningful and grammatically correct sentence.

The following table shows the most commonly used subordinating conjunctions for joining independent and dependent clauses. Please note that this is not the complete list of subordinating conjunctions.

In most cases, comma punctuation is not required with a subordinating conjunction. Don’t use a comma when there is a clear link between the dependent and the independent clause, and the dependent clause encloses the necessary information about the independent clause.

• She will achieve the highest academic grade in her dissertation project, if she follows the guidelines provided by her university.
• Mike panics, whenever he takes an exam.
• She will achieve the highest academic grade in her dissertation project if she follows the guidelines provided by her university.
• Mike panics whenever he takes an exam.

In contrast, you will need to use a comma at the beginning of the independent clause when the subordinating conjunction appears at the start of the sentence.

• If she follows the guidelines provided by her university she will achieve the highest academic grade in her dissertation project..
• Whenever Mike takes an exam he panics.
• If she follows the guidelines provided by her university, she will achieve the highest academic grade in her dissertation project.
• Whenever Mike takes an exam, he panics.?

Frequently Asked Questions

Why are conjunctions important in academic writing.

Conjunctions are vital in academic writing because they connect ideas, improve flow, and establish relationships between concepts. They enhance coherence, enabling a clearer, more organized presentation of arguments and helping readers follow the logical progression of your ideas.

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Grammar: Conjunctions

Basics of conjunctions.

Conjunctions are parts of speech that connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating, paired, and subordinating.

For more information about conjunctions, also see these webpages:

• Compound Sentences ,
• Varying Sentence Structure , and
• Comma Basics .

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions connect words or phrases that serve the same grammatical purpose in a sentence. There are seven main coordinating conjunctions in English, which form the acronym FANBOYS:

F: for : The teachers were frustrated, for the school had cut funding for all enrichment programs.* A: and : In this course, I will write a literature review, a case study, and a final paper.** N: nor : The students did not complete their homework, nor did they pass the test. B: but : The study is several years old but still valuable to this study. O: or : At the end of the class, the students can choose to write an essay or take a test. Y: yet : The patient complained of chronic pain, yet she refused treatment. S: so : I have only been a nurse for one year, so I have little experience with paper charting.

* "For" is rarely used as a conjunction in modern English. ** When the conjunctions "and" and "or" connect three or more words or phrases, use a serial comma to separate items in the series.

Transitional words such as "however" and "therefore" can also function as conjunctions:

• The authors agreed on the prevalence of the problem; however , they disagreed on the problem’s cause.
• Several employees complained about the new policies, and therefore , the manager held an all-staff meeting to address their concerns.

Paired Conjunctions

Paired conjunctions consist of two words or phrases that help make a point or establish alternatives. Although paired conjunctions can be helpful in structuring a sentence, they can also make sentences wordier than necessary, so use these conjunctions sparingly.

• The project will require significant investments of both time and money.
• Note: When two subjects are connected by "both…and," use a plural verb (such as "are" or "were").
• Students who did not complete the assignment received not only a poor grade but also a warning from the teacher.
• Not only did the student include full sentences from the source without using quotation marks, but he also failed to properly cite paraphrased material.
• Either the students were unprepared or the assessment was poorly written.
• Participants in the survey could either choose from a list of possible answers or write in their own responses.
• Students who did not complete the project received neither praise nor rewards.
• The staff neither followed the new policy nor asked for clarification.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions join a subordinate clause to a main clause and establishes a relationship between the two. There are many subordinating clauses, but here are some of the most common:

• as much as/as soon as/as long as
• in order to/in order that
• when/whenever
• where/wherever

There are two ways to structure a sentence using a subordinating conjunction:

• The teacher administered the test after giving instructions.
• The author must avoid bias if she wants to maintain a scholarly tone.
• I will turn in this assignment at midnight whether or not I complete it.
• After giving instructions, the teacher administered the test.
• If she wants to maintain a scholarly tone, the author must avoid bias.
• Whether or not I complete this assignment, I will turn it in at midnight.

"That" as a Conjunction for Noun Clauses

"That" has a few different functions in English. This can lead to confusion because some instances of "that" are more optional than others in academic writing.

One important use of "that" is for embedding (inserting) a certain type of  dependent clause called a noun clause into an  independent clause . Frequently, such "that" clauses serve as the direct object of a reporting verb (such as found, reported, posited, argued, claimed, maintained, and hypothesized) to introduce a paraphrase, summary, or quotation.

Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green, underline = verb; blue, italics = object

For example,

• Smith (2015) = subject
• reported = verb
• that more research was necessary = dependent clause, direct object of the verb "reported"
• The authors = subject
• hypothesized = verb
• that there would be significant results = dependent clause, direct object of the verb "hypothesized"
• Jones (2014) = subject
• asserted = verb
• t hat confidentiality was maintained throughout the study = dependent clause, direct object of the verb "asserted"
• Answer: that more research was necessary
• Answer: that there would be significant results
• Answer: that confidentiality was maintained throughout the study

In formal written English, for clarity, most academic writers choose to keep "that " when it introduces a noun clause (Caplan, 2012). Leaving out "that" can cause the reader to misread (at first anyway) the subject of the dependent clause as being the object of the reporting verb (Jamieson, 2012).

• For example, if readers see the sentence, " Smith (2015) reported more research was necessary (without 'that')," they may understand “more research” as the thing Smith reported and then have to backtrack and reread upon seeing “was necessary.”
• Any structure that leads to misinterpretation, even temporarily, can be an unwanted distraction from the writer’s message.
• In spoken English, however, "that" may be dropped in such sentences. (Intonation patterns—rising and falling pitch—give the listener clues that may not be present in writing.)

Caplan, N. (2012). Grammar choices for graduate and professional writers . University of Michigan Press.

Conjunctions Video Playlist

Note that these videos were created while APA 6 was the style guide edition in use. There may be some examples of writing that have not been updated to APA 7 guidelines.

• Structuring Sentences: Compound Sentences (video transcript)
• Structuring Sentences: Complex Sentences (video transcript)
• Structuring Sentences: Combining Sentences (video transcript)

Related Resource

Knowledge Check: Conjunctions

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What Are Conjunctions?

#scribendiinc

A detailed guide to using conjunctions properly

Conjunctions are an integral part of the English language. If used properly, they can improve almost any type of writing. From business writing to academic writing , conjunctions help create better sentences. However, using them incorrectly or not using them at all results in choppy and incoherent writing. This article will explain what conjunctions are and how to use them properly.

Conjunctions explained

A conjunction is a part of speech that functions as a connector between two sentences, clauses, phrases, or words.  We often use conjunctions in speech without realizing it. In writing, they can be effectively used in lieu of starting a new sentence. The proper use of conjunctions allows for more natural flow and rhythm in your writing. The improper use of conjunctions often results in writing that sounds choppy and disjointed.

Look at the following three sentences, for example: "I went to the store. They didn't have apples. They also didn't have hot sauce." While technically not incorrect, these sentences would sound much better as one sentence joined together by conjunctions. "I went to the store, but they had neither apples nor hot sauce."

The previous sentence used two different types of conjunctions: coordinating and correlative. Many people aren't even aware there are two types, but in an editor's world, there are major differences between the two.

Coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are the most common form of conjunctions. They are so pervasive in the English language that they are used in nearly every sentence or paragraph in some form or another. Despite the frequency of these conjunctions, their use still results in common ESL mistakes . There are seven coordinating conjunctions in total and it is very likely you’ve heard all of them many times today. While you may not be able to list them off the top of your head, there is a very simple mnemonic that can help you to remember them: FANBOYS.

F – for

A – and

N – nor 

B – but

O – or

Y – yet

S – so

These seven words function to connect two or more items of equal syntactic importance. These items can be words, sentences, or clauses. However, there is a risk associated with using coordinators, as they can lead to what is known as a run-on sentence. This is a sentence that is too heavy and contains multiple subjects. Coordinating conjunctions can lead to rambling and nonsensical sentences if you are not careful; use them sparingly. If you've used more than two coordinating conjunctions in one sentence, you've likely got a run-on sentence.

Correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are slightly more obscure, but you have undoubtedly come across them in your daily speech. A correlative conjunction, as its name implies, is a pair of conjunctions that are joined together to combine two relative parts of speech.

"It was either me or him."

In this sentence, "either" and "or" are the correlative conjunctions. They bind "me" and "him" together, insinuating an inclusive relationship. The following are the primary correlative conjunctions in the English language:

Not only… but also…     as in:  She was not only mean, but also rude.

Neither…nor…              as in: They were neither fun nor exciting.

Both…and…                 as in: He was both pleased and surprised.

Whether…or…              as in: He was not sure whether he was winning or losing.

Not…but…                   as in: They did not want to waste the day, but they stayed inside.

Correlative conjunctions often function as comparative devices. While this is not their sole function, it is the most common context in which you will see them.

Overall…

Conjunctions may breathe creative life into your writing by allowing you to combine ideas and compare clauses without having to break up your sentences into choppy fragments. They can, however, cause problems if not used properly.

If you are having problems with them, or simply want to ensure you have used them correctly, don't hesitate to send your essay or manuscript to our English academic editors . 

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Module 1: Grammar

Conjunctions.

Conjunctions are the words that join sentences, phrases, and other words together. Conjunctions are divided into several categories, all of which follow different rules. We will discuss coordinating conjunctions, adverbial conjunctions, and correlative conjunctions.

Coordinating Conjunctions

• For:  presents a reason (“They do not gamble or smoke, for they are ascetics.”)
• And:  presents non-contrasting items or ideas (“They gamble, and they smoke.”)
• Nor:  presents a non-contrasting negative idea (“They do not gamble, nor do they smoke.”)
• But:  presents a contrast or exception (“They gamble, but they don’t smoke.”)
• Or:  presents an alternative item or idea (“Every day they gamble, or they smoke.”)
• Yet:  presents a contrast or exception (“They gamble, yet they don’t smoke.”)
• So:  presents a consequence (“He gambled well last night, so he smoked a cigar to celebrate.”)

Here are some examples of these used in sentences:

• Nuclear-powered artificial hearts proved to be complicated, bulky, and expensive.
• In the 1960s, artificial heart devices did not fit well and tended to obstruct the flow of venous blood into the right atrium.
• The blood vessels leading to the device tended to kink, obstructing the filling of the chambers and resulting in inadequate output.
• Any external injury  or internal injury put patients at risk of uncontrolled bleeding because the small clots that formed throughout the circulatory system used up so much of the clotting factor.

The current from the storage batteries can power lights, but the current for appliances must be modified within an inverter.

Are the correct coordinating conjunctions being used in each of the following sentences? Explain your reasoning why or why not:

• I love boxing or sewing. They’re both a lot of fun.
• Martin is pretty good at writing, for Jaden is better.
• Juana had to choose. Would she join the red team and the blue team?
• The conjunction  or presents an alternative. However, the second sentence indicates that the speaker enjoys both activities. The correct sentence would use  and : “I love boxing and  sewing. They’re both a lot of fun.”
• The conjunction for  presents a reason. It’s unlikely that Jaden being better is the reason Martin is pretty good at writing, so a different conjunction should be used.  But would be a good fit here, since the ideas contrast: “Martin is pretty good at writing, but  Jaden is better.”
• The conjunction  and presents non-contrasting items or ideas. Since the first sentence sets up a choice, we know that Juana can’t be on both teams. The conjunction  or presents an alternative and is the correct conjunction to use in this sentence: “Would she join the red team or  the blue team?”

As you can see from the examples above, a comma only appears before these conjunctions sometimes. So how can you tell if you need a comma or not? There are three general rules to help you decide.

Rule 1: Joining Two Complete Ideas

Let’s look back at one of our example sentences:

There are two complete ideas in this sentence. A complete idea has both a subject (a noun or pronoun) and a verb. The subjects have been italicized, and the verbs bolded:

• the current from the storage batteries can power lights
• the current for appliances must be modified within an inverter.

Because each of these ideas could stand alone as a sentence, the coordinating conjunction that joins them must be preceded by a comma. Otherwise you’ll have a run-on sentence.

Rule 2: Joining Two Similar Items

So what if there’s only one complete idea, but two subjects or two verbs?

• This sentence has two subjects:  external injury and  internal injury . They are joined with the conjunction  and ; we don’t need any additional punctuation here.
• This sentence has two verbs:  did not fit well and  tended to obstruct . They are joined with the conjunction and ; we don’t need any additional punctuation here.

Rule 3: Joining Three or More Similar Items

So what do you do if there are three or more items?

• Anna loves to run, David loves to hike, and Luz loves to dance.
• Fishing, hunting, and gathering were once the only ways for people do get food.
• Emanuel has a very careful schedule planned for tomorrow. He needs to work, study, exercise, eat, and clean.

As you can see in the examples above, there is a comma after each item, including the item just prior to the conjunction. There is a little bit of contention about this, but overall, most styles prefer to keep the additional comma (also called the serial comma). We discuss the serial comma in more depth in Commas .

Starting a Sentence

Many students are taught—and some style guides maintain—that English sentences should not start with coordinating conjunctions.

This video shows that this idea is not actually a rule. And it provides some background for why so many people may have adopted this writing convention:

Are the following sentences correctly punctuated?

• Ricardo finished one song today and he wants to get three more done by the end of the week.
• My sisters leave their shoes all over the house, and forget where they put them.
• I wanted to call my friend, but she lost her phone a few days ago.
• Vesna had already chosen the green car so I took the blue one.
• Do you want to go to the planetarium or to the bowling alley?
• Ricardo finished one song today, and he wants to get three more done by the end of the week.
• My sisters leave their shoes all over the house and forget where they put them.
• Vesna had already chosen the green car, so I took the blue one.

Adverbial Conjunctions

The first artificial hearts were made of smooth silicone rubber, which apparently caused excessive clotting and, therefore , uncontrolled bleeding.

When used to separate sentences, as in the examples below, a semicolon is required before the conjunction and a comma after.

• The Kedeco produces 1200 watts in 17 mph winds using a 16-foot rotor; on the other hand , the Dunlite produces 2000 watts in 25 mph winds.
• For short periods, the fibers were beneficial; however , the eventual buildup of fibrin on the inner surface of the device would impair its function.
• The atria of the heart contribute a negligible amount of energy; in fact , the total power output of the heart is only about 2.5 watts.

Adverbial conjunctions include the following words; however, it is important to note that this is by no means a complete list.

Fill in the missing punctuation marks for the sentences below. Type the corrected sentences in the text frame below:

• My roommate decided to drive to work __ therefore __ I decided to get a ride with her.
• We needed to turn left on 140th Street. That street __ however __ was under construction.
• In other words __ we couldn’t turn on the street we needed to.
• There is a complete idea before and after  therefore . Thus, this sentence needs a semicolon (or a period) before the conjunction and a comma afterward.
• However comes in the middle of a complete idea; it just needs commas on either side of it.
• In other words comes before a complete idea. We just need a comma at the end of the conjunction.

Correlative Conjunctions

The table below shows some examples of correlative conjunctions being used in a sentence:

Rewrite the following items. Your new sentences should use correlative conjunctions. Type your revisions in the text frame below:

• She finished packing right when the moving truck showed up.
• There are two shifts you can work: Thursday night or Saturday afternoon.
• Chemistry and physics are both complex.
• The only correlative conjunction that deals with time is no sooner…than . Your sentence should look something like “ No sooner did she finish packing, than the moving truck showed up.”
• You can work either Thursday night or Saturday afternoon.
• You must choose  whether  you will work Thursday night  or  Saturday afternoon.
• Chemistry is as complex as physics.
• Just as chemistry is complex, so physics is complex.

Subordinating Conjunctions

• The heart undergoes two cardiac cycle periods: diastole, when blood enters the ventricles, and systole, when the ventricles contract and blood is pumped out of the heart.
• Whenever an electron acquires enough energy to leave its orbit, the atom is positively charged.
• If the wire is broken, electrons will cease to flow and current is zero.
• I’ll be here  as long as it takes for you to finish.
• She did the favor  so that he would owe her one.

Let’s take a moment to look back at the previous examples. Can you see the pattern in comma usage? The commas aren’t dependent on the presence subordinating conjunctions—they’re dependent on the placement of clauses they’re in. Let’s revisit a couple examples and see if we can figure out the exact rules:

• These clauses are both extra information: information that is good to know, but not necessary for the meaning of the sentence. This means they need commas on either side.
• In this sentence, the dependent clause comes before an independent clause. This means it should be followed by a comma.
• In this sentence, the independent clause comes before an dependent clause. This means no comma is required.

The most common subordinating conjunctions in the English language are shown in the table below:

All of the commas have been removed from the following passage. Re-type the passage in the text frame below, adding in the correct punctuation. Identify all of the subordinating conjunctions as well.

Thales came to the silent auction in order to win the chance to be drawn by his favorite artist. Before anyone else could bid Thales went to the bidding sheet and placed an aggressive bid. He knew he would have to come back and check on it while the auction was still open but he felt confident in his ability to win. He was determined to win the auction even if it took all of his money to do so.

Thales came to the silent auction in order to  win the chance to be drawn by his favorite artist.  Before anyone else could bid  _,_  Thales went to the bidding sheet and placed an aggressive bid. He knew he would have to come back and check on it while  the auction was still open  _,_ but he felt confident in his ability to win. He was determined to win the auction  even if it took all of his money to do so.

Note that the comma following the dependent clause “while the auction was still open” is because of the coordinating conjunction  but , not because of the subordinate conjunction at the beginning of the clause.

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Grammar Topics

Conjunctions.

A conjunction joins two or more parts of a sentence and expresses how the parts are related. There are two main types of conjunctions: coordinating and subordinating.

The principal coordinating conjunctions are and , but , for , nor , and or . They join sentence elements that have equal weight and the same grammatical character. They can connect words or entire phrases and clauses.

John had eggs, bacon, and toast for breakfast.

In the sentence above, and joins the words for the breakfast items. It also shows how they are related. John had all three things for breakfast, not merely one or two of them.

The train had to make several extra stops, but Ming still managed to arrive at work on time.

In the sentence above, but joins two independent clauses and shows how they relate to each other. Here but means “on the contrary,” or “notwithstanding.” The fact that the train had to make extra stops might have made Ming late. He got to work on time despite the delay.

Sometimes coordinating conjunctions are preceded by correlatives. Examples are both . . . and , neither . . . nor , and not only . . . but also . These correlative conjunctions heighten the parallelism of the units that they join. The units joined should be in the same grammatical form.

The film was both loved by the public and panned by critics.

In the sentence above, the correlative conjunction both . . . and joins two verb phrases that are in the same form.

Subordinating conjunctions, unlike coordinating ones, do not join words or phrases that have equal weight. They often introduce adverbial clauses that modify or qualify the main clause or the main verb of the sentence.

They drove until they ran out of gas.

In the sentence above, the phrase ran out of gas works as an adverb modifying the verb drove , and until is the subordinating conjunction. Other common subordinating conjunctions are after , although , as , as if , as long as , because , before , since , so that , and while .

Some words that work as subordinating conjunctions can also be prepositions. But prepositions always introduce a noun or noun equivalent, whereas subordinating conjunctions introduce a subject-verb combination. In the sentence They drove until dawn , until is a preposition.

The word that , when used as a subordinating conjunction, introduces a noun clause that does not modify the main clause or its verb.

I heard that you bought a new car.

In the sentence above, that is a subordinating conjunction. It does not modify heard , though. Rather, it answers the question, What did I hear?

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Home / Guides / Grammar Guides / Conjunctions: And, But, Or and More!

Conjunctions: And, But, Or and More!

A conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, clauses and sentences. They allow us to link ideas and form long, complex sentences instead of short, staccato statements. If you watched the School House Rock episode  ”Conjunction Junction what’s your function?”  as a child, you’re well aware that “ and, but  and  or  will get you very far” as the three most commonly used coordinating conjunction examples. However, this gang of little linking words is much bigger than just the conjunction junction trio, with subordinating and correlative types too. And their abilities are impressive for words that are often made up of just two or three letters. We’re going to look at the conjunction meaning in much greater detail, but this  useful reference  will reiterate the basics.

If you find that you’re struggling with the conjunction definition or another element of grammar, such as  preposition ,  interjection , or  determiner , you can use the grammar tool at EasyBib Plus to check your paper for errors. And if you’re referring to other sources within your work, EasyBib Plus can also help you to cite them correctly in MLA format, APA format , and many  more styles  of citation.

Guide Overview

• Conjunction function
• Types of conjunction
• The relationship makers: subordinating conjunctions
• The two-word teams: correlative conjunctions
• The wild cards: conjunctive adverbs
• Simple vs compound
• An adverbial friend
• Follow the rules
• Break the rules
• Matching the verb
• List of conjunctions
• Still struggling?

Conjunction Function

The simple answer to the question “what’s a conjunction” is that it’s a bridging word used to join various elements of a sentence, or to link entire sentences to create a more cohesive idea. These amazingly useful words can be used to connect:

• Red  and  white.
• Tea  or  coffee.
• Cloudy  but  dry.
• Try the chocolate cake  and  the vanilla pudding.
• Sit on the big red chair  or  the squishy blue cushion.
• We’re not going back to that restaurant  because  I didn’t enjoy the food.
• My grades have improved  since  I started taking extra tutoring.
• No-one expected Jenna to finish the race.  But  she won the gold medal!
• Pro-  and  anti- government supporters gathered for the protest.

These clever connectors work well with all of the main word types (noun,  adjective , verb, etc.). For example:

• Nouns  — I like both dogs  and  cats.
• Verbs  — I won’t walk  or  cycle if it’s raining.
• Adjective  — Ice cream is tasty  but  unhealthy.
• Adverbs  — I didn’t work quickly  nor  quietly.
• Pronouns  — The money is yours  and  mine.

Types of Conjunction

These linking words come in various different guises, with their own specific functions. The main types are coordinating, subordinating and correlative. Let’s take a look at each in turn.

The FANBOYS of Grammar: Coordinating Conjunctions

The most common coordinators are  for, and, nor, but, or, yet  and  so —which conveniently lend themselves to the acronym FANBOYS, to make them easier to remember. These FANBOYS deserve their own big fan base for giving us the means to form complex, interesting sentences, instead of robotic sequences of short statements.

For example, take this sentence:

I like swimming. I like diving. I don’t like getting my hair wet. I don’t like getting water in my ears.

It’s rather stiff, but add in a common coordinating conjunction or three:

I like swimming  and  diving,  but  I don’t like getting my hair wet  or  water in my ears.

You’ll notice that the result is far more natural and flows much better.

One more example:

Sarah works hard at school. Sarah always completes her homework on time. Sarah doesn’t good grades.

Sarah works hard at school,  and  always completes her homework on time,  yet  she doesn’t get good grades.

These short but sweet connectors are used to join words, phrases, clauses and even sentences that are of equal importance, i.e., the emphasis is not placed on one or the other.

For example:

• Linking words  — I like swimming  and  diving.
• Linking phrases  — I like swimming in the pool  and  in the sea.
• Linking clauses  — I like swimming,  but  I don’t like getting my hair wet.

In these examples, each of the joined elements is of equal importance. In the case of the clauses, this makes them independent clauses. A sentence that contains two independent clauses is known as a compound sentence.

If you’re feeling confused by sentence structure, the next section should help.

Independent or Dependent?

It’s really difficult to understand this word type without first understanding sentence structure. Hopefully, this section will make the varying clause combinations less of a mystery. However, if you’re still struggling with sentence structure or with how to define conjunction, you can  find more info  at this useful site.

There are three main types of sentence structure to remember:

• Simple  — contains a single clause.
• Complex  — contains an independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
• Compound  — contains two or more independent clauses.

Sentences can be made of independent or dependent clauses, which you need to be able to identify. Let’s look at the difference and some examples.

An  independent clause  contains a subject and a  verb , and is able to stand alone as a complete thought. It still makes sense even if you take away the rest of the sentence.

A  dependent clause  also contains a subject and a verb, but cannot stand alone as a complete thought. As per its name, it depends on the other part of the sentence, usually the independent clause, to make sense.

• Independent clause  — I was late to class.
• Dependent clause  — Because I was late to class… (This clause cannot stand alone as a sentence, making it dependent on another clause.)
• Independent clause plus independent clause  — I was late to class,  and  I had forgotten my pen. (Linked by the coordinating conjunction  and .)
• Independent clause plus dependent clause  — I was given a detention  because  I was late to class. (Linked by the subordinating conjunction  because .)

Or alternatively:

• Dependent clause plus independent clause  —  Because  I was late to class, I was given a detention.

It’s also possible to join two dependent clauses together with a correlative conjunction. More on those later!

Elliptical Clauses

Dependent clauses can often cause confusion because they may not appear to be a clause at all. This is because the verb or the subject may be implied. This is known as an  elliptical clause . Watch out for these when learning about subordinates, which are used to link independent and dependent clauses.

To Comma or Not to Comma?

Now that is the question that can often catch people off guard! This word type and commas have a difficult relationship. However, if you stick to the rules, you can’t go far wrong. The usual rules are as follows.

Independent clause plus independent clause  — add a comma after the linking word.

Sarah always works hard at school,  and  completes her homework on time.

Some writers argue that, if the independent clauses are short and balanced, the linking word serves in place of the comma, making a comma surplus to requirements.

Sarah always works hard at school  and  completes her homework on time.

You might want to discuss this point with your lecturer. However, whichever punctuation you agree upon, remember that consistency is key.

Independent clause plus dependent clause  — no comma.

I slipped on the path  because  it was icy.

Dependent clause plus independent clause  — add a comma after the dependent clause.

Because it was icy, I slipped on the path.

The Relationship Makers: Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions are used to join independent and dependent clauses. There are far more members in this gang than there are in the FANBOYS gang.

Common single word examples include:  after, before, because, since, as, if, although, though, once, than, that, unless, until, while, when, where, whereas.

You’ll also find examples of this word type that are made up of more than one word. For example:  as if, as long as, even if, even though, if only, in order that, rather than, so that.

Subordinate conjunctions can be used to show a variety of different relationships between the two (or more) clauses in a sentence. Let’s look at some examples.  Note: In the case of elliptical clauses, the implied words are (enclosed).

Comparison or Degree  —  than, as, else, otherwise, rather, as much as, as far as, as well as.

• Sarah is happier  than  her sister (is happy).
• I like to read  as much as  I can (read).
• Matt doesn’t play football  as well as  his brother (plays football).

Time  —  since, until, as long as, as soon as, before, after, when, as, while.

• We had coffee  while  we were waiting.
• I have to leave  as soon as  it gets dark.
• Since  I started my new job, I haven’t had a single night off.

Place  —  where.

• I went to the cafe  where  we usually meet.

Manner  —  as if, as though.

• He led the presentation confidently  as though  he’d done it many times before.

Condition  —  if, though, unless, except, without, once.

• Once  you’ve paid the balance, the car is yours.
• I’m not talking to him  unless  he calms down.
• I can’t make a cake  without  breaking some eggs.

Reason or Concession  —  as, inasmuch as, why, because, for, since, though, although, albeit.

• Since  you won’t apologize, I’m not speaking to you.
• Arya went to the shop  because  she needed milk.

Purpose or Result  —  that, so that, in order that, such that.

• We turned out all the lights  so that  they thought we weren’t home.

Indirect Questions  —  whether, why, when.

• He wouldn’t tell me  why  it was there.

The Two-Word Teams: Correlative Conjunctions

These two-word tag teams can work together to join words, phrases and clauses that have equal weighting within a sentence. They can also be used to join two dependent clauses. Examples include:  as/as, if/then, either/or, neither/nor, both/and, where/there, so/as, not only/but also.

The rule with these perfect pairs is that they must be positioned by the parallel elements.

Sara is buying  not only  a car  but also  a motorbike.

This sentence balances because the correlatives are placed before each noun phrase (“a car” and “a motorbike”).

Matt  neither  studied for his English test  nor  finished his paper.

This sentence balances because the correlatives are placed before each verb (“studied” and “finished”).

Amber wanted to win  both  the gold medal in the 200m race  and  the gold medal in the 500m race.

This sentence balances because the correlatives are placed before each  noun  phrase (“the gold medal”).

Amber wanted to  either  win the 200m race  or  set a new record.

This sentence balances because the correlatives are placed before each verb (“win” and “set”).

The Wild Cards: Conjunctive Adverbs

When an  adverb  is used to connect two parts of a sentence it’s known as a conjunctive adverb. The list of these often not-quite-so-little linking words includes:  accordingly, also, besides, consequently, conversely, finally, furthermore, hence, however, indeed, instead, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, otherwise, similarly, still, subsequently, then, therefore, thus.

The grammar rules for this sub-category differ slightly, with the appearance of the lesser-spotted semicolon.

When used to join two clauses  — Clause; conjunctive adverb, clause.

• Kim decided to stay home because it was raining;  therefore , she could spend more time studying for her test.
• Jack was studying in the library;  meanwhile , Sarah was planning his birthday surprise.

These can also be used to join two follow-on sentences  — Clause. Conjunctive adverb, clause.

• Kim decided to stay home because it was raining.  Therefore , she could spend more time studying for her test.
• Jack was studying in the library.  Meanwhile , Sarah was planning his birthday surprise.

Sometimes you might place a conjunctive adverb in the middle of a clause. In this case it should usually be enclosed by commas.

• Kim decided,  therefore , to stay at home.
• Jack was,  similarly , trapped indoors.

Simple vs Compound

This handy connective word type comes in varying shapes and sizes. Among the simplest are the coordinators:  for, and, nor, but, or, yet  and  so  (remember  FANBOYS ?).

Other simple single word connectors include:  after, as, if, lest, once, since, than, that, though, till, when, where, while.

Compounds are made when two single words come together to form a new word. These include:  although, because, nevertheless, notwithstanding, whenever, wherever, therefore, moreover.

Phrasal conjunctives are made of two or more separate words, functioning as one. Examples include:  as if, as long as, as much as, as soon as, as though, by the time, even if, even though, in order that, in case, only if, provided that, so that, supposing that.

An Adverbial Friend

Adverbs can be used in conjunction with this word type, allowing you to add extra emphasis to the linking word. Many of the above phrasal examples fall into the category of subordinating linking words modified by adverbs.

For example,  even , when standing alone, is an adverb (in this context). Here it’s being used to modify  though , to add emphasis to the link between the two clauses.

My mom phoned  even though  I asked her not to.

Right , when standing alone, is an adverb (in this context). Here it’s being used to modify the linking word  before , indicating that she arrived very close to closing time.

I made it to the shops  right before  they closed.

Follow the Rules

As with all elements of grammar, there are some rules to remember when using these words to link words, phrases, clauses or sentences. These include the following:

Rule 1:  The parts that you are linking should be in grammatical agreement.

• I like running  and  to swim — incorrect.
• I like running  and  swimming — correct.
• I like to run  and  swim — correct.
• I work quickly  yet  am accurate — incorrect.
• I work quickly  yet  accurately — correct.
• I am a quick  yet  accurate worker — correct.

Rule 2:  Only use one of this word type to connect two elements of a sentence (unless using a phrasal or correlative). These words usually like to work alone.

• Because  the bus was late,  so  I was late for class — incorrect.
• Because  the bus was late, I was late for class — correct.

Break the Rules

The most natural place for a linking word is in-between the elements of a sentence that it is linking. Some rules, however, are meant to be broken and the main act of rebellion for this word type is that it can sometimes be positioned at the beginning of a sentence.

Subordinating Conjunctions Examples

As you’ll have noticed, the dependent and independent clauses of a sentence can often switch positions and still make sense; therefore, placing the subordinate linking word at the beginning of the sentence.

• Daniel drinks a protein shake  before  he goes to the gym.
• Before  he goes to the gym, Daniel drinks a protein shake.

This can be useful for two reasons:

While the independent clause usually dominates the dependent clause, swapping their natural positions can subtly switch the emphasis for the reader.

In the above, example one focuses the reader’s attention on the fact that Daniel drinks a protein shake. While example two focuses the reader’s attention on the fact that Daniel goes to the gym.

Using a mixture of different sentence structures can help to make your writing more interesting and engaging.

Coordinating Examples

In the case of the FANBOYS ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so ), positioning them at the beginning of a sentence is the subject of some debate. After all, isn’t the idea of these words that they link two elements together? However, you can use them to link two sentences, positioning the linking word at the start of the second sentence.

It took me seven hours to draft my  research paper . But  my journey didn’t end there.

The above is a good example of starting a sentence with a coordinate for dramatic effect. You might also use this device to convey surprise.

So Sara ate all the chocolate cake?  And  she didn’t save you any?

Or to place extra emphasis on the second part.

I lost the first race.  But  I won the second!

Breaking the rules and positioning your linking word at the start of a sentence can be a very useful device to subtly convey meaning to your reader and add extra interest to your work. However, use it too much and it will quickly lose its power!

Matching the Verb

Some words on the conjunctions list have the additional superpower of denoting whether the sentence verb should be singular or plural.

Plural Verb

• My mom  and  dad  were  in Florida.
• Apartments one  through  ten  were  empty.
• In these examples  and  and  through  indicate the need for a plural verb.

Singular Verb

• My mom  or  dad  wakes  me every morning.
• Either  apartment one  or  apartment ten  was  empty.

In these examples  or  and  either/or  indicate the need for a singular verb. Note that if you’re using a correlative, like above, to connect two subjects, it’s the second subject that must agree with the verb.

• Either  apartment one  or  apartments six and seven  were  empty.
• Either  apartments six and seven  or  apartment one  was  empty.

The same rule also applies to matching the  pronoun  to two antecedents connected with a correlative.

• Neither  Sarah  nor  her sisters ate their dinner last night.
• Neither  her sisters  nor  Sarah ate her dinner last night.

List of Conjunctions

As well as the categories that we’ve looked at above—coordinating, subordinating and correlative—this word type can also be split into categories of function. These include cumulative/copulative, adversative, disjunctive/alternative and illative.

Let’s look at these in more detail, with examples:

Cumulative/Copulative  includes  and, both/and, as well as, not only/but also.

These add one statement to another.

• I made the presentation,  and  Alice gave the speech.
• I  not only  baked the cake  but also  made the entrees too.

Adversative  includes  but, still, yet, whereas, while, nevertheless.

These express a contrast between two statements.

• Sara is small,  but  she is strong.
• I didn’t want to go to work,  yet  I still went.

Disjunctive/Alternative  includes  or, either/or, neither/nor, neither, nor, otherwise, else.

These present two alternatives.

• I’d like to holiday in Hawaii  or  Cancun this year.
• Either  do the work  or  you’ll fail the class.

Illative  includes  for  and  so .

These express something inferred from another statement.

• He’s done all the work  so  he should pass the class.
• The bus must be late  for  Sarah has still not arrived.

Still Struggling?

If you’re still struggling to answer the question “what is a conjunction,” don’t worry! It can take some time to fully understand the different types and rules of use. Understanding sentence structure and clauses is essential for understanding how to properly use and place conjunction words, which makes this element of grammar even trickier. You can  learn more here  or search online for conjunctions worksheets to practice what you’ve learned.

EasyBib Plus paper checker also has handy tools to give you extra peace of mind while you’re coming to grips with grammar. The grammar checker will help to ensure that your punctuation is perfectly placed, so you can hand in your work without worrying.

The EasyBib Plus  plagiarism checker  will also give you added confidence that your tutor isn’t going to find examples of accidental plagiarism in your work, which could result in lower marks, failing a paper or even stronger consequences. If you find sources that need to be cited, EasyBib Plus’s citing tools can help you to create citations in a wide variety of formats, including the popular APA and  MLA format , as well as Chicago/Turabian and more.

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Are conjunctions important in academic writing?

This is the third and final chapter about Conjunctions . To complete this reader, read each chapter carefully and then unlock and complete our materials to check your understanding.   

– Review the five types of conjunction in English and one type of conjunctive adverb

– Discuss how conjunctions can improve academic writing

– Explore 5 common conjunction errors that should be avoided

Chapter 1: What are conjunctions and how do they function?

Chapter 2: What are the five types of conjunction in English?

Chapter 3: Are conjunctions important in academic writing?

Before you begin reading...

• video and audio texts
• knowledge checks and quizzes
• skills practices, tasks and assignments

In this final chapter on conjunctions , we turn our attention to the specifics of this word type   in academic writing. We review the six types of conjunction that were explored in Chapter 2, we provide four benefits of improving a knowledge of conjunctions and we highlight five grammatical errors and how to avoid them. Should you wish to check your comprehension and progress and improve your English proficiency after completing this reader, unlock, download and complete our Chapter 1-3 worksheets using your Academic Marks .

What are the five types of conjunction?

It’s important that students are able to identify the five types of conjunction in English as each of these has a different but equally useful function. When studying the list below, note that we’ve included a sixth type which is actually an adverb  and not a conjunction (the conjunctive adverb):

• coordinating conjunctions such as ‘and’ and ‘but’ are used to join words, phrases and clauses together that are of equal importance. [Numerous studies have been conducted into this, but none of them were conclusive.]
• correlative conjunctions such as ‘both…and’ and ‘either…or’ also join words, phrases and clauses of equal importance; however, these may be composed of words or phrases that are placed at separate ends of an expression. [ Both the tutor and the students arrived early to class.]
• subordinating conjunctions such as ‘because’ and ‘although’ join dependent clauses to independent clauses, highlighting the importance of the independent clause in the process. Among other functions, this conjunction type may express cause, comparison and concession. [ Even though the study was a success, the theory is still unproven.]
• temporal conjunctions such as ‘as soon as’ and ‘long before’ are a type of subordinating conjunction that express aspects of time. [The results will be ready as soon as the data has been interrogated.]
• complementisers such as ‘that’ and ‘whether’ are another type of subordinating conjunction, one that joins object dependent clauses to their related independent clauses. [Jones (2020) believed that the results would show a positive correlation.]
• conjunctive adverbs such as ‘however’ and ‘therefore’ join independent clauses together and express functions such as clarification, consequence and contrast. [The results were inconclusive; therefore , the experiment was conducted again.]

How do conjunctions improve academic writing?    

There are four clear ways in which a confident use of conjunctions is able to improve a piece of academic writing: (1) conjunctions can improve grammar by avoiding sentence run-ons , (2) they can make a piece of writing more dynamic through the inclusion of a variety of sentence structures , (3) they can improve coherence and cohesion   by connecting ideas together, and (4) they can show sophistication through the expression of nuanced relationships between ideas. 

To see this in action, compare the second paragraph of our example essay about lithium. While the first paragraph is devoid of conjunctions, the second uses them accurately. Which iteration do you think is clearer, more concise and has a more sophisticated structure and grammar ?

1) Scientists believe something about lithium. It was likely created with the events of the Big Bang 13.7 billion years ago. As with many resources, this element was formally discovered in the early 1800s. This was after the development of science. This was also after the development of technology. One thing is now understood. Lithium can be found in two primary environments. One is mines, the other is brine water. The former refers to the lithium found in hard-rock formations such as in spodumene and petalites. Swedish physicist Johann August Arfvedson discovered lithium in 1817 during the analysis of petalites (a type of mineral). It then took approximately fifty more years to isolate the lithium compound. This was done by using an electric current to cause a chemical reaction known as electrolysis. The combination of two things through electrolysis is considered an expensive production process. The first thing is ore mining minerals. The second is extracting the lithium. It was a very expensive predominant method for producing lithium up until the late 1990s. From this point onwards, it then became increasingly common to instead extract lithium from brine water. Producing lithium in this way costs almost half as much as mining it. (201 words)

2) Scientists believe that lithium was likely created with the events of the Big Bang 13.7 billion years ago, but as with many resources it was not until the development of science and technology in the early 1800s that this element was formally discovered. It is now understood that lithium can be found in two primary environments: mines and brine water. The former refers to the lithium found in hard-rock formations such as in spodumene and petalites. It was during the analysis of petalites (a type of mineral) that Swedish physicist Johann August Arfvedson discovered lithium in 1817 – although it took approximately fifty more years to isolate the lithium compound. This was done by using an electric current to cause a chemical reaction known as electrolysis. The combination of mining such ore minerals and extracting the lithium through electrolysis is considered an expensive production process. This was nevertheless the predominant method for producing lithium up until the late 1990s. From this point onwards, it then became increasingly common to instead extract lithium from brine water as producing lithium in this way costs almost half as much as mining it.

Which conjunction errors should be avoided?

There are five conjunction errors that students often make that, through a process of careful editing and proofreading , can be avoided. These are listed below.

Error 1: Using the Wrong Conjunction

Because conjunctions carry meanings which identify relationships between the words, phrases and clauses they join, it’s important that students select their conjunctions carefully. Choosing the wrong one simply because it looks right will likely only have a negative impact on the coherence of your writing.

Error 2: Beginning with Coordinating Conjunctions

Another common mistake when it comes to academic style is to begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction such as ‘and’, ‘so’ or ‘but’. While this is certainly possible and common in casual speech, it is considered much too informal for academic writing and should be generally avoided:

Error 3: Incorrectly Punctuating Subordinating Conjunctions

One easy-to-forget rule is that when a subordinating conjunction and its subsequent dependent clause begins a sentence, the dependent clause and independent clause should be separated with a comma  (,). When the independent clause comes first, however, before the subordinating conjunction and the dependent clause, then the absence of a comma is considered grammatical:

Error 4: Incorrectly Punctuating Conjunctive Adverbs

Punctuation also plays an important role when using conjunctive adverbs correctly. To adjoin two independent clauses with words such as ‘however’ or ‘therefore’, for example, students should remember to either us a combination of a semicolon (;) and a comma (,) or a full stop   (.) and a comma (,):

Error 5: Confusing the Reader by Removing the Complementiser

Finally, when introducing object  dependent clauses that take ‘that’ as an optional complementiser, a good rule to follow is to keep that complementiser in place. Though it’s OK to delete the complementiser in speech, in writing you may create ambiguity by doing so that could cause the reader to have to read that sentence again – affecting the coherence of your writing. For instance, in the example below without ‘that’, the reader may for a second understand that Jones believed the results rather than believed that the results would show a positive correlation .

Very well done on completing this short reader on  conjunctions  in English!

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• Transition Words & Phrases | List & Examples

Transition Words & Phrases | List & Examples

Published on May 29, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on August 23, 2023.

Transition words and phrases (also called linking words, connecting words, or transitional words) are used to link together different ideas in your text. They help the reader to follow your arguments by expressing the relationships between different sentences or parts of a sentence.

The proposed solution to the problem did not work. Therefore , we attempted a second solution. However , this solution was also unsuccessful.

For clear writing, it’s essential to understand the meaning of transition words and use them correctly.

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Table of contents

When and how to use transition words, types and examples of transition words, common mistakes with transition words, other interesting articles.

Transition words commonly appear at the start of a new sentence or clause (followed by a comma ), serving to express how this clause relates to the previous one.

Transition words can also appear in the middle of a clause. It’s important to place them correctly to convey the meaning you intend.

Example text with and without transition words

The text below describes all the events it needs to, but it does not use any transition words to connect them. Because of this, it’s not clear exactly how these different events are related or what point the author is making by telling us about them.

If we add some transition words at appropriate moments, the text reads more smoothly and the relationship among the events described becomes clearer.

Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. Consequently , France and the United Kingdom declared war on Germany. The Soviet Union initially worked with Germany in order to partition Poland. However , Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941.

Don’t overuse transition words

While transition words are essential to clear writing, it’s possible to use too many of them. Consider the following example, in which the overuse of linking words slows down the text and makes it feel repetitive.

In this case the best way to fix the problem is to simplify the text so that fewer linking words are needed.

The key to using transition words effectively is striking the right balance. It is difficult to follow the logic of a text with no transition words, but a text where every sentence begins with a transition word can feel over-explained.

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There are four main types of transition word: additive, adversative, causal, and sequential. Within each category, words are divided into several more specific functions.

Remember that transition words with similar meanings are not necessarily interchangeable. It’s important to understand the meaning of all the transition words you use. If unsure, consult a dictionary to find the precise definition.

Additive transition words

Additive transition words introduce new information or examples. They can be used to expand upon, compare with, or clarify the preceding text.

Adversative transition words

Adversative transition words always signal a contrast of some kind. They can be used to introduce information that disagrees or contrasts with the preceding text.

Causal transition words

Causal transition words are used to describe cause and effect. They can be used to express purpose, consequence, and condition.

Sequential transition words

Sequential transition words indicate a sequence, whether it’s the order in which events occurred chronologically or the order you’re presenting them in your text. They can be used for signposting in academic texts.

Transition words are often used incorrectly. Make sure you understand the proper usage of transition words and phrases, and remember that words with similar meanings don’t necessarily work the same way grammatically.

Misused transition words can make your writing unclear or illogical. Your audience will be easily lost if you misrepresent the connections between your sentences and ideas.

Confused use of therefore

“Therefore” and similar cause-and-effect words are used to state that something is the result of, or follows logically from, the previous. Make sure not to use these words in a way that implies illogical connections.

• We asked participants to rate their satisfaction with their work from 1 to 10. Therefore , the average satisfaction among participants was 7.5.

The use of “therefore” in this example is illogical: it suggests that the result of 7.5 follows logically from the question being asked, when in fact many other results were possible. To fix this, we simply remove the word “therefore.”

• We asked participants to rate their satisfaction with their work from 1 to 10. The average satisfaction among participants was 7.5.

Starting a sentence with also , and , or so

While the words “also,” “and,” and “so” are used in academic writing, they are considered too informal when used at the start of a sentence.

• Also , a second round of testing was carried out.

To fix this issue, we can either move the transition word to a different point in the sentence or use a more formal alternative.

• A second round of testing was also carried out.
• Additionally , a second round of testing was carried out.

Transition words creating sentence fragments

Words like “although” and “because” are called subordinating conjunctions . This means that they introduce clauses which cannot stand on their own. A clause introduced by one of these words should always follow or be followed by another clause in the same sentence.

The second sentence in this example is a fragment, because it consists only of the “although” clause.

• Smith (2015) argues that the period should be reassessed. Although other researchers disagree.

We can fix this in two different ways. One option is to combine the two sentences into one using a comma. The other option is to use a different transition word that does not create this problem, like “however.”

• Smith (2015) argues that the period should be reassessed, although other researchers disagree.
• Smith (2015) argues that the period should be reassessed. However , other researchers disagree.

And vs. as well as

Students often use the phrase “ as well as ” in place of “and,” but its usage is slightly different. Using “and” suggests that the things you’re listing are of equal importance, while “as well as” introduces additional information that is less important.

• Chapter 1 discusses some background information on Woolf, as well as presenting my analysis of To the Lighthouse .

In this example, the analysis is more important than the background information. To fix this mistake, we can use “and,” or we can change the order of the sentence so that the most important information comes first. Note that we add a comma before “as well as” but not before “and.”

• Chapter 1 discusses some background information on Woolf and presents my analysis of To the Lighthouse .
• Chapter 1 presents my analysis of To the Lighthouse , as well as discussing some background information on Woolf.

Note that in fixed phrases like “both x and y ,” you must use “and,” not “as well as.”

• Both my results as well as my interpretations are presented below.
• Both my results and my interpretations are presented below.

Use of and/or

The combination of transition words “and/or” should generally be avoided in academic writing. It makes your text look messy and is usually unnecessary to your meaning.

First consider whether you really do mean “and/or” and not just “and” or “or.” If you are certain that you need both, it’s best to separate them to make your meaning as clear as possible.

• Participants were asked whether they used the bus and/or the train.
• Participants were asked whether they used the bus, the train, or both.

Archaic transition words

Words like “hereby,” “therewith,” and most others formed by the combination of “here,” “there,” or “where” with a preposition are typically avoided in modern academic writing. Using them makes your writing feel old-fashioned and strained and can sometimes obscure your meaning.

• Poverty is best understood as a disease. Hereby , we not only see that it is hereditary, but acknowledge its devastating effects on a person’s health.

These words should usually be replaced with a more explicit phrasing expressing how the current statement relates to the preceding one.

• Poverty is best understood as a disease. Understanding it as such , we not only see that it is hereditary, but also acknowledge its devastating effects on a person’s health.

Using a paraphrasing tool for clear writing

With the use of certain tools, you can make your writing clear. One of these tools is a paraphrasing tool . One thing the tool does is help your sentences make more sense. It has different modes where it checks how your text can be improved. For example, automatically adding transition words where needed.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or writing rules make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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List of Conjunctions: Learn to Use Joining Words

What’s the easiest way to memorize a list of conjunctions, also known as joining words? One answer is to break down your learning into manageable sections. Otherwise, your brain will need to learn dozens of words at once. But, what if you don’t have the time to manually divide up joining words into groups or create flashcards? Well, don’t worry! All the hard work was already done for you. You’ll find an easy to learn conjunctions list, separated by type below.

For additional help, there are even usage examples of the different types of joining words in the English language. We’ve also included descriptions of each type of conjunction list, just in case there are any word groups you’re not familiar with. So, are you ready to expand your vocabulary? Let’s begin with a coordinating conjunction list!

What is a Coordinating Conjunctions List (and Why Care?)

Learning the words on a c oordinating conjunction list isn’t difficult and it’s incredibly fun, believe it or not! That’s because there are only seven words in this category, which create the useful acronym FANBOYS . Wondering what FANBOYS stands for? Well, the acronym FANBOYS stands for the words for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so . Easy enough, right? Write down this first conjunction words list , along with the acronym FANBOYS and it should stick in your mind easily enough.

Already know about FANBOYS a nd can create a coordinating conjunction list ? Check out this helpful resource on MLA format  and  more citation styles  of formatting your citations.

Why are these words so important to remember? You’ll find that speakers and writers use these words frequently. Each one is less than four letters long and they are some of the most common words in the English language. The role they play is not a small one, as they’re able to connect two independent clauses and combine them into one sentence. Here’s the coordinating conjunction list:

• F – for
• A – and
• N – nor
• B – but
• O – or
• Y – yet
• S – so

Are you curious how to use words from the coordinating conjunction list? Look at this  explanative link , or check out the examples of how to use words from this group in a sentence below:

For  – This word has a similar meaning to “because” in a sentence.

• She was tired when she arrived in class,  for  she had studied all night.

But  – This one connects opposing ideas.

• I tried out for the basketball team,  but  I didn’t make it.

Yet  – This word is like the word “but.” However, it emphasizes the contrast even more.

• It’s snowing outside,  yet  it’s the middle of summer!

Nor –  This word joins two nouns that the subject of the sentence does NOT have or obtain.

• Monica does not know about Michael and Bobby, nor about Jessica and Susan

So/Yet – These words suggest time and continuation depending on the context.

• So far, he hasn’t told her the truth.
• They love football, yet they gave up their tickets to someone less fortunate.

Make sure to commit FANBOYS to memory and you’re one step closer to knowing your main conjunctions list .

Now that you’ve covered a coordinating conjunctions list , it’s time to move into a subordinate conjunctions list . Think you can guess the difference between the two? Though they sound similar these conjunctions have two very different functions.

A Look at Subordinate Words: A List of Subordinating Conjunctions

Since you have FANBOYS down, let’s move on to a subordinating conjunctions list. These words are slightly more difficult to learn, because many of them are also prepositions. Plus, both connect clauses in a sentence. With that in mind, you should understand that words on the l ist of subordinating conjunctions have a different purpose. Instead of joining two independent clauses of equal importance, words from a subordinating conjunctions list make one clause less important than another. You’ll see how that works in the upcoming examples. For now, here is a subordinating conjunctions list :

As you can tell, there are many more subordinates than there are coordinates. In fact, this isn’t even half of the words in a subordinate conjunctions list you can use to show importance between two clauses. Either way, let’s look at a few examples of sentences using words on a subordinating conjunctions list :

• Jason went to get a drink of water  before  his exam started.
• She’s usually a happy toddler,  provided that  she’s fed regularly.
• I always visit Disneyland  whenever  I visit my grandparents in California.
• Tyler can enjoy painting  now   that he has his own studio.

Since you can use many of the words from a subordinate conjunctions list as another part of speech, it’s good to understand how each one works as a joining word. In a sentence, words on a list of subordinating conjunctions begin a dependent clause which cannot stand alone.

For instance,  ” If  I go to the store”  doesn’t form a complete idea. Connect it with an independent clause like in the sentence,  “I’ll get a new toy  if  I got to the store,”  and you have a complete thought.

You can often tell joining words from the rest by determining whether it constructs part of a sentence that holds a complete idea. Words with multiple uses will often form a complete thought when not used as a joining word.

Want to know more joining words and a subordinate conjunctions list ? Look at this informative reference  or see this additional subordinating conjunctions list:

What’s a Correlative List of Conjunctions?

Words on a correlative conjunctions list work in pairs to join equal clauses together. They can show up in different parts of a sentence. Additionally, you will always find them working together with their counterpart. For instance, one pair from this list of conjunctions is either/or . It joins two positive clauses of equal importance to form a complete sentence. For example:

• Either  you cook me dinner,  or  I leave.

Here are some additional sentences using words from a correlative conjunctions list:

Whether/Or  – This pair functions like the word  if  by bringing up hypothetical situations and joins the two options.

• I’m wearing my new swimsuit  whether  I go to the beach  or  to the swimming pool.

As/As  – You can compare two things together using these words from a conjunctions list.

• Her sneeze was  as  loud  as  a helicopter.

There are many other joining words that come in pairs. Here’s a correlative conjunction words list:

Need a quick break? Try out our paper checker , or our citation services for MLA and  APA format ! Next, a conjunctive adverbs list will be the icing on top when adding words to the main conjunctions list. 

What’s Special About the Conjunctive Adverbs List?

The final conjunctions list to memorize contains adverbs. These adverbs join words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence just like words on your standard list of conjunctions can. Here are some example sentences containing words from the conjunctive adverbs list :

• Ted was a great student, in   addition  he was a wonderful student body president.
• Fred never missed a day of school;  as a result , he won a scholarship for perfect attendance.
• Even though Lisa is lactose intolerant,  still  she wanted an ice cream bar.

Finally, here’s a basic conjunctive adverbs list.

This adverbial conjunction list is by no means comprehensive, although it gives you a good foundation. Words on this l ist of conjunctions are also known as transition words . Try your best to memorize and don’t forget to use this as a guide when writing.

Now, you’re familiar with the different joining words. Are there any words that you don’t know the meaning of from the conjunctive adverb list ? If so, look up how to use each word and create sentence examples. With enough practice, you’ll be able to use these words like a professional writer!

Try answering these practice questions to review what you learned above.

Conjunction List Review Questions

• How many different categories are there in a conjunction list ?
• Create a sentence using a word from the list of subordinating conjunctions.
• Create a sentence using a word from the coordinating conjunctions list .
• Why is it handy to have a conjunction list when writing?

After you’ve finished, review your answers with a friend and see if you can test each other on words from a conjunction words list.  

Published March 7, 2019. Updated May 22, 2020.

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Conjunctions — Rules & Academic Guide with Examples

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Formulating coherent sentences for your essays or other forms of writing is crucial, enabling your audience to understand your message with ease. Effective sentences follow a multitude of language rules and are composed of various components, one vital element being conjunctions.

This article will delve into the subject of conjunctions, addressing popular questions around these linguistic tools, identifying their primary types, and elucidating their usage in alignment with language rules.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Conjunctions — In a Nutshell
• 2 Definition: Conjunctions
• 3 Types of conjunctions
• 4 Starting a sentence with a conjunction

Conjunctions — In a Nutshell

After you’ve learned about conjunctions, you can effectively use these words to turn simple sentences into easier-to-understand complex sentences. You can achieve this by:

• Combining the three types of conjunctions, namely: coordinating , correlative, and subordinating
• Maintaining a similar grammatical form for all the components in a sentence
• Avoiding starting sentences with conjunctions if you’re a novice

Definition: Conjunctions

Conjunctions are joining words that connect phrases, other words, and clauses to make complete sentences.

The English language has numerous joining words, but the most common ones include: when, and, because, or, if , and for .

Examples of these words in sentences include

• She had to look for other options because she had damaged the vessel.
• The tours in Texas and Boston were postponed due to her illness.
• The company offered neither refunds nor an explanation as to why their products failed, causing much disappointment to their customers.

Types of conjunctions

There are three major types of conjunctions, as explained below:

Correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are coupled—meaning they work in pairs to connect grammatically equal elements of a sentence.

Some common correlative pairs include both & and, either & or, not only & but also , and neither & nor . You don’t have to place a comma when using correlative conjunctions.

• Substance abuse leads to both physical dependence and psychological addiction.

Use a parallel structure for both sentence elements when using correlative conjunctions. This means the two components should have a similar grammatical form.

• He planned to establish an online data service by collecting either online surveys or personal interviews.
• He planned to establish an online data service company by collecting either online surveys or conducting personal interviews.

Coordinating conjunctions

There are only seven of these words in English, and they join grammatically equal items like two phrases, words, or independent clauses. These joining words appear between the items they’re linking.

As a student, you could use the mnemonic FANBOYS to memorize them: f or, a nd, n or, b ut, o r, y et, s o.

Coordinating conjunctions connect two verbs, adjectives, phrases, nouns, or any other type of word.

Note: You should not use a comma when joining two verbs, adjectives, nouns, or different word types.

• I’m not too fond of traveling or yoga.
• Do you love cats or dogs?
• She was wise but indecisive.

Examples of phrases that use coordinating conjunctions

• She bit her tongue and cried vehemently.
• You can find him in the cafeteria or at the local community center.

A clause has, in the least, a subject and a verb. An independent clause is a clause that stands on its own and still creates a complete thought.

When a coordinating conjunction joins two independent clauses, place a comma before it.

• Today, Smith and Industries is the leading industrial manufacturer , yet most people don’t know of its existence.

Also, notice that these two sentences can still make sense alone. That is:

• Today, Smith and Industries is the leading industrial manufacturer.
• Most people don’t know of its existence.

Subordinating conjunctions

These words are mainly used to introduce dependent clauses when using words like: until, because, although, if, while, and since.

Dependent or subordinate clauses are words that contain a subject and a verb, but can’t make a complete sentence on their own.

For this reason, dependent clauses must have an independent clause to make sense.

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You may have noticed that you don’t place a comma when the subordinating conjunction follows after an independent clause.

However, it would help to put a comma after the dependent clause when the subordinating conjunction begins a sentence.

• Because I had work to do the next morning, I had to sleep early.

Subordinating conjunctions help define the type of relationships between the clauses. Here are some of these words and the relationships they help express:

Starting a sentence with a conjunction

Novice authors are often advised not to begin sentences using conjunctions. However, you can start a sentence using joining words to indicate contrast, create emphasis, and more.

Also, note that this usage is widely accepted in literary and popular language, but is avoided in academic writing .

Additionally, subordinating conjunction may start a sentence only if the independent clause follows the dependent clause.

• Until you understand your employees, your company may likely never achieve maximum productivity.

A dependent clause is a sentence fragment; you should avoid it in academic writing.

• You understand your employees

This is a sentence fragment.

How are conjunctions helpful?

These words are vital because they connect complex ideas into simple-structured sentences.

Without these words, you would likely express your complex thoughts using multiple simple sentences, which might be ineffective; for example:

• I don’t like exercising.
• I like eating.
• I don’t like the weight I’m gaining.

Why do authors use conjunctions?

In most cases, authors use these words to show the contrast between ideas and create a combination of sentence styles.

Can you use two conjunctions together?

Yes, however, one must be a subordinating conjunction (although, after, because, since, etc.) and the other a coordinating conjunction (yet, so, nor, but, etc.).

For example:

• S he slipped and fell into the waters, but not because she was intoxicated.

What words can you use to summarize ideas?

Words like in brief , that is , to sum up , or to put it in another way may summarize or reword information. For example:

• Well, in brief , what does your article entail?

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70+ Connective Words To Power Up Your Essays [COMPREHENSIVE LIST]

by Kerri-Anne Edinburgh | Aug 5, 2021

When you’re writing an essay or assignment, you need to use every trick in the book to maximise your marks. And one of the best tools for radically improving your writing is the power of connective words .

Used correctly, connective words can give your writing new depth and meaning, improve readability (important for your examiner!) and demonstrate the logic of your arguments.

Luckily for you, we’ve got plenty of categories, definitions and connectives examples to help you get started…

Psst – this article uses loads of connectives. See if you can spot them in use: we’ve italicised the best examples!

What are connective words?

Simply put, connectives are words – or phrases – that link parts of your writing together.

You’re probably familiar with the most common connective words: and, as, because, but, if, or, so . In fact, I’ve used a few of them already – did you spot them?

Don’t limit your essay writing to the basics though, because there are hundreds of connectives that can help you to demonstrate different ideas, such as cause and effect , or the chronology of events .

We’re going to explore ten types of connectives below, but first , here’s a quick refresher on the grammar behind connective words:  

Definitions: The grammatical bit

Understanding the grammar behind your writing might not be your thing – but bear with me, because remembering these six definitions will help you know which connective to use when, and where to place them!

(If you’re just looking for examples of connectives, feel free to skip straight past this bit!)

Connectives fall into three grammatical categories: conjunctions, prepositions, and adverbs.

• For example: and, but, for, or, yet .
• Today , I finished my history assignment but forgot to workout .
• Such as: at, in, of, on, under .
• I need to finish the conclusion of my essay before I go to dinner.
• For instance: upwards, quickly, fortunately .
• My deadline is tomorrow. Fortunately , I proofread my thesis chapter already .

Using adverb and preposition connective words adds specific meaning – and thus clarity – to your writing. They are particularly useful for successful essay signposting .

Definitions part 2: Connectives in sentences

When using connectives, it’s also important to remember that not all sentences are created equal in importance . And so , when connecting them into longer sentences, different types of connectives create different results:

• For example: I find French tricky but I love learning Spanish.

On the other hand,

• A subordinate clause relies on the main clause to make sense. Therefore, these connectives give information about the relationship between the clauses by specifying an order or place to events, or a cause and effect link.
• Here’s an example: I need to do my homework if I want to get a good grade .

A useful type of subordinating connective for essay writing is the:

• For instance: Firstly , I carried out the experiment, and secondly , I analysed the results.

And that’s your grammar refresh done!

If you’re struggling with essay-writing grammar, a great tool for checking your writing is Grammarly * – we use it at Exam Study Expert because it catches a broad range of mistakes. Their blog is also a great place to learn how to use conjunctions , prepositions , adverbs and more.

How to use connective words

So how do you go about using connectives?

In this section, we’re going to discuss the where, what and how …

Where to add connectives:

As we’ve seen , connective words are often found in the middle of a sentence, joining two clauses. But don’t forget you can also use them at the beginning of a sentence to link two consecutive sentences – OR two ideas within your paragraphs (did you see what I did there?).

Some of your connectives will even be linking entire paragraphs and sections – these are often examples of signposting to guide the reader through your section or argument.

What’s more , many connectives are not just single words but phrases. These connectives are particularly useful for essay writing and academic vocabulary. For example: as well as, for an example of this, for instance, in addition to, on the other hand, such as .

What to use connectives for:

When you’re writing an essay or assignment there are plenty of tasks you need to achieve: presenting evidence, making arguments and more.

Happily, connectives can help you achieve all these tasks by clarifying your meaning. You can use connectives for:

• Reinforcing or emphasising a point
• Exemplifying and showing results
• Comparing and discussing points of view
• Constructing a timeline or sequence of events
• Listing points (and signposting them)
• Explaining your argument
• Drawing together conclusions

It’s a long list! So master using connectives and you’ll drastically improve the readability of your writing across all sections of your essay.

How to add in useful connective words:

You’re probably already using basic connectives in your writing.

But if you want to get serious about the benefits to your grades, make sure you’re systematic about how you add them during your essay construction – and (later) proofreading to check they make sense on a large(r) scale!

From experience, I would suggest that the best method for choosing and adding effective connectives is to:

• Sketch out a rough draft of your paragraph or essay section
• Are they separate arguments for the same thing? Or opposite points of view? Do they follow on logically (cause and effect) or chronologically?
• Mark where you want to add signposting connectives to indicate structure
• Check your examples of connective word types and choose options that convey the meaning you need…

And for that purpose, we’ve compiled four lists of connective words for you – including the TOP 70 connectives for effective essay writing! So read on…

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Types of connective words

So let’s get down to the really useful stuff: examples of connectives you can use in different situations in your essays!

There are three main types of connectives that we’re going to explore in turn:

• Comparative , Causal, and Temporal

Comparative connective words

These helpful words and phrases are perfect both for comparing similarities in data and arguments, and for pointing out their differences and oppositions. Use them to compare, discuss and argue.

When comparing points, you’ll often be adding to your argument, so these connectives are used for “ addition ”. The most common connectives for addition are: and, also, furthermore, moreover .

Here are some examples in practice:

• Leonardo Da Vinci was an artist and inventor, and also an influential Renaissance humanist.
• Exam Study Expert’s psychologist William offers expert one-on-one exam coaching . Furthermore , you can sign up for a free introductory session!
• My empirical data demonstrates that … ; similarly , theoretical models projected …

On the other hand , you might need to demonstrate and contrast your argument with the opposing point of view with a connective for “ opposition ”. The most commonly used are: alternatively, except, however, unless .

These examples all demonstrate opposition:

• Winston Churchill is best known for his wartime leadership of the United Kingdom, yet he was already in his 60’s when he took office.
• Some students find great study motivation from starting the day with their hardest task. In contrast , others find getting the ball rolling with smaller tasks more effective.
• Our first questionnaire was comprised of six questions. However , for our second questionnaire we …

Causal connective words

Causal connectives are effective for discussing cause and effect – relationships that have logical links that you want to point out and prove.

As such , academic writing is often full of causal connectives, and many of them demonstrate a very academic vocabulary (great for bonus points in your assignment!).

Most essays and assignments have a section (or several sections!) where you need to draw together your facts, ideas and arguments and point out the connections. These are the connectives to turn to at those moments!

The most commonly used are: as such, as a result (of), because, consequently, therefore, thus .

Here are some examples:

• The brains of London taxi drivers have a larger than usual area that deals with memory because they are required to memorise and navigate thousands of streets.
• Flashcards are a highly effective learning and memory tool, provided that you use them correctly.
• This study surveyed over 3,000 students. As a result , we were able to …

Temporal connective words

Whether you’re explaining the sequence of events that led to a historical battle, or demonstrating the steps in your experiment, temporal connectives are a highly valuable tool.

They’re all about discussing time and the chronology of events – what happened before, during and after . Therefore , they make for great signposting words too!

These examples explore each of the four sections in our temporal connectives lists:

• The law of gravity was not widely understood until it was mathematically formulated by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687.
• If you’re stressed about your exams, mindful meditation can be a great help. At the same time ,an inspirational quote might give you the boost you need!
• Initially , the experiment was expected to demonstrate … Eventually , we came to the conclusion that …

The TOP 70 connective words for effective essay writing!

To make sure that you’ve got the tools you need to improve your grades, we’ve compiled this epic list of all the best connectives to use in academic writing.

This is just a selection from the hundreds of connective words and phrases available. So there’s no need to make your essay stale by over-using the same one or two!

If there’s nothing else you grab when you’re ticking off Step #4 from the connectives methodology above – make sure you grab this list!

It covers all the stages of essay structuring and writing, from introduction to conclusion . And includes lists of connectives for:

• Signposting and listing
• Comparing and contrasting
• Illustrating your findings
• Demonstrating cause and effect
• Emphasising points
• Qualifying your arguments

We’ve highlighted the best and most commonly used connectives for each section to ensure you’ve got THE best resource to improve the quality of your essay immediately.

To finish off , here are some examples to get your essay-writing inspiration flowing:

• Firstly , it is well-known that retrieval practice is an effective learning method as compared with re-reading study texts and notes.
• I’m feeling tired tonight. Nevertheless , I must finish my homework and I want to take the dog for a walk.
• When it comes to …, however , there are several effective methods to …, in particular , …

Good luck with your essay!

Now you’ve mastered adding effective connective words to your essay you’re ready for the next step. Be sure to check out our guide on proofreading your assignment before you hand it in. Good luck!

And for more expert, science-backed study resources, sign up to the Exam Study Expert newsletter right here:

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The Functions of Conjunctions in English Argumentative Writing

What Is a Bridge Statement in English Homework?

Argumentative writing is designed to pose a claim and support for the claim using persuasive arguments. Such writing becomes more effective when conjunctions make the points flow smoothly. Conjunctions connect words or phrases together, making a text easier to read. Transitions function the same way -- by unifying a whole piece of writing.

Conjunctions serve as a cue within a sentence, signaling the reader that another idea is coming. Coordinating conjunctions link ideas by showing how they relate. For example, a word like "and" indicates two ideas go together. A subordinating conjunction indicates that one idea depends on another. For instance, in this sentence the word "unless" depends on the action that follows it: We will be late unless we leave now. Correlative conjunctions join elements within a sentence, indicating the two are of equal importance. The words "neither" and "nor" work this way in this sentence: I like neither carrots nor celery.

Transitions

Transitions serve the same purpose as conjunctions, but on a larger scale. They signal to the reader the relationship between ideas in a paragraph or even between paragraphs. By connecting larger ideas, they let readers know what to do with the information presented to them. Indicating these connections helps reinforce the argument within a paper. Phrases like "for example" let the reader know the information that follows is meant to support an idea. Thus, the use of transitions cues readers into the writer's thinking process.

Conjunctions improve the paper as a whole by giving the writing coherence, or flow. A conjunctive adverb such as "however" or "overall" joins two complete sentences, using either a semicolon or a period. These words and phrases serve different purposes: showing agreement, opposition, causality, support or emphasis, consequence and conclusion. They work like a bridge from one of the writer's points to another. For example, "however" lets the reader know the statement that follows is in opposition to the preceding; "overall" signals a conclusion. These signals guide readers to either reflect on what came before or anticipate what is coming next in the paragraph.

Conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs unite elements of an argument together. When the argument is unified and cohesive, readers are more likely to believe what the writer is saying. Readers need a guide; without this guide, they might get lost in the argument. Readers struggling to follow a writer's thought progression become frustrated and may even stop reading the paper. When a writer takes the time to make the argument more readable, this engenders faith and goodwill in the readers. As Aristotle pointed out, creating that goodwill, what he called ethos, makes people more open to persuasion.

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Nadia Archuleta has a B.A. in English writing. She spent five years working abroad and has traveled extensively. She has worked as an English as a Foreign/Second Language teacher for 12 years.

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Video transcript

IELTS Grammar: Conjunctions in writing

Using conjunctions in ielts writing..

Updated April 7th 2022

For a high band score in IELTS writing, it is important to use conjunctions effectively. This shows the examiner you can use grammar precisely and helps the flow of your essay, which makes it easier for the reader. A conjunction is a word used to connect clauses or sentences. These are marked under grammar and are directly linked to coherence and cohesion in the IELTS marking criteria.

If you make mistakes with conjunctions it will affect coherence and cohesion. In fact ‘complex sentences’ can be constructed using conjunctions. Let’s take a look at some of these and how to use them correctly.

Below are some example sentences.

1. though, although, even though, nonetheless

‘Being a parent is often exhausting and stressful, but it is very rewarding.’

Now I can rewrite this sentence in 4 different ways and keep the same meaning.

1. Although being a parent is exhausting and stressful, it is very rewarding. 2. It is very rewarding being a parent. Nonetheless, it is also exhausting and stressful. 3. Being a parent is exhausting and stressful, although it is very rewarding. 4. Even though being a parent is exhausting and stressful, it is very rewarding.

Though, although and even though have the same meaning. Usually ‘though’ is at the end of the sentence.

Punctuation is important here, check the position of the commas in the sentences. ‘Nonetheless’ usually starts a sentence and there is a comma straight after it.

2. in spite of, despite, although

‘Studying overseas is expensive, but it is important for our career.’

1. Although studying overseas is expensive , it is important for our career. 2. In spite of the cost, studying overseas is important for our career. 3. Despite the cost , studying overseas is important for our career.

All the sentences above have the same meaning, after ‘in spite of ‘or ‘despite’ we need to use a noun or a pronoun . So I changed the word ‘expensive’ to ‘the cost’ ,  also notice the position of the comma. Punctuation is a key point here too.

3. unless, providing, as long as

‘The government should take steps to tackle pollution or the environment will not be able to recover’

1. Unless the government takes steps to stop pollution, the environment will not be able to recover. 2. Providing that the government takes steps to stop pollution, the environment will recover. 3. As long as the government takes steps to stop pollution, the environment will recover. 4. The environment will recover, as long as the government takes steps to stop pollution.

In the first example using ‘unless’  the second part of the sentence is negative. Unless is quite often used to give a warning. Usually unless is used to mean ‘except if’ ..for example: ‘ You can’t use this gym unless you have membership.’

Again, punctuation is important and the position of the commas.

4. while, whereas, on the other hand

(very useful in an overview in IELTS writing task 1)

The number of people who ate fast food once a month accounted for the highest percentage. The everyday category showed the lowest figure s

1. The number of people who ate fast food once a month accounted for the highest percentage, whereas the everyday category showed the lowest figure s 2. The number of people who ate fast food once a month accounted for the highest percentage. On the other hand, the everyday category showed the lowest figure s 3. The number of people who ate fast food once a month accounted for the highest percentage, while the everyday category showed the lowest figure s

This sentence was taken from a task 1 academic bar chart to show contrast. These conjunctions are important to use in the overview in task 1 to compare high and low figures. Notice that I use a comma with ‘whereas’ and ‘while’

Using conjunctions for opinions and conclusions

When writing your essay, it is a very good idea to contrast your own opinion with a conjunction. These examples below are taken from various essays such as crime, health, and technology.

• Even though long prison terms are considered the best way to tackle crime, I think that there are other alternatives to bringing the crime rate down.
• Many people would say that obesity is caused by fast food. However, I believe that it is caused mainly by lack of exercise.
• Recently there is a concern that robots will take people’s jobs. In my opinion, as long as people update their skills, such as learning something that can only be done by humans, then this should not be a major cause for concern

Conjunctions in the conclusion

Here are 2 examples of conclusions that have the same meaning taken from a technology essay.

• To conclude, even though there are concerns that people will lose jobs in the future to robots, I hold the view that as long as people can update their skills and offer a service that robots cannot do, then there should not be a cause for concern.
• To sum up, despite concerns that people will lose their jobs in the future to robots, I believe that as long as people can update their skills and offer a service that robots cannot do, then there should not be a cause for concern.

Now it’s your turn to practice.

Can you add some conjunctions to these sentences? the words you need are in the brackets. You may need to add words and make changes to the sentence structure too.

a) Studying IELTS can be stressful but it opens up career opportunities worldwide. (Even though)

b) I occasionally go to the movies but I prefer to download movies from the internet.  (although)

c) My city is really overcrowded and expensive to live in but it has some great restaurants and bars. (Nonetheless)

d) Pollution in developing countries is a serious issue. If action is taken to sort the problem out then this can be solved. (Providing)

e) Pollution in big cities is a serious issue these days. If the problem is not tackled soon it will get out of control. (unless)

f) Obesity is a growing issue in developed countries but there is also a growing awareness of healthy eating. (despite)

g) Overall, Bobs Bakery saw upward trends in yearly income earned. Johns Bakery, which had started with the highest revenue, ended with the lowest earnings by the end of the period. (whereas)

a) Even though studying IELTS can be stressful, it opens up career opportunities worldwide.

b) I occasionally go to the movies; although I prefer to download movies from the internet.

c) My city is really overcrowded and expensive to live in. Nonetheless, it has some great restaurants and bars.

d) Pollution in developing countries is a serious issue. Providing action is taken to tackle the problem, then this can be solved.

e) Pollution in big cities is a serious issue these days. Unless the problem is tackled soon, it will get out of control.

f) Obesity is a growing issue in developed countries. Despite this , there is also a growing awareness of healthy eating.

g) Overall, Bobs Bakery saw upward trends in yearly income earned, whereas Johns Bakery, which had started with the highest revenue, ended with the lowest earnings by the end of the period.

In example c the word Nonetheless starts a new sentence. In example f   I added this to despite. In example g I used whereas in a writing task 1 overview to show contrast

Conclusions practice:  fill in the gaps with conjunctions you have learned in this lesson and then finish the conclusion with your own opinion.

a) In conclusion, ____________ many people say that living in the countryside is boring, my view is that…….

b) To sum up, it is clear that longer prison sentences are appropriate for serious criminals. ___________ I believe that…

c) To conclude, ________ the downsides to using the internet to communicate and develop relationships, I think that….

These are just possible answers, your answer may vary.

a) In conclusion, even though many people say that living in the countryside is boring, my view is that it is far less stressful than living in a big city.

b) To sum up, it is obvious that longer prison sentences are appropriate for serious criminals. Nonetheless, I believe that there are other alternatives to bringing the crime rate down.

c) To conclude, despite the downsides of using the internet to communicate and develop relationships, I think that the chance to interact with others worldwide can lead to positive outcomes for most people.

In each case, I have used a conjunction and then given my opinion.

Any comments?, leave them below.

Leave a comment cancel reply.

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English Grammar: Learn Conjunctions & Enhance English Fluency

🎓 Today we are going to help you with keeping your English speaking fluent as we take simple conjunctions and level them up! With clear, practical examples, you'll master the art of seamless communication. Ready to elevate your English? Tune in now and experience the change!

Why Choose This Lesson?

• 📚 Comprehensive Grammar Guide : Master conjunctions for better flow in speaking & writing.
• 🗣️ Boost Speaking Skills : Learn practical uses in everyday conversation.
• ✍️ Enhance Writing Ability : Dive into advanced conjunctions for impressive English writing.
• 🎧 Engaging Podcast Format : Easy listening for on-the-go learning.
• 🌍 For All Levels : Beginner, intermediate, or advanced, we've got you covered.
• 🧠 Effective Learning : Absorb English naturally through our listen & learn method.

✔Lesson transcript: https://adeptenglish.com/lessons/grammar-english-conjunctions-explained/

The beautiful thing about learning is that no one can take it away from you. ⭐ B.B. King

Conjunctions are crucial in linking your ideas smoothly, both in speech and writing. This understanding will enhance the flow and coherence of your English, making your communication more fluent and clear.

Understanding conjunctions adds depth to your sentences, allowing you to express complex ideas more naturally. This skill is essential for clear and effective communication in English. Discover how 'and', 'but', and 'so' can transform your English conversations and writings. Join us for an insightful #englishlesson

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More About This Lesson

Enhance your English fluency and writing skills with Adept English by mastering the use of conjunctions. Discover the simple yet powerful impact of words like 'and', 'but', and 'because' in our engaging lesson. This journey into the world of conjunctions will transform your communication skills, making your English flow smoothly and naturally.

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Enhance English fluency and clarity, this lesson will help you with:

• Conjunctions for Fluent Speech : Learn how conjunctions enhance speech flow.
• Practical Examples : Real-world examples make learning relevant.
• Grammar in Context : Understand grammar in everyday use.
• Writing Skill Enhancement : Learn conjunctions for better writing.
• Variety in Use : Differentiate spoken and written conjunctions.
• Complex Idea Expression : Express complex ideas more clearly.
• Understanding Nuance : Grasp subtle meanings in English.
• Improved Comprehension : Better understand written and spoken English.
• Argument Development Skills : Learn to develop arguments effectively.
• Expanded Vocabulary : Broaden your English vocabulary.

We cover several important aspects in this lesson:

• Grammar Confidence : Overcome the fear of errors by learning how to use conjunctions correctly.
• Simplicity in Complexity : Understand that starting with basic conjunctions can lay a strong foundation for complex grammar.
• Fluency in Conversation : Learn how conjunctions can make your spoken English flow better.
• Writing Mastery : Enhance your writing skills with advanced conjunctions for more sophisticated expression.
• Retention Strategies : Tips on remembering and applying new grammar rules in everyday use.
• Progress in Learning : Embrace the non-linear journey of language learning with every lesson being a valuable step.
• Engagement in Learning : Recognize the importance of actively participating in language learning activities.

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Ready to boost your English fluency? Follow us and subscribe for more exciting English lessons with Adept English. Dive into our world of fun, easy-to-understand grammar podcasts, and transform your language skills today!

Learning conjunctions in English is like weaving a beautiful tapestry. Each thread of words, intertwined with the skilful use of conjunctions, creates a seamless and captivating picture of fluency and skill, much like the lessons offered by Adept English.

• What are Conjunctions and How Do They Enhance English Fluency? Conjunctions are words that join sentences or clauses together, like "and", "but", and "because". They help in creating a smoother flow in both spoken and written English. By using conjunctions effectively, you can link ideas logically, making your English more fluent and coherent.
• What's the Difference Between Simple and Advanced Conjunctions? Simple conjunctions, such as "and", "but", and "so", are commonly used in everyday speech to connect basic ideas. Advanced conjunctions like "however", "nevertheless", and "although" are often found in written English. They add complexity and nuance to your writing, helping in developing arguments or contrasting ideas.
• Can Conjunctions be Used at the Start of a Sentence? Yes, it's grammatically correct. Starting sentences with conjunctions like "however" or "nevertheless" can emphasize contrast or continuation from the previous point. It's a stylistic choice that can make your writing more dynamic and engaging.
• How Do Conjunctions Impact the Style of Writing? Conjunctions greatly influence the style and clarity of writing. They can create complex sentences, provide clarity, and help in structuring arguments or ideas logically. Effective use of conjunctions can make writing more persuasive, coherent, and stylistically varied.
• Are There Any Common Mistakes to Avoid When Using Conjunctions? A common mistake is using the wrong conjunction, which can alter the intended meaning of a sentence. Another mistake is overusing conjunctions, leading to long, convoluted sentences that are hard to follow. It's important to choose the right conjunction and use them sparingly for maximum impact and clarity.
• Conjunction : A word that joins sentences together.
• Nuance : A subtle or small difference in meaning or feeling.
• Fluency : The ability to speak or write smoothly and easily.
• Context : The situation or background information that helps explain something.
• Argument : A reason or set of reasons given to support an idea.
• Contrast : To show how two things are different.
• Nevertheless : Despite what has just been said or referred to.
• Preposition : A word used before a noun or pronoun to show place, position, time, or method.
• Conjunctions : Plural of conjunction, words that join sentences together.
• Freelance : Working for different companies at different times rather than being permanently employed by one company.

Transcript: Why Do Conjunctions Matter

Hi there. Today, let's discover how conjunctions bring sentences together, enhancing the flow of your English speech and your writing. In our Spotify polls, you tell us that you like grammar podcasts. So I thought we could kick off the new year together, with some good old-fashioned grammar learning.

Today, we're having a look at conjunctions and how to use them, and at the particular meanings that they add when we use them to join sentences.

Conjunctions help with your fluency when you use them and they add nuance, extra meaning too. So, I'm going to talk about the use of some simple conjunctions that you'll probably know and that are used in English conversations all the time.

But also, do you want to boost your English writing skills? If you stick around for the second half of this podcast, I'll also cover some more advanced conjunctions. ones that you're more likely to meet in written English. And as usual, I'll give you lots of examples along the way. So, plenty of value for English language learners in this podcast.

Hello, I’m Hilary, and you’re listening to Adept English. We will help you to speak English fluently . All you have to do is listen . So start listening now and find out how it works.

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What are conjunctions and simple examples that you'll know

Conjunctions are words which join sentences together and which help both your written and your spoken English to make more sense and to sound more fluent. So that's 'conjunction'. C O N J U N C T I O N. That's its grammatical name.

So, first of all, let's go through some simple conjunctions. See if you've heard these in everyday English conversations. Then I'll talk about some conjunctions, which tend to be used more in the written context, in written English. But you can say them as well, of course.

Often, in written English, like an essay or a newspaper article, conjunctions are used a lot because you're developing an argument. You're developing a line of thought. You're combining several sets of ideas, in other words. Conjunctions are important and necessary, so that your ideas and your meaning flow. And your English is more understandable.

Let's start with some simple conjunctions. Are these familiar to you?

I'll give you an example of each.

• So, the 'and' in that sentence just joins together two sentences. It doesn't really add any meaning.
• So, here the conjunction 'because' adds more meaning. It's saying that the reason the weather is better is because we're further south. So 'because' is used when we're talking about 'cause and effect'.
• Here, the conjunction 'after' joins the two sentences, but it links them in time. Homework first, gaming after. That's pretty clear. So it does add, again, extra meaning, this conjunction 'after'.
• So the word 'while' is being used as a conjunction here. It's also a preposition, of course. And it gives more meaning. It tells you that the coffee drinking and the podcast writing are happening at the same time.
• Here the word 'so' is used as a conjunction. And it's indicating the intention, the reason behind an action. So, I drove slowly so that, I didn't skid. I didn't want to slip in the snow, in other words.
• Here again, 'until' is used as a conjunction, and it tells you that one action is going to follow the other in time. The appointment making won't happen until I'm back from my holiday. So again, it's giving you more information. It's conditional. It's a bit like 'if' and 'unless', which are also conjunctions. There are conditions, things that must happen first.
• So here the word 'but' is the conjunction, and 'but' as a conjunction shows that another idea is coming that potentially contradicts the first.

It contrasts with the first part of the sentence. So this kind of conjunction like 'but' is useful when you're building up an argument or a set of ideas. 'This, but also that as well'.

OK, so those were some basic examples of conjunctions. Were they familiar to you? I presume they were?

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An hourglass with sand flowing, depicting the passage of time. Learn to use conjunctions effectively with Adept English on YouTube.

So now, how about some conjunctions that are used more in written English?

You do hear them spoken, of course. But they're useful to you in written English. So for those of you who need to write essays, these conjunctions are useful when you're trying to develop an argument or put together a set of ideas.

So the ones I'm going to cover are:-

• nevertheless
• on the other hand
• in addition

So, all of these words can be used as conjunctions which join two sentences. But note also, most of them can be used on their own. And they might be at the beginning of a sentence. So, they're perhaps relating to the previous idea that was spoken about or written about in the previous sentence.

'However' as a conjunction

So 'however' is used in a couple of ways.

' However' can be at the start of a sentence. And it indicates that the idea you're about to talk about contrasts with what you've just said. So it might be a different side of the argument.

And of course, 'however' can be a conjunction joining two sentences. So an example might be:-

Cats make good pets, however their personalities vary a great deal.

So this 'however' moderates the statement that 'cats make good pets', suggesting there's more to it. It's more complex. They're all a bit different. Which is true, I think!

And of course you could make this two sentences:-

Cats make good pets. Full stop. However, their personalities vary a great deal.

Still the same sense there.

'However' as an adverb - for contrast

The other way we use the word 'however', an example?

You still need to revise for your exams, however intelligent you are.

So this use of 'however' is as an adverb. And it's telling you the first part of the sentence is true, 'even if' you're intelligent, 'despite' your intelligence. So again, two contrasting ideas. 'Even if' and 'despite' are also conjunctions, a bit like 'however'. Two aspects, two contrasting aspects of a situation are being talked about here.

Another example of this use of 'however'?

We still have enough food, however hungry you are.

OK. What about 'although', 'nevertheless', and 'on the other hand'? They're all a bit similar.

'Although' as a conjunction, with 'nevertheless' and 'on the other hand'

' Although', you might use it, 'Although this first fact is true, this second fact, which contrasts with the first fact, is also true'.

So, an example might be:-

Although I've saved up a lot of money, house prices have risen.

And you could reverse the order there:-

House prices have risen, although I've saved up a lot of money.

Meaning is the same. So I've saved up money - good. But house prices have risen - bad. So two contrasting ideas joined with an 'although'.

You could say 'instead' here:-

I've saved up a lot of money, nevertheless house prices have risen.

I've saved up a lot of money, on the other hand house prices have risen.

The meaning is very similar.

The last couple of conjunctions - 'since' and 'in addition'?

'Since' as a conjunction

Well, the first one 'since', S I N C E is a little bit like 'because' in its meaning, when you're using it as a conjunction. We're talking again about 'cause and effect':-

Since you're shouting at me, I'm going to walk away.

So I'm giving a reason for my action - I'm going to walk away - I'm doing it since you're shouting at me. Or I could say, 'Because you're shouting at me'. Notice the order? 'Since you're shouting at me, I'm going to walk away' - the conjunction is again at the beginning of the sentence. But you could reverse it and say, 'I'm going to walk away, since you're shouting at me'. Meaning is exactly the same.

Another example of this conjunction, 'since', as a 'cause and effect' conjunction?

Since his job doesn't pay very much, he has to live with his father.

Notice the word 'as' would do just as well here:-

As his job doesn't pay very much, he has to live with his father.

So if you can substitute 'as' for 'since' and the meaning doesn't change, then 'since' is being used as a conjunction.

'Since' as a preposition, for contrast

The more common use of the word 'since' is as a preposition, of course, and you may have met it like this. It's used where there's been time passed.

So a couple of examples of time-related 'since' as a preposition?

Since I left my last job, I've been working freelance. Or...

It's been six months since I've been to that shop.

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'In addition' as a conjunction

Lastly, the conjunction 'in addition'. So yes, conjunctions can sometimes be expressions, more than one word.

And 'in addition' is working in the opposite way to 'however' and 'nevertheless' and 'on the other hand'. If you hear the conjunction 'in addition', it means the speaker or the writer is about to give more reasons for the same argument they just made.

They're going to say more things that support the ideas they've just expressed. So:-

House prices have risen, in addition, fuel costs have gone up too.

On top of that, fuel costs have risen too.

Another way of saying 'in addition' - 'furthermore'. That's another conjunction that you could use. You're unlikely to say that, but you could put it in written English.

Other examples of conjunctions that are more than one word?

' Even if'. 'Provided that'. ' Rather than'. 'Just in case'.

Those may be good examples for you to look up yourself, if you don't know them.

We'd love to hear from you. Did you find this lesson useful? Was there something new in it for you? Or did you know it all already? Please share your thoughts and your feedback with us. We love to hear from you!

Enough for now. Have a lovely day. Speak to you again soon. Goodbye.

Thank you so much for listening. Please help me tell others about this podcast by reviewing or rating it . And, please share it on social media. You can find more listening lessons and a free English course at adeptenglish.com

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Role of Conjunctions and Students’ Cognitive Characteristics in Argumentative Essay Writing

Most high school students are able to write arguments. However, most students are still unable to develop complex writing. The purpose of this research was to investigate the students' argumentative writing which displays various linguistic features and cognitive characteristics, and to investigate the conjunctions that fall into several categories (addition, opposition, causal, and time), which are markers of the complexity of the students' reasoning. The method used in this research was factorial analysis because it aimed to determine the students' linguistic and cognitive features in relation to improving the quality of the students' argumentative writing. The sample in this study was 350 high school students from grades 10 to 12. Analysis was carried out on the students' written argumentative essays which were written in the context of formal or academic language, transcribed and given an analysis code. The research findings show that students are able to demonstrate complex and high-level reasoning according to their use of conjunctions in their essays. The use of conjunctions based on class is relatively low in terms of the number of addition, contradiction, causal, and temporal conjunctions in each essay. The interclass correlation analysis shows that the essay length variable is in a stable condition, while student variability is higher in relation to the use of argument types and conjunctions. Based on the results following the testing of the predictability of conjunction use on argument sophistication, it was found that conflicting conjunctions contributed positively to argument sophistication apart from other variables (essay length, topic, gender, and student socioeconomic status). Contradictory conjunctions are the most complex conjunctions used by students using the integrative perspective. These conjunctions are also used to control the length and type of essay topic. Conjunctions can also contribute to the sophistication of the students' argumentative essays.

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Each evening in her tent, researcher Jane Goodall would write up data from her field notebooks, recounting the chimpanzee behavior she observed that day. Immerse yourself in a replica of Jane’s research camp at “Becoming Jane: The Evolution of Dr. Jane Goodall,” an exhibition organized by National Geographic and the Jane Goodall Institute. The exhibition is open at the Natural History Museum of Utah in Salt Lake City, UT from December 7, 2023 through May 27, 2024. Photo by Hugo Van Lawick, Jane Goodall Institute

Inspired by Jane: A Winning Essay

By mark johnston.

In celebration of Dr. Jane Goodall's 90th birthday on April 3, and in conjunction with our current special exhibition, Becoming Jane: The Evolution of Dr. Jane Goodall , NHMU hosted an essay contest to inspire a new generation of visionaries among Utah's 6th, 7th, and 8th graders. Titled Inspired by Jane , the contest invited contestants to share the positive impact they hope to make in the world by the time they turn 90 years old. 

With the contest running only a couple of weeks, 293 submissions were received from students all around Utah offering a colorful variety of visions of change. From space farming to saving the dwindling Great Salt Lake, the essays delivered assurances of hope from hundreds of young voices inspired by icons like Jane Goodall. Selecting a winner was no easy task, but eventually a consensus was reached among judges and on March 18 a winner was notified. 

Lily Peterson, a 7th grader from Mountain Heights Academy, submitted a moving essay that was awarded the top prize for thoughtfully addressing a local ecological issue in a manner influenced by Jane Goodall. In her submission, Lily shared how she was moved by the sight of wild mustangs enduring the challenges of their environment in Utah's West Desert, along with those they faced from inhumane population control methods. From that moment, Lily decided to pursue a career as an equine veterinarian to deliver more humane methods of population control to these majestic animals. 

Photo by Eliza Petersen

As the contest winner, Lily was awarded an all-expenses-paid trip to Seattle, Washington, where she met Jane Goodall in person after attending one of her lectures at the Moore Theater on March 30, 2024. Lily also received a $1,000 college savings certificate from the my529 Educational Savings Plan , a VIP visit to the Becoming Jane exhibition at NHMU (which is open through May 27, 2024), and a gift basket of Jane Goodall keepsakes from the Museum Store.

Following Lily's meet and greet with Jane, she recounted her admiration for her real-life superhero. 

“I admire her because of all she has done as a scientist, conservationist, and activist. As an animal lover I am thankful that she has proven that animals have feelings and emotions too," Lily said. "I loved being able to talk with her one on one about her own childhood experience with horses. It was so special to meet someone who worked so hard to make their own big childhood dreams come true. It is a moment I will never forget, and for which I am very thankful.” 

Read Lily's complete essay below.

Congratulations, Lily!

By Lily Peterson

For my seventh birthday, we took a trip out to see the Onaqui herd of wild mustangs. We searched for hours to find them, but it wasn’t until we were driving back along the desolate road that we spotted a small band of about nine horses out in the distance. Even though we kept our distance, I could feel the gentleness and protection the older horses showed towards their young. All these horses ever wanted was to survive the harsh desert and teach their young how to do the same. Throughout the years, these innocent wild horses have faced many challenges including roundups that often end with dead horses, being shipped off to slaughterhouses, and being shot for no reason. By my 90th birthday, I hope to impact the lives of wild mustangs so they can live on the range without the threat of being taken from their home or shot on any given day. 

In the history of the West, there has been a feud between ranchers and wild horse activists over where the mustangs should live. As the cattle industry grew it demanded more land for grazing, which the American government happily supplied, choosing to support cattle ranching rather than protect the wild mustangs. In the 19th century, an estimated two million wild mustangs roamed America’s plains, and that number dropped to 17,000 by 1971. (Moretti). The choice doesn’t have to be ranching or wild mustangs; there are ways for the two to coexist. Mustangs deserve to stay. Humans caused the problem, and humans should fix it. 

Wild horse activists have been working since the mid 1900s when Wild Horse Annie brought attention to the problems facing wild mustangs to the public. She hoped to find ways that cattle ranchers could live in harmony with the mustangs. One of the best solutions that has been suggested for mustang population control is the humane administration of birth control to some of the wild mares. This would allow the birth of wild horses each year but on a smaller scale. We cannot, however, have untrained people administering birth control to untamed horses. 

Equine veterinarians are best equipped to administer birth control, and I plan to become one of them when I grow up. Many horse-crazy girls have a copy of Black Beauty ,  but next to my copy, I have the Merck Veterinary Manual, which I received for my tenth birthday. I have also completed an online class in equine welfare and management through UC Davis. I want to become a veterinarian because I will be better equipped to advocate for the use of humane birth control if I am a trained veterinarian. When I am a veterinarian, I will also be able to assist in the administration of birth control. 

Wild mustangs are an important part of our country, and by my 90th birthday, I want to provide wild mustangs with the opportunity to thrive in their homeland, unharmed by the human populations around them. If we were to take steps to protect the wild mustangs, it would show that we as a people care about more than just our own needs. Dr. Jane Goodall inspires me because she demonstrates the importance of understanding other creatures and protecting them and their environment. We are all interconnected, and like Dr. Goodall, we can strive to make the world safe for all living creatures.  

Moretti, Laura. “History of America's Wild Horses | American Wild Horse Campaign.” American Wild Horse Conservation , https://americanwildhorse.org/history-americas-wild-horses. Accessed 5 March 2024.

Becoming Jane

Visit Becoming Jane at NHMU before it closes after May 27, 2024, to learn more about Jane Goodall's incredible career, from scientific research, to animal conservation, to inspiring a new generation of visionaries through programs like Roots & Shoots. The exhibit is included with museum admission.

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Tressie McMillan Cottom

Beyoncé Asks, and Answers, a Crucial Question in Her Latest Album

By Tressie McMillan Cottom

Opinion Columnist

Beyoncé released a genre-bending country album, “Cowboy Carter,” last week. After listening to it in all the requisite settings — on a walk, in a car and on a plane — I finally understand what Beyoncé, a notoriously enigmatic pop star, wants to say to the world. She wants to be more than popular. She wants to be legendary. But first, she isn’t through taking everyone who has doubted her to the woodshed.

In outlaw country tradition, “Cowboy Carter” settles scores with haters and with history. Beyoncé has trilled, growled, marched, stepped, sweated and sung her heart out for almost 30 years. It is, this album argues, in conjunction with the others in her in-progress three-act “Renaissance” oeuvre, time for a little respect, for Black artists generally but also for her specifically.

Just by being Black, a woman, popular and impervious to country music’s gatekeepers, Beyoncé has made a political album. Puzzling over who is country enough to sing love songs to wheat fields and big trucks only seems prosaic. Big Country — the Nashville-controlled, pop-folk music that commodifies rural American fantasies — is the cultural arm of white grievance politics. In 1974, President Richard Nixon described the genre as being “as native as anything American we could find.” That must have been a shock to actual Native Americans. But the message was not for them. It was for the white Southern voters Nixon needed to win over amid massive resistance to Black enfranchisement. Today’s Republican Party continues that tradition. Embracing country music is a loyalty test for conservative politicians and right-wing pundits whose career ambitions align with white identity politics. Beyoncé singing country music in this political climate was always going to cause a stir.

I went into this album release expecting, like many cultural critics, that the biggest question would be: Is it country? She is from Texas, which should be enough. She also has that voice — not her singing voice, but her speaking voice. It is molasses slow and heavy-toned like Southern humidity. Doubting Beyoncé’s country bona fides is like insisting that the realest Americans can only be found in small-town diners. It is a convenient shorthand for dismissing people you would rather not think about.

“Ameriican Requiem” is a solid opening track that addresses anyone who discounts Beyoncé’s Southern résumé. Big Country produces a stylized set of tropes that artists, producers and marketing executives slather on top of meter and rhythm. In good hands, those tropes can be signposts for a road trip through a sonic postcard. In lazy hands (and so many of the hands are lazy these days), they are paper dolls of cheap sentiment. You name your small town for legitimacy. You gesture to your family for kinship to rural America’s fictive family tree. Then you sprinkle in your proprietary mix of trucks, dogs, sunsets and beer for distinction.

Beyoncé takes on these tropes in “Ameriican Requiem.” Her identity gives them weight. She sings that her small-town roots are by way of “folks down in Galveston, rooted in Louisiana.” As the “grandbaby of a moonshine man” she has a right to sing the white man’s blues, because as a Black Southern woman she can legitimately claim the blues. Turning back to the audience of doubters, she sings: “Used to say I spoke ‘too country’/And the rejection came, said I wasn’t country ’nough/Said I wouldn’t saddle up, but/If that ain’t country, tell me what is?” Given the pedigree she has just laid out, the only honest answer is that country music is everything she sings about minus the Black woman singing it.

The song seems to be aimed squarely at the reception Beyoncé received at the 2016 Country Music Association Awards. She performed with the Chicks for a genre mash-up of her first country record, 2016’s “Daddy Lessons.” The moment was heavy with signification. The Chicks were the proverbial prodigal son — white feminist country icons, cast out for their politics, returning to the fold. Beyoncé, the mega pop star, brought the sheen of Black excellence and crossover appeal. The duet should have ended in a multiracial kumbaya for a notoriously homogeneous industry. Instead, the audience of almost all white record executives, country singers, radio programmers and Nashville elites looked alternately stunned and dismayed throughout the performance. Some of them yelled racist comments at the stage. Viewers complained it was not real country. Black artists have long complained — often silently, for fear of being blackballed — that the country music industry is hostile to them. The C.M.A. debacle proved their point. Big Country decides what is country by policing who is country.

“Cowboy Carter” is a Rosetta Stone for the hidden racial politics in country’s aw-shucks exclusion that the C.M.A. performance put on display. Beyoncé mocks the idea of genre and by extension those obsessed with its boundaries. In an interlude, she uses a recording of Linda Martell coyly questioning the deceptive simplicity of musical genres to make a deft critique. Martell is often credited as modern country’s first commercially successful Black woman artist. Her album “Color Me Country” charted in 1970. Look at how long the sanctity of genre has been used to erase artists like me, Beyoncé seems to say.

In another interlude Beyoncé turns up the heat, asking who has the power to transcend genres. The sound of a radio dial flips through songs, including Chuck Berry’s 1955 classic “Maybellene.” The song helped inspire a young white guy named Elvis Presley to make rock ’n’ roll music. When white artists inject themselves into other cultures’ genres, including blues and soul and R. & B. and rock ’n’ roll, they become legends. Why, Beyoncé asks, are Black artists beholden to genre’s dictates?

Beyoncé answers that question with layered textual references, interludes, samples and copious visual art that gestures toward the obvious answer (uh, racism). This artistic tease has become a hallmark of Beyoncé’s post-“Lemonade” output. Sometimes the gestures are too heavy for her variable songwriting to carry. They work on “Cowboy Carter” because country music is so resistant to the most obvious questions about its politics that even a gesture goes off like a bomb.

If country music is about being from the South, she playfully rejoins , why isn’t Houston’s gritty “chopped and screwed” style sufficiently country? If country music is about murder ballads that romanticize the darkest, most transgressive human desires, why isn’t it romantic when a Black woman is the one doing the killing? If country music is about defending hearth and home for the love of a good woman, she taunts, why aren’t her stoic Black father and her young daughter an American family worth fighting for? The only way for Big Country to answer these questions honestly is to talk about race and gender, racism and sexism, history and power. But these subjects are all verboten.

That sucks for country music. The genre’s most successful artists trend toward apolitical pablum because they can’t or won’t say anything interesting. Their loss is this album’s gain. Beyoncé can ask these questions of country music because she is not an insider. As one of the biggest stars in the world, she can take the heat that comes with disrupting country’s white noise problem. When country music performers are mostly white, the genre can pretend it’s one big family. That is easy to fake when it controls who is considered family. But the sound becomes inbred. New blood highlights the difference. Country music’s self-consciousness about its status as real or cool music is its own fault. You cannot create art without getting something more substantial than mud on your tires.

Beyoncé is not afraid to get dirty in her artistic choices. Even when they don’t work, they aren’t boring. Her interpretation of Dolly Parton’s “Jolene” is an example. The song is one of the great folk songs of the 20th century, written and performed by a celebrity who has become something of a secular saint. A cover would have been easy. Instead, Beyoncé shows artistic vision by choosing not to remake the song but to reinterpret it.

Her version is forgettable, but her choice to interpret it through her own identity is important. The original, from 1973, weeps with vulnerability. Parton is begging redheaded Jolene not to take her man. This did something really powerful for the time. It ascribed the balance of power in a heterosexual marriage not to the husband but to another woman, appealing to her moral compass instead of judging her unethical flirting. That vulnerability works because Parton represented the kind of woman who was allowed to be vulnerable. Even more, a white woman from the Appalachia region of the United States in the 1970s needed her man, not just for love but also for economic security. When Parton asks Jolene not to take her man, she’s asking Jolene not to take the very roof over her head. But Beyoncé is not fighting for her economic survival. She is fighting for her status as a wealthy wife. That is a position of social dominance over other women. Her version of the song sounds more like a rich wife’s “ Fist City ” than a down-on-her-luck housewife from a poor town because Beyoncé knows who she is. That is integrity.

I worried about that songwriting integrity when this album was announced. No matter how it sounded, a Beyoncé country record would be culturally important. But for it to be good in a country-folk soundscape, the album would also have to talk to the audience.

At its best, country music is a lyrically driven storytelling genre that elevates the mundane to the universal. Beyoncé’s songwriting has been spotty, even if her conceptual vision has been exceptional. I don’t think she has ever had a mundane experience in her life, so that’s a nonstarter. Even more challenging is that almost a decade ago, Beyoncé mostly stopped talking to her audience. Rarely giving interviews is a perk of being a mega celebrity. However, it has created a vacuum. We know Beyoncé makes hits and amazing visuals, but can any of us say that we know what Beyoncé wants?

Playing with the political fault lines of genre opened up Beyoncé’s storytelling. On “ 16 Carriages ,” she makes a clear artistic statement that echoes in the silence she has created. “For legacy, if it’s the last thing I do/You’ll remember me ’cause we got something to prove.” Legacy requires legibility. It is almost imperative for a pop artist to do a bit more than gesture toward the textuality in her work if she wants that text to be legible. When she doesn’t, the audience fills in the gaps. They faithfully decode her gestures (especially her popular visuals) on social media. That is smart fan service in a hypercompetitive attention economy. It also buffers Beyoncé from the blowback that comes from saying clearly who she is and what she wants to say. But for someone fixated on legacy, letting fans litigate your artistic statement in this fragmented media culture leads to a chaotic message.

Beyoncé is ultimately the author of her legacy, not the Grammys or the C.M.A.s or most of the gatekeepers at this point. But she will have to do more than gesture to her legacy for us to help her fulfill it.

I am convinced that the right way to think about this album is through the lens of legacy. “Renaissance” was labeled Act One and this album is Act Two. Speculation abounds that a third act will complete a three-album volume of Black musical reclamation. Instead, with the genre deconstruction of “Cowboy Carter,” the idea of an album trilogy feels like a playbook for cementing Beyoncé’s legacy.

Another historic trilogy comes to mind. Stevie Wonder’s 1970s run of albums include some of the most important popular music ever recorded. Three of them — “Innervisions” (1973), “Fulfillingness’ First Finale” (1974) and “Songs in the Key of Life” (1976) — won Grammy Awards for album of the year. These albums were the rare mix of commercially successful and critically acclaimed. They were also a carefully constructed creative statement. Stevie Wonder was a child star, a prodigy. He made successful pop music. The albums he released in the 1970s marked his transition to Stevie Wonder, the legendary artist. He also played with genre, most notably by mainstreaming the then-novel synthesizer in popular music. He could still pen a classic love song, but he also turned his creative vision to the politics of our mundane lives. Along the way, he did more than gesture to his art. He guided the public’s musical tastes through his evolution.

In retrospect, Beyoncé began her own break from youthful stardom with “Lemonade” in 2016. Although that album focuses on a marriage that I would frankly be happy to hear less about, it is a definitive break from her pop-lite image. On “Renaissance,” Beyoncé expanded her breadth of sounds much in the same way Wonder did with the synthesizer. (Wonder played harmonica on Beyoncé’s version of “Jolene.”) On “Cowboy Carter” she slows down enough to tell a story that all listeners — close or casual — can receive.

I am more than fine with signing on to the Beyoncé legacy project, which promises to reclaim Black art across genres that have erased Black contributions. That is noble. But she has also worked really hard to elevate a very specific era of a young female singer’s career — that sanitized expression of girlhood — into something more expansive. She chose to do that through Black art, leaning into her Southernness, her accent, her lower vocal range, instead of choosing to become a more palatable post-racial pop star. On this album she makes a case for why, instead of simply embodying the latent politics of pop, house and country, she’s choosing to transform them into something else. The result is an eminently enjoyable album with some imperfections but an indication of what could be possible if more artists follow her lead.

Beyoncé cannot sing authentically about growing up poor or making ends meet. (She grew up upper middle class.) But she can reinscribe a genre’s latent politics. When she sings another genre in her body, she interprets that genre through her identity. The result can make you dance, but it can also make you reckon with your complicity in that genre’s policing of who is and is not legitimately American.

Reinscribing pop music’s history on a Black female Southern artist expands a vision of America’s cultural politics. It is not multiracial in the facile sense. Beyoncé’s ambition is to right the crooked room of American pop music, one that has tilted toward hidden racial politics and commodified inclusivity. She may not be innovating with new instruments or a singular new sound, as previous pop music legends have done. She does not need to. She has a singing voice that is a fine instrument. If she would turn her speaking voice to the audience and narrate her vision, the public work of reimagining genre could become the legacy project she so clearly wants.

Tressie McMillan Cottom (@ tressiemcphd ) became a New York Times Opinion columnist in 2022. She is an associate professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Information and Library Science, the author of “Thick: And Other Essays” and a 2020 MacArthur fellow.

Source photograph by Adrienne Bresnahan via Getty Images.

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