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International Market Research

International market research is a key piece of successful export planning. It is important to critically review and assess demand for your product, as well as factors related to a given export destination. The information will maximize your company’s efforts while keeping the export plan cost and time-efficient. Our resources can help you compare markets and target the right ones.

Researching and Selecting Markets

Targeted market research and tools.

Industry and Product Classification

A product has a unique classification number used in international trade. HS Codes are the most prominent system. Your product’s HS Code will unlock data about market potential and enable to you to complete the export process. 

CS Services for Research

Our industry specialists overseas analyze your product/service’s potential in a targeted market through their connections with key industry participants.

Get customized market research to answer your international business questions. 

The Rural Export Center (REC) provides rural exporters the 3 key ingredients needed for rural export expansion - knowledge, confidence, and connections.

How to conduct international market research: 4 methods for global insights

These international market research methods help your business go global by reaching the audiences who will love your product in multiple target countries.

Why conduct international market research?

Primary vs secondary international market research, what to consider before starting the global market research process, faqs about market research in foreign markets.

Are you planning on taking the world by storm with your new brand, product or service? Do some international market research first, to make sure you understand the nuances of different global markets, and create a comprehensive picture of your new target market.

You could use international market research to get a clear picture of the risks and business opportunities that lie ahead in countries you plan to export or expand to. It can include competitive analysis, research into how to resonate with consumers in different countries, as well as drilling down into legal, cultural, political and logistical aspects.

There can be huge differences between each different foreign marketplace that you might not have thought of or realized as an outsider looking in. For any international business, it’s important that you get quality primary data in all the countries you operate in, to make sure you’re not tone-deaf, and are able to optimize your products, processes, and promotion for each specific market.

Here’s a fantastic example of how international market research pays off. 

We’ve seen first-hand how companies like Klarna have benefited from doing thorough research and copy testing before expanding to new markets. Their qualitative research in Belgium uncovered a crucial piece of information: Belgian consumers didn’t like the name of the product they intended to launch there.  

Klarna turned to Attest to do a quantitative study, and created a survey to test different product names and to see what would convert best. In the end, a suitable name popped up out of the data and Klarna went ahead with a successful launch,

That’s just one way international market research can benefit your business. But of course, there’s more, so keep on reading.

Minimize risks when entering overseas markets

As with any type of market research, one of the main objectives is minimizing risk. 

You wouldn’t walk into a porcelain shop wearing a blindfold; you’d study the room, and move accordingly. 

Use market research to minimize the risk of entering a market that is already saturated, or where there’s no demand, or where you wouldn’t make a profit at the price point you’re offering… The world is your oyster. 

Get to know customers across different cultures

The world is getting more and more connected. There’s a surge of ‘digital nomads’ and people who say they are ‘citizens of the world’ when you ask them where they’re from. But, there are still plenty of cultural differences you should be aware of when it comes to selling products or services.

Studying consumer behavior in foreign markets is crucial for international market research. You could wonder about questions like:

• Who shops online more, Italians or Germans? And what does this mean for our localized online stores?
• Do car buyers in the US conduct their research differently than UK car buyers?
• Is getting your groceries delivered as big a thing in Spain as it is in Norway?

Don’t just assume there’ll be enough overlap between countries. You could be surprised by the difference in results. For instance, a passionate Italian grandmother might approach buying pasta very differently from a student in Budapest—so adjust your pricing, global market research , international marketing , distribution channels and more accordingly.

Identify business opportunities and market potential

Which countries still don’t have a product as awesome as yours? In which target markets are people currently buying large quantities of the product you’re selling—so much that the current producers can’t keep up? What emerging markets should you enter right now?

International market research helps you spot new business opportunities. You find out how large potential markets are, who your competitors are and how you could steal market share from them.

Don’t just look forward: look back too to see how the market has developed. What market trends have passed, and how did people react to them? What are the usual growth rates for businesses like yours?

Identifying the fastest growing markets and familiarizing yourself with the players in those will help you figure out your own competitive advantages, so you can enter new markets with confidence, being able to lead—not just follow. 

Not sure where to start? Say hello to our market analysis template ! With this we offer you a clear idea of the type of questions you can ask. Use it as a starting point and tailor it to your needs to really get to know your market.

Start with Attest for free

Get inspired with our market analysis survey template. And launch your first survey for free!

Optimize spending and margins

It’s very likely that you have to tweak your usual strategies a little, depending on the market. In other countries there will be different distribution channels, production options and costs for selling. Getting insight into this before entering is crucial.

Look into which channels are available and gather information on suppliers, manufacturers and other partners you need. Having this info ready before launch will mean you can fuel your export plan with valuable strategic insights, ensuring you maximize your profit, and can deliver your products on time.

Make sure you’re compliant

We can’t stress enough how important it is that you get all the legal insights ready before entering a new market. Every country has different rules and standards, and not being compliant could be an expensive mistake. 

Find out what the required certifications and standards are, and what tests your products have to endure. Check if products or packaging need to be altered for specific markets with specific rules. 

Your international market research should be a mix of primary and secondary data, mixed to compliment each other to give you a thorough understanding of a new market.

Each research method comes with its own benefits, but combining the two gives you the best of both worlds. 

Secondary market research

Secondary market research is great to lay the groundwork in the market research process: you can use data and quantitative research that you can find online to get a good understanding of the market. Think market data and trade data, and specific trade statistics for a country or a product. 

The benefit of using secondary market research for this part is that it’s relatively quick, and cost-efficient. However, it can only be used for part of your research objectives, because the information is generic, not specified to your product and might not be up-to-date.

Primary market research

In comes primary market research. This is often done using online surveys, or by talking to experts in the foreign market you’re looking into. This is great to study your target customers from up close, or learn about the current market conditions from local experts. You can also use primary research to talk to local suppliers, for more successful export planning.

Every form of market research should be done with care—international or not. After all, you’re going to be basing important business decisions on the outcomes of your research, so best be careful, right? Right. Here are some extra words of advice, to not let your adventure abroad be an expensive waste of time.

• Markets change: bear in mind that if you do international market research just once, you’ll online have a static picture of what the market was once like. Markets are dynamic, and international markets react to each other—so make sure you keep an eye on relevant trends and market conditions, and follow up on your research regularly.
• Inside information is best: when it comes to international market research, make sure you speak to the right people. A survey group that looks exactly like your target market, but ‘just’ has different nationalities, is likely not a good representation of who you are trying to research.
• Be willing to act on the results, not just analyze them: allow the data you’ve collected to influence your decision-making process. This will help you create more defined objectives for your research, and make your approach to the research a lot more practical. It can help to make important stakeholders part of the research process.

How to conduct international market research: 4 strategies

1. talk to local experts in potential markets.

Sometimes you can have a long hard look at the data, but still not get a good feeling of what is actually happening inside a market. In those cases, it can be incredibly helpful to talk to local experts to add some qualitative flavor to your research dish. These can be suppliers, manufacturers, economic experts, business journalists or anyone else who can make the data you see come to life.

2. Dive into secondary data from governments

While we don’t recommend using only secondary research as a source for your market intelligence, it sometimes simply is the only option, especially if your budget is limited. In that case, make sure you pick the right sources. 

We recommend you start with government trade data and economic statistics, which are usually up-to-date and the most accurate. Be wary of sources from websites that could have tainted the stats for financial gain, or for PR or SEO purposes.

3. Talk to consumers using online surveys

How can you possibly talk to all those potential buyers in your target markets, let alone track your brand , without booking expensive plane tickets there? We’ll let you in on a secret: use Attest.

If you’re sending online surveys, you want to have the peace of mind that it is being completed by people who are in your target group. We’ve made sure of that, by giving you access to an audience of 125 million people in 59 countries. Using Attest, you can very specifically segment your audience for hyper relevant results.

4. Use focus groups for more data

If you want to test some ideas or supplement your primary research insights with more qualitative market research data, focus groups can be a great way to move forward. Make sure that before flying out there you make sure you’re talking to relevant people who fit your target group description to a T.

Access more consumers with overseas market research

Set yourself up for success, wherever you choose to go. If your business is ready to expand overseas and is crossing borders, make the most out of our international market research platform . And if you’re in the States, here’s how the top market research companies in the US stack up.

Uncover your global market insights

Reach 125m consumers in 58 countries with Attest. It’s the best of both worlds in market research: cutting-edge tech meets human expertise

Start with setting a goal and defining what you want to know. Then create a research plan including your research methods. Choose the right research tools (like Attest’s  market analysis software ) for that, and then start conducting the research. Analyze all the data and pin it together. Finally, present the data and take action based on your new insights.

In international market research, we recommend you dig into your competitors, the market size and market trends over time. Analyze cultural differences, be aware of legal and political factors and make sure you get to know your suppliers and distribution channels.

You don’t just minimize risk, you also learn how to maximize your success. You learn how to adapt your marketing to fit local markets, position your company’s product successfully and operate at the most beneficial prices.

Customer Research Lead 

Nick joined Attest in 2021, with more than 10 years' experience in market research and consumer insights on both agency and brand sides. As part of the Customer Research Team team, Nick takes a hands-on role supporting customers uncover insights and opportunities for growth.

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International Marketing Research Process: In-depth Guide

• Author Deepak Suthar
• Published February 19, 2024

Extending your business on a worldwide scale necessitates considerable market research and the modification of your entire brand and content to make it more appealing to each local audience. Managers that are determined to enter new markets understand that failure at either of these processes can jeopardise their company’s success.

In reality, if the research team is not on top of their game, all of the many challenges that organisations face when entering a new market and undertaking successful localization can become quite difficult.

If you do not conduct thorough international market research ahead of time, you risk being unprepared for the already difficult localization process. 

International Marketing Research

International marketing research is comparable to domestic marketing research, with two exceptions. First, information must be shared across cultural divides. This means that executives in India must be able to interpret their research questions into words that American  clients understand. The American responses must then be translated into terms that Indian managers can understand, such as reports and data summaries. 

Internal workers and research agencies that are well-versed in cross-cultural communication duties are frequently used to tackle such challenges. Second, the circumstances in which research tools are used vary greatly between markets around the world.

The international marketing researcher must develop the ability to use tried-and-true methodologies in novel and often unexpected circumstances. However, the obstacles faced by most foreign marketing researchers are the constantly varied emphasises on the types of information required, the often restricted choice of relevant tools and approaches accessible, and the difficulty in implementing the research process.

Importance for International Marketing Research

International marketing research is very important in the realm of global business. It enables businesses to make well-informed judgments on many areas of international marketing. This knowledge is crucial for effectively addressing problems and grabbing opportunities, which leads to success in foreign markets.

International marketing research can be used as a litmus test to determine whether a company should grow into international markets. It aids in determining whether a company has the resources and strategy required for a successful worldwide enterprise.

Furthermore, it is critical when a company introduces new items. It assists firms in better understanding the overseas market, allowing them to tailor their products to the distinct demands and tastes of international customers.

Finally, international marketing research is critical for communicating changes in an organisation’s worldwide marketing strategy. Whether it’s a growth, repositioning, or a shift in market approach, research provides the framework for effectively communicating these transformations.

Benefits of Doing International Marketing Research

• International marketing research aids in the detection of errors, allowing them to be corrected before they spread. In addition to avoiding them in the future.
• International marketing research helps managers make better judgments by highlighting all available marketing options and presenting decision variables in a way that allows marketing managers to select the best alternatives.
• By analysing what is happening in the industry, international marketing research helps to comprehend the market and the variables that govern it.
• Developing a competitive advantage and outperforming competition.
• International marketing research aids in the investigation and comprehension of state-specific environmental restrictions.
• International marketing research aids in the expansion of the company’s operations.

International Marketing Research Categories

Predictive research.

As the name suggests, academics are interested in what will happen in the future. Based on data obtained about product preferences and customer demographics, they may assess prospective sales growth, user adoption, and market size.

Predictive research uses demographics, brand preferences, and other marketing data, which is frequently combined with Big Data. The end result is data that can forecast purchase trends, product volume, competitor insights, and other statistics that aid in marketing, sales, and finance decisions. Predictive research can assist businesses in determining where to best use their resources.

Descriptive Research

The goal of descriptive research is to provide an accurate description of the variables in the problem model. Descriptive research includes consumer profile studies, market potential studies, product usage studies, attitude surveys, sales analysis, media research, and price surveys. A descriptive study can employ any source of information, though most studies of this type rely largely on secondary data sources and survey research.

Exploratory Research 

Exploratory research is concerned with determining the broad nature of the problem and the factors that affect it. Exploratory research has a great degree of flexibility and relies on secondary data, samples, small-scale surveys or basic experiments, case studies, and subjective interpretation of the results.

Causal Research

Causal research investigates the cause-and-effect connection between variables. If a particular factor shifts, the researcher can track the effect on another. Causal research can answer “what if” queries such as price changes, packaging modifications, product additions or deletions, and more.

This method is repeatable and can be applied beyond the scope of a single research study. One disadvantage of this strategy is that it may lead to the perception that cause-and-effect happened when, in fact, it was merely coincidental. Furthermore, if the two variables are closely related, determining which factors contribute to the cause or effect might be difficult.

Best Methods in International Market Research

Governments gather vast amounts of data about their citizens and the businesses that operate within their borders. This includes demographics, geography, and culture, all of which may be quite useful when planning your marketing and deciding where to sell your products.

Furthermore, government data can provide significant insights into the legal obstacles you may face when entering a new market, as well as the different rules you must follow when you market and launch your product. Much of this information can be found on government websites.

In-person 

Individual interviews and focus group talks are both extremely effective market research methods. They provide a direct window into your consumers’ thoughts, desires, concerns, pain points, and impressions, as well as their feelings about your competition, among other things.

However, conducting in-person research in an overseas market brings a distinct set of problems. The logistics needs are more demanding, including the discovery and acquisition of suitable venues, as well as collaboration with on-site interviewers, a task that may prove more difficult than in one’s own home. 

Additionally, it is critical to address language obstacles, which frequently necessitate the hire of interpreters or locally-based personnel.

Other Businesses

Other businesses’ market research can be an excellent starting point for your own market research. This information may or may not have been gathered by businesses in your area. It could have been gathered by firms in your target market or elsewhere.

Business research is useful since it provides an example of another firm that has done some of your work. The research of other organisations can teach you a lot about business trends, cultural differences, markets, legislation, and more.

Conducting International Market Research

Preliminary research.

Conduct preliminary research by looking online for existing survey reports on your topic of interest. There may not be much, especially if you are seeking for really precise information, but you may find something similar, either for a different country or a report that provides you some suggestions on how to proceed with your primary research.

Determining the Target Audience

As you may be aware, determining the target audience is the first stage in any comprehensive market research approach. Knowing your target audience can assist you in narrowing your research efforts and ensuring that you are gathering data and information that is genuinely relevant to the demands of your organisation.

Establish a Research Plan

You can now begin designing and developing your research strategy in greater depth. This should include a detailed description of how you intend to carry out your overseas market research, including a budget and dates for specific activities, as well as a list of any problems or dangers you expect. For example, if you intend to conduct surveys in China, you must consider issues such as cultural differences and language limitations.

Analysing the Collected Data

After you’ve completed your research plan, you should begin gathering and analysing the study data. Depending on the approaches you’ve used and the type of data you’ve gathered, this could be a lengthy and involved procedure. For example, if you conducted a detailed survey, you may wish to use statistical software to examine the survey’s final results.

To examine their data, researchers employ a variety of statistical techniques, including advanced decision models and predictive analytics. Your analysis may include averages, statistical regression, spreadsheets, and charts.

Setting aside preconceived notions about what the data implies allows data-driven patterns and trends to emerge, which should lead to actionable insights.  Analytics and reporting, such as those contained in online surveys, will provide ready-to-use information depending on the research instruments you select.

Your goal is to learn what your data indicates about the behaviour patterns, opinions, and preferences of your target audience. You may discover that your data supports or refutes your initial study topic. It is critical to remain attentive to both outcomes.

Now Work on It

Your research findings should be used to advise specific activities that your organisation may take to improve business performance or develop consumer relationships. If your concept testing proved successful, it’s possible that you’re ready to move on to the product development step. If your new branding and logo gets bad feedback, it’s time to start again or make some substantial changes.

Q.1 What function does international marketing research play in corporate growth?

Answer: International marketing research is critical to assisting organisations in expanding abroad. It offers crucial insights into emerging markets, assisting in better decision-making and strategy building.

Q.2 How does foreign marketing research help with cultural differences?

Answer: International marketing research assists firms by revealing cultural nuances, allowing them to efficiently modify their marketing strategies and content to resonate with local audiences.

Q.3 Can global marketing research forecast industry trends?

Yes, organisations may use predictive research to project sales growth, market size, and other crucial statistics by analysing data on product preferences, demographics, and customer behaviour.

Q.4 How might international marketing research help with successful product launches?

Answer: International marketing research assists businesses in developing a thorough awareness of overseas markets, allowing them to design products to fit the special wants and preferences of international clients, resulting in more successful product launches.

Q.5 What role does international marketing research play in risk management in global expansion?

Answer: It assists organisations in identifying potential risks and problems in new markets, allowing them to devise strategies to manage these risks and boost their chances of success.

Wrapping Up

International marketing research is critical for companies trying to extend their operations internationally. It acts as a guidepost, directing firms through the challenging terrain of varied cultures, market complexities, and consumer preferences prevalent in overseas markets. The complex aspect of international marketing research becomes clear when projecting new industry trends, planning successful product launches, and efficiently managing risks.

We must emphasise the importance of adaptation and continuous learning. In a period where borders are no longer impassable barriers and clients are as diverse as ever, paying attention to cultural nuances and market dynamics is not only advantageous, but also required.

International marketing research serves as a compass to keep us on track, and it represents a journey of understanding, discovery, and growth. Businesses must commit to continual research, data-informed decision-making, and the flexibility to adapt to the ever-changing needs of foreign audiences in order to thrive in this dynamic global economy.

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Home • Knowledge hub • How to Write an Effective International Market Research Report

How to Write an Effective International Market Research Report

Writing an international market research report is often an enormous undertaking for companies, but it’s also a beneficial and valuable exercise when done right. If you’re considering launching your brand or a product in a new, overseas market, a comprehensive and accurate market research report is essential.

Creating an effective international market research report requires skill and knowledge, and it’s easy to get wrong. In this article, we’ll dive into what an international market research report is, why you might need one, and how to go about writing one.

What is an international market research report?

An international market research report is an in-depth exploration of a new market, collecting as much information as possible and sharing it within the company. There are lots of reasons to write one, such as:

• Inform new market entry efforts, allowing your team to launch your brand in a new foreign market armed with all the information and context necessary to avoid any setbacks and maximize their chances of success
• Provide the data and insights needed to fuel new marketing campaigns (which will often require a very different approach to marketing in your home country)
• Allow you to launch specific ranges of products in overseas markets most successfully and efficiently as possible.

Why is an international market research report important?

Anyone who has ever tried to launch their brand in an overseas market knows that it’s an incredibly complex and challenging task. Think of how difficult this activity is in your domestic market, and then multiply that many times.

Here are  some reasons  why a well-written international market research report is so important.

• Understand a new market and launch a successful entry. The market you’ll be entering will be different from your domestic market — perhaps radically different. Without a comprehensively written market research report, you’ll be unprepared to enter.
• Become familiar with different cultures, politics, economics, geography. A good market research report covers all these areas in detail, allowing you to build a multi-faceted picture of your new market.
• Understand the competition. When you enter a new foreign market, you’re unlikely to be the first business ever to go there. That means there will be competitors already on the ground and serving your prospective customers.  International market research  allows you to understand your competition, learn from their success, and find out how to challenge them.
• Identify new opportunities for products and marketing.  Conducting international market research  in advance allows you to understand the demand in your target market, helping you generate new ideas for product ranges and marketing campaigns.

The challenges of writing an international market research report

Writing any market research report is difficult, but doing this for a foreign market comes with a  unique set of challenges .

• You’re working with an entirely new culture, and the people you’re researching may not respond well to the methods that work at home.
• The infrastructure of your target market may make it difficult to carry out the research using your preferred methods. For example, a country with poor mobile coverage will be challenging to conduct mobile text messaging or telephone surveys. In developing regions, expect things to run more slowly in terms of infrastructure and build in the possibility of delays.
• Consider the legal environment of your target market. For example, Europe’s GDPR means researchers have to take extra care when handling personal data or risk hefty penalties.
• Your target market may use a different language to the one in your domestic market, which means you’ll have to hire translators on the ground and expect additional challenges.
• International markets can be highly diverse. It’s important to remember that what is true in one region may not be the case in another.

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How to write an effective international market research report

Writing an effective international market research report is a challenge, but it becomes achievable with the proper preparation and knowledge. Here are some of the steps you’ll need to follow to create an international market research report that hits all your goals.

Clarify your objectives first

What do you want to achieve with your market research report? There are probably several answers to this question, like gaining a better understanding of your target customers, identifying any roadblocks and challenges, becoming familiar with the legal landscape of your target market, and many more.

It’s essential to set out clear goals in advance before you begin writing the report. This will provide a framework for your research, allowing you to decide on the methods you’ll use, who you will talk to, and how you’ll allocate your budget, among many other things.

Clarifying your goals in advance also helps you set more meaningful benchmarks for success and makes it easier to gain buy-in from company stakeholders by presenting a clear and organized plan for your research. It helps to compile a research brief at this stage, outlining your key goals in one place.

Decide on the methods you will use

Before your research begins, you’ll need to have a good idea of what methods you will use. There are multiple options to consider here, such as

• Online surveys
• In-person interviews and focus groups
• Experimental research
• Telephone interviews
• SMS surveys
• Postal surveys

There are pros and cons to every  international market research method , and you’ll probably want to use a combination of several. Part of your preliminary research will involve working out which research methods work best in your target market.

Every country is different — for example, postal surveys work well in countries with a highly developed postal infrastructure but are much less effective in developing regions. Similarly, internet-based methods like email surveys are unlikely to perform well in areas with poor connectivity.

There are also cultural issues to consider here — some cultures are less willing to disagree with a group consensus, which can create accuracy problems with research methods like focus groups.

Clearly understand your competition

Understanding your competitors should be a core goal of your international market research report. In your desired new market, these established companies may understand the culture better than you do, and they have legions of devoted customers you want to attract.

To understand your competition, you need to ask the right questions in your market research, such as:

• Who are your key competitors?
• Why are these companies popular?
• What marketing techniques are they using?
• What are they doing successfully that you can emulate?
• What weaknesses do they have that you can capitalize on?

Answering these questions will give you valuable insight into what is currently working in your target market and what your target customers are familiar with. This gives you a helpful benchmark for success and a good starting point for your eventual launch.

Make your report easy to read and understand

There are many reasons to write an international market research report, and most of them require a clear and easily understandable end result. 

For example, you may be using your report to convince stakeholders and decision-makers to support a planned market entry attempt. These professionals are busy people with packed schedules — and they don’t have much time to review your report.

Make sure your research report is clear and easy to navigate with all the key points emphasized. Use plenty of charts and graphics, and summarize all your findings to make things easier to skim and gain a quick overview.

At the same time, make sure not to omit any key information. The best international market research reports take all the important and relevant findings and condense them into one well-written, concise, and digestible document.

Conduct a post-project review

The work isn’t over once your report is complete! After you’ve finished the report and published it, it’s time to meet with your research team to review the project and assess how you performed and what you could improve on in the future.

Think about any challenges you encountered, where you succeeded, where you could have done better, and what you would change next time. This review helps you identify any actions you can take to make future reports even better. It can also be an excellent way to round off the project and congratulate you on a job well done.

Work with a professional market research team

Writing a strong international market research report is a demanding and complex task, and for best results, you should work with experienced professionals. Working with a veteran market research team helps you avoid common pitfalls, make the most of your resources, and maximize your chances of hitting your goals.

At Kadence, market research is what we do. We’ve helped brands worldwide create effective market research reports in a wide range of industries, and we can help you do the same.  Contact us to find out more .

Helping brands uncover valuable insights

We’ve been working with Kadence on a couple of strategic projects, which influenced our product roadmap roll-out within the region. Their work has been exceptional in providing me the insights that I need. Senior Marketing Executive Arla Foods

Kadence’s reports give us the insight, conclusion and recommended execution needed to give us a different perspective, which provided us with an opportunity to relook at our go to market strategy in a different direction which we are now reaping the benefits from. Sales & Marketing Bridgestone

Kadence helped us not only conduct a thorough and insightful piece of research, its interpretation of the data provided many useful and unexpected good-news stories that we were able to use in our communications and interactions with government bodies. General Manager PR -Internal Communications & Government Affairs Mitsubishi

Kadence team is more like a partner to us. We have run a number of projects together and … the pro-activeness, out of the box thinking and delivering in spite of tight deadlines are some of the key reasons we always reach out to them. Vital Strategies

Kadence were an excellent partner on this project; they took time to really understand our business challenges, and developed a research approach that would tackle the exam question from all directions.  The impact of the work is still being felt now, several years later. Customer Intelligence Director Wall Street Journal

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International Market Research

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International market research studies markets and consumers across different countries and cultures. It provides insights into global trends, preferences, and behaviors, aiding businesses in tailoring strategies for diverse geographical audiences.

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The International Marketing Research Process : A Guide

Njeri wangari | mar. 23, 2018 | 6 min. read.

Since GeoPoll’s launch, we have grown to now facilitate research in over 60 countries, including 25 countries in Africa alone. During this time, GeoPoll’s team has amassed a trove of knowledge on best practices when carrying out international marketing research. We have also encountered some challenges, and with them, invaluable learnings regarding international research. Based on these learnings, we have put together a how-to guide on the marketing research process , including tips on regional nuances to look out for as well as the dos and don’ts when engaging a research agency, and how to understand basic research terms and get the most value out of the data you are gathering. We hope you find this useful as you start your own marketing research process. If you have specific questions about embarking on a new project feel free to contact us.

Getting Started With Your Marketing Research Process

A. conduct preliminary research.

Carry out some preliminary research by going online and searching for existing survey reports on your topic of interest. There might not be much especially if you are looking for very specific information, but you might find something close either for a different country or a report that gives you some ideas on how to go about your primary research.

While gathering international research data has been difficult in the past, in the last 10 years, information about Africa and other regions is more available online. Governments, the private sector, and international development organisations throughout the world are continuously churning out research data. One example of this can be seen on GeoPoll’s  very own blog,  which contains troves of research reports on various topics on commercial and international development research. This secondary data can be used to help structure your research brief.

b. Develop a Research Brief

To get the most out of your marketing research project, put together a brief with the objectives of your data collection. What exactly do you want to understand better? Be as specific as possible, for example: “What percentage of adult working females aged between 25 and above living in urban areas use my product brand?”

Which aspects of the  4 Ps of marketing (Product, Price, Place, and Promotion)  do you want to best understand? The more detail you can provide the better. This helps later when designing the project. A brief document should contain the following information: Company background, the business objectives, the research objectives, your target market, your competition, the geographical focus and your research project budget.

c. Identify the Right Marketing Research Agency

Research agencies come in all shapes and sizes. It often helps to understand an agency’s main data collection method which, more often than not, tells you what their strengths are. What you will note is that many of the international marketing research agencies have wide-ranging capabilities in data collection and use multiple data collection modes. However, often the cost for these agencies is higher than for agencies that only specialize in one data collection method. For you as the consumer, the scope of your project will determine which agency you will work with.

When talking to various research agencies, counter check their website and social media pages to look for any published reports online, which will give you an idea of the quality of their research and topic areas they focus in. Another crucial due diligence aspect of deciding on what agency to work with is their capabilities and country coverage – too many companies claim to be in markets that they are not in, and they end up sub-contracting. This practice means you are further removed from the data collection process and can also result in a higher cost.

You can verify the company’s coverage by requesting for a copy of their panel book; this is a comprehensive document that gives you details of the agency’s research panel and includes their geographical coverage as well as the demographic details of the panel. Also request copies of case studies, either of projects on the same topic or in the same geographical location, to further assess their past experience in the area you are interested in.

Last but not least, confirm that the agency is a member of either local, regional or international research accreditation bodies based on the geographical scope of your project. These associations have strict policies around marketing research ethics and how data is collected from respondents. GeoPoll is a proud corporate member of  ESOMAR,    PAMRO, and  MSRA .

d. Determine Your Data Collection Mode

Once you have listed your objectives, deciding on which of the following research methodologies to utilize becomes easier. Deciding on which type of research to run also helps further narrow down the agency best suited based on their capabilities. The data collection mode you use will impact both the type of data you collect and how it is collected.

Data is generally grouped into two categories,  qualitative and quantitative . Simply put, qualitative data is unstructured and is often exploratory by nature. When analyzed, responses may be grouped into similar categories but they cannot be ranked in the same way quantitative data can.

Quantitative research is the mathematical approach to collecting data, which can more clearly be measured and structured. Quantitative data includes survey data where respondents have a clear choice of answers, and quantitative questions often appear with radio buttons, check boxes and Likert scales which are easy to measure and compare. The two data collection methods are often referred to as simply quant and qual. It is important to note that qualitative research tends to be more expensive than quantitative research, as it requires more manual data analysis.

Different research modes will often lend themselves more easily to quantitative or qualitative data collection. Focus groups, unstructured interviews, and open-ended questions are typically collecting qualitative data, while surveys with answer choices collect quantitative data. Understanding the different modes and what type of data they can collect is important: Text message surveys can collect some qualitative data, but perform better with quantitative questions that are easily answered from a list of choices.

You also need to consider how robust and agile the different modes of data collection are. Can your selected mode work across multiple countries and languages? How much data are you looking to collect and in what time-frame? The level of scalability of the mode is important, especially if your project will entail a multi-country survey. In addition, some modes will collect data more slowly than others.

Some examples of different modes of data collection include: • Face-to-face • Text message (SMS) survey • Online survey • Mobile web survey • Mobile application survey or passive data collection • CATI (Computer Assisted Telephone Interviews) • CAPI (Computer Assisted Personal Interview) • Focus groups

Marketing research agencies can often give you guidance on what modes would be best for your project, and you should also consider if the agency has experience in that type of data collection. Another question to consider is how relevant each methodology is to your needs – if you are looking for a lot of exploratory data, a focus group may be your best bet, but if you want to reach a wide group of respondents in emerging areas, text message surveys would be a better mode.

e. Conduct Data Analysis

The most important aspect of market research is being able to analyze the data once it has been collected. A thorough analysis should guide you on how to act on the insights you have gathered. It is therefore crucial that the research agency, through their insights report, address the questions you had set out at the start of your survey. For example: What is my product’s current position in the market, who are my actual customers, and which aspects of my 4 Ps do I need to work on? Analysis capabilities of the agency and the tools being used by the analysts and if they meet your needs

f. Complete A Post Project Review

Having a session with the research team after completion of your project to share feedback and discuss the project execution is sometimes overlooked. Such an undertaking involves various departments but is important to understand why a project did or did not go as smoothly as planned. A post-project review session helps in both parties knowing what areas worked and which ones the agency or the client will need to improve for their next project.

Conducting international marketing research is often a large undertaking and there are various details you need to consider before embarking on your project. Language, infrastructure, internet penetration, and the type of data you are looking to collect all have an impact on your project and how easily data will be collected from your target population. To be successful, you must engage the right company: One that has a wide range of experience in the area you are researching can utilize multiple modes with ease and can give you advice on questionnaire design, regional nuances, and more.

GeoPoll has a team of experts in collecting data around the globe, and specifically in emerging markets in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. We are always happy to advise you on your data collection needs: To ask a question or contact us about an upcoming project, please get in touch with us 

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• Tags collecting data emerging markets , conducting international market research , international market research process , international marketing research , market research africa , market research process , marketing research process

5.3 Segmentation of International Markets

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• 1 Describe the challenges of segmenting international markets.
• 2 Discuss the advantages of segmenting international markets.
• 3 Explain methods of segmenting international markets.

Challenges of Segmenting International Markets

As we’ve outlined in this chapter, companies can’t be all things to all people because buyers differ in terms of their needs, wants, and demands. Accordingly, just as with consumer markets and B2B markets, companies typically find it necessary to segment international markets.

That’s not to say that segmenting international markets is easy; rather, the reverse is true: it adds a whole new set of complications, including differences in cultural, economic, and political environments in various countries. Additionally, because of those cultural, economic, and political differences, consumers in international markets tend to be more diverse in character than domestic markets. Moreover, the range of income levels and populations and the diversity of lifestyles in international markets tend to be significantly greater than in the domestic market. 30 Accordingly, a single marketing strategy for all segments is questionable at best.

Advantages of Segmenting International Markets

The advantages of segmenting international markets aren’t all that different from the advantages of segmenting the consumer or B2B markets, but there are some subtle differences. A marketer in the United States may have a much easier time understanding the needs and wants of US consumers, but that may not be the case with international consumers. Segmenting the international market and conducting market research allows the marketer to have a better understanding of international customers. It also enables the marketer to identify similarities and differences across international markets, which may lead them to combine segments across countries or even regions. 31

Methods of Segmenting International Markets

There are four primary methods of segmenting international markets, as shown in Figure 5.8 .

Geographic Segmentation

Just as with domestic markets, international markets can be segmented geographically. A company might segment by regions, such as Western Europe, the Middle East, Africa, Latin America, etc. Keep in mind, however, that although geographic segmentation groups countries by location, they may be very different from one another in other respects. For example, if you were to consider the countries included in a Western European region, you’d find that, both culturally and economically, the United Kingdom and Scotland are very similar, but both differ significantly from neighboring Ireland. 32 Similarly, people in West Africa tend to share similarities in dress, cuisine, and music, but these characteristics aren’t shared extensively with groups outside of West Africa. 33

In terms of geographic segmentation, marketers also need to consider the infrastructure of the country—the basic physical systems of the nation, such as roads, sewage treatment, communication, water treatment, electricity, etc. You may have the best product for the consumers in the international market segment, but if the infrastructure is such that you can’t reasonably get the products to the consumers, that represents a restraining force that limits the opportunity.

Although the project is controversial, China has invested billions of dollars in an effort to strengthen its economy and global trade through its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a vast network of railways, energy pipelines, and highways through six economic corridors, both westward through former Soviet republics and southward to Pakistan, India, and Southeast Asia. In order to expand maritime trade traffic, China is investing in port development along the Indian Ocean, from Southeast Asia to East Africa and parts of Europe. The BRI spans a multitude of infrastructure projects intended to promote the flow of goods and foreign investment and is expected to impact more than 80 countries. 34

Segmentation Based on Political and Legal Factors

As you’ve seen from our discussion of segmenting consumer markets, it’s often done on the basis of factors such as age, gender, product usage, personality, etc. That’s true as well in international markets, but the marketer needs to add still another dimension: country characteristics. These characteristics are typically political and legal factors, such as the type and stability of the government, how receptive the government is to foreign firms, monetary regulations, and how complex the bureaucracy of the nation is. 35 There are numerous other governmental policies that can interfere with international trade, such as tariffs (taxes imposed on imports), import quotas, currency controls, and local content requirements.

In 2022, in response to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, major sanctions have been put in place against Russia by the United States, the European Union, and the United Kingdom. For example, the United Kingdom imposed a 35 percent tax on some Russian imports, and several international companies like McDonald’s , Coca-Cola , Starbucks and Marks & Spencer have either suspended operations in Russia or have withdrawn altogether. It doesn’t take much to imagine the financial impact on Russia as a result of these sanctions. 36

Segmentation Based on Economic Factors

Still another way to segment markets internationally is on the basis of economic factors—the level of economic development and the income levels of the population. This is often differentiated on the basis of whether the country is developing, developed, or underdeveloped. This classification is based on the nation’s economic status (i.e., gross domestic product, gross national product, per capita income, degree of industrialization, and standard of living).

Developed countries typically have a high rate of industrialization and a relatively high level of individual income. Unemployment and poverty are typically low in developed nations, and citizens enjoy a relatively high standard of living, along with higher life expectancy. 37 It’s likely in developed nations that companies will focus their international marketing efforts. According to the United Nations in 2020, 36 countries were classified as developed; interestingly enough, all of these countries were located in either North America, Europe, or “Developed Asia and Pacific.” 38

Developing countries, on the other hand, have a lower standard of living, a lower per capita income, and a slow rate of industrialization. Unemployment and poverty tend to be relatively high compared to developed countries, as are infant mortality rates. 39 The United Nations categorized 126 countries as developing, and all of these were located in either Africa, Asia, Latin America or the Caribbean. 40

Underdeveloped countries are less developed economically than most other nations. These countries typically have little industry, and the standard of living is considerably lower than in developed or developing countries. Infrastructure may also be compromised in terms of roads, sewage treatment, water quality, etc. As a general rule, although there may be an attractive market for your company’s product or service in an underdeveloped country, the challenges of getting the product into the customer’s hands are often difficult to overcome.

Segmentation Based on Cultural Factors

Cultural factors, such as common language, religions, values, and attitudes, can also be used to segment a country or region. McDonald’s uses a “think global, act local” strategy to help meet the cultural needs of various market segments. On one hand, it offers a standardized menu of offerings worldwide, like McNuggets and the McFlurry. On the other hand, it customizes other offerings on its menu to adapt to the cultural requirements of consumers. For example, in India, in order to appeal to vegetarian and non-beef-eating customers, McDonald’s introduced the Maharaja Mac, which is made with a corn and cheese patty. The company also used the term “Maharaja” to appeal to India’s history and liking of royalty and called it the “Social Burger” to suggest that it can be eaten quickly, giving people more time to spend with friends. 41

McDonald’s not only customizes its menu based on where it operates, but it also customizes its digital and TV advertisements depending on each country and consumer segment. For example, in Singapore, McDonald’s ads attempted to appeal to consumers’ love of nightlife by showing how McDonald’s can enhance a night out, whereas in the United Kingdom, the company created cartoon ads focusing on Happy Meals to attract the large segment of children in the UK. 42

Not to be outdone by McDonald’s, Burger King also offers a wide variety of international menu items that aren’t available in the United States. Did you know that there’s a Spicy Shrimp Whopper available in Japan and a SufganiKing (Donut Burger) in Israel? In Norway, where there is one sauna for every two people, Burger King opened a fully operational spa complete with a 15-person sauna and media lounge where customers can enjoy their meals. 43

One model that is particularly useful in assessing culture is social psychologist Geert Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, originally published in the 1970s. Hofstede had studied IBM employees in over 50 countries and identified five dimensions that could be used to distinguish one culture from another. 44 Four of these dimensions directly affect marketing in different cultures:

• Power Distance Index (PDI). This dimension refers to how much power inequality exists within a culture and the degree to which people are accepting of this inequality. A high PDI score suggests that society accepts an unequal distribution of power, whereas a low PDI score means that power is shared and widely dispersed. If you’re curious, the United States has a moderately low PDI score of 40 on a scale of 1 to 100, compared to a world average of 55. 45 This means that the United States is less accepting of hierarchy and authority than nations such as Malaysia, which has the highest power distance index in the world. 46 This cultural dimension plays an important role in marketing because, in countries where there is a high power distance index, marketers need to appeal to the leadership or the head of the family, whereas in low power distance index countries, it’s more important to reach a broad range of “ordinary” people who will be the ultimate decision makers.
• Individualism versus Collectivism (IDV). This dimension refers to whether the culture emphasizes the needs and goals of the group as a whole or whether individual needs are paramount. 47 Think of individualism and collectivism as an “I” versus a “we” orientation. An individualistic society places emphasis on attaining personal goals, whereas a collectivist culture places emphasis on group goals and the well-being of the group. The United States has a very high individualism score of 91, compared to many Latin American countries such as Ecuador and Guatemala, which have single-digit individualism scores. 48 The implications for marketing are important here because for countries with high individualism, the marketing messages should emphasize how your products or services benefit them individually, such as by saving time and rewarding themselves. On the other hand, in countries with a low individualism ranking, it’s more important to stress how buying your company’s products will benefit the community as a whole.
• Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI). This dimension refers to the degree to which a society avoids risk or ambiguity. Societies with a high degree of uncertainty avoidance compensate for this uncertainty by establishing rules, policies, and procedures, whereas societies with low uncertainty avoidance more readily accept change. The UAI for the United States is 46, putting it into the moderate range compared to European nations like Italy (UAI of 75) and Poland (UAI of 93). 49 Let’s consider how this affects marketing. Cultures with high uncertainty avoidance generally prefer to have product characteristics clearly spelled out, complete with product warranties and money-back guarantees. For example, if you want to market automobiles in that type of culture, it would be important to focus on the safety features of the car. Conversely, cultures with low uncertainty avoidance are more accepting of trying something new.
• Masculinity/Femininity (MAS). This dimension refers to the degree to which gender-specific roles are valued in the society: Are “masculine” values such as achievement, ambition, and acquisition or “feminine” values such as quality of life and service to others valued more? In countries with a high masculinity ranking (e.g., Japan), men are intended to lead; women are supposed to follow. This is in direct contrast to countries with a low masculinity ranking (such as the United States and Canada), where women are treated equally to men and gender roles are more fluid. Societies with low masculinity would tend to respond negatively to gender-oriented promotion, so a neutral approach that appeals to both men and women would be more appropriate. 50 Consider how many brands in the United States focus on female empowerment and positive body image. That type of advertising would not appeal to a society with a masculine orientation.

Knowledge Check

It’s time to check your knowledge on the concepts presented in this section. Refer to the Answer Key at the end of the book for feedback.

• masculinity/femininity
• uncertainty avoidance
• power distance index
• individualism versus collectivism
• infrastructure
• governmental stability
• inflation and unemployment rates
• degree of uncertainty avoidance
• individualism ranking
• masculinity ranking
• Power distance index
• Masculinity/femininity
• Uncertainty avoidance
• Individualism versus collectivism

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• Book title: Principles of Marketing
• Publication date: Jan 25, 2023
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• Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/principles-marketing/pages/1-unit-introduction
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Home » Marketing Management » International Marketing Research – Definition, Categories and Process

International Marketing Research – Definition, Categories and Process

International marketing managers make the same basic types of decisions as do those who operate in only one country. Of course, they make these decisions in a more complicated environment. As with marketing decisions, the basic function of marketing research and the research process does not differentiate between domestic and multinational research. However, the process is complicated almost exponentially as more and more countries are involved in the same decision. Marketing research practices and techniques have become truly global. For example, the world’s largest research firm, Nielsen, is headquartered in the U.S. but derives almost two-thirds of its revenue from outside the U.S. It is standardizing much of the data it routinely collects in 27 different countries.

The main factors which influence marketing research in different countries are;

• Product. When a soft drink was launched in Arab countries, it has a label with six-pointed stars. The sales were very low as the stars were associated with Israel.
• Price. An American firm was willing to set a reasonable price for the product they intended to sell to the Japanese. A detailed presentation was made to the Japanese businessmen, but it was followed by a deep silence. The Americans thought that the Japanese were going to reject the price and offered a lower price. The Japanese kept silent again. After that, the Americans lowered the price again saying that it was the lowest they could sell at. After a brief silence, the offer was accepted. Later the Japanese confessed that the first offered price was quite acceptable, but they had a tradition to think over the offer silently. An American company suffered great losses in this case.
• Place. A company wanted to enter the Spanish market with two-liter drink bottles and failed. Soon they found out that Spaniards prefer small door fridges and they could not put large bottles into them.
• Promotion. Pepsico came to Taiwan with the ad ‘Come Alive with Pepsi’. They could not imagine that is it translated ‘Pepsi will bring your relatives back from the dead’ into Chinese.
• Racial Differences. This refers to the differences in the physical features of people in different countries. For example, types of hair cut and cosmetic products differ greatly in various countries.
• Climatic Differences. These are the meteorological conditions such as temperature range or degree of rain. For example, Bosch-Siemens adapted their washing machines to the markets they sell. In Scandinavia, where there are very few sunny days, they sell washing machines with a minimum spin cycle of 1,000 rpm and a maximum of 1,600 rpm, whereas in Italy and Spain a spin cycle of 500 rpm is enough.
• Economic Differences. Economic development of various countries is different and when a company introduces a new product it adapts it to that new market. There are factors that show the level of economic development .
• Buying power and revenue of the market. In developed countries with higher income of revenue, people prefer complicated products with advanced functions, while in poor countries simple products are preferable.
• The infrastructure of the market. Such elements of the infrastructure of the country as transport, communication system, and others influence the product. When Suzuki entering the Indian market the suspension was reinforced as the state of roads in India is very poor.
• Religious Differences. Religion affects the product greatly and makes companies adapt their product to religious norms. If a company exports grocery products to Islamic countries it must have a special certificate indicating that the animal was slaughtered according to ‘Halal’ methods.
• Historical Differences. Historical differences affect consumer behavior . For instance, Scotch whiskey is considered fashionable in Italy and not very trendy in Scotland.
• Language Differences. The correct translation and language adaptation is very important. For example, when Proctor & Gamble entered the Polish markets it translated properly its labels but failed. Later they found out that imperfect language must have been used in order to show that the company fits in.

Besides the differences mentioned above, there may be differences in the way that products or services are used, differences in the criteria for assessing products or services across various markets, and differences in market research facilities and capabilities.

International Marketing Research Categories

International marketing research is the systematic design, collection, recording, analysis, interpretation, and reporting of information pertinent to a particular marketing decision facing a company operating internationally. International marketing managers need to constantly monitor the different forces affecting their international operations.

There are three general categories of research based on the type of information required.

• Exploratory research deals with discovering the general nature of the problem and the variables that relate to it. Exploratory research is characterized by a high degree of flexibility, and it tends to rely on secondary data, convenience or judgment samples, small-scale surveys or simple experiments, case analyses , and subjective evaluation of the results.
• Descriptive research is focused on the accurate description of the variables in the problem model. Consumer profile studies, market-potential studies, product-usage studies, attitude surveys, sales analyses, media research, and price surveys are examples of descriptive research. Any source of information can be used in a descriptive study, although most studies of this nature rely heavily on secondary data sources and survey research.
• Causal research attempts to specify the nature of the functional relationship between two or more variables in the problem model. For example, studies on the effectiveness of advertising generally attempt to discover the extent to which advertising causes sales or attitude change.

There are three types of evidence to make inferences about causation: (1) concomitant variation, (2) sequence of occurrence, and (3) absence of other potential causal factors.

Concomitant variation, or invariant association, is a common basis for ascrib­ing cause. For example, advertising expenditures vary across a number of geographic areas and measure sales in each area. To the extent that high sales occur in areas with large advertising expenditures and low sales occur in areas with limited advertising expenditures, it is inferred that advertising is a cause of sales. It must be stressed that this has been only inferred, it is not proved that increased advertising causes increased sales.

The sequence of occurrence can also provide evidence of causation. For one event to cause another, it must always precede it. An event that occurs after another event cannot be said to cause the first event. The importance of sequence can be demonstrated in the last example of advertising causing sales. It is supposed that further investigation showed that the advertising allocation to the geo­graphic regions had been based on the last period’s sales such that the level of advertising was directly related to past sales. Suddenly, the nature of our causal relationship is reversed. Now, because of the sequence of events, it can be inferred that changes in sales levels cause changes in advertising levels.

A final type of evidence that is used to infer causality is the absence of other potential causal factors. That is, if one could logically or through our research design eliminate all possible causative factors except the one he/she is interested in, he/she would have established that the variable he/she is concerned with was the causative factor. Unfortunately, it is never possible to control completely or to eliminate all possible causes for any particular event. Always there is a possibility that some factor of which one is not aware has influenced the results. However, if all reasonable alternatives are eliminated except one, one can have a high degree of confidence in the remaining variable.

Steps of International Marketing Research Process

The international marketing research process, as well as the domestic one, is a series of separate steps. However, the international marketing research process has some peculiarities such as the national differences between countries arising out of political, legal, economic, social, and cultural differences and, the comparability of research results due to these differences.

Step 1. Research Problem Definition

Problem definition is the most critical part of the research process. Research problem definition involves specifying the information needed by manage­ment. Unless the problem is properly defined, the information produced by the research process is unlikely to have any value.

Step 2. Information Value Estimation

Information has value only to the extent that it improves decisions. The value of information increases as;

• the cost of wrong de­cision increases,
• our level of knowledge as to the correct decision de­creases, and
• the accuracy of the information the research will provide increases.

The principle involved in deciding whether to do more research is that research should be conducted only when the value of the information to be obtained is expected to be greater than the cost of obtaining it.

Step 3. Selection of the Data Collection Approach

There are three basic data collection approaches in international marketing research: (1) secondary data, (2) survey data, and (3) experimental data. Secondary data were collected for other purposes than helping to solve the current problem. Primary data are collected expressly to help solve the problem at hand. Survey and experimental data are therefore secondary data if they were collected earlier for another study; they are primary data if they were collected for the present one. Secondary data are virtually always collected first because of their time and cost advantages.

Step 4. Measurement Technique Selection

Four basic measurement techniques are used in marketing research: (1) questionnaires , (2) attitude scales, (3) observation, and (4) depth interviews and projec­ts techniques. As with selecting the data collection method, the selection of a measurement technique is influenced primarily by the nature of the information required and secondarily by the value of the information.

Step 5. Sample Selection

Most marketing studies involve a sample or subgroup of the total population relevant to the problem, rather than a census of the entire group. The popu­lation is generally specified as a part of the problem definition process.

Step 6. Selection of Methods of Analyses

Data are useful only after analysis. Data analysis involves converting a series of recorded observations into descriptive statements and/or inferences about relationships. The types of analyses, which can be conducted, depending on the nature of the sampling process, measurement instrument, and the data collection method.

Step 7. Evaluation of the Ethics of the Research

It is essential that marketing researchers restrict their research activities to practices that are ethically sound. Ethically sound research considers the interests of the general public, the respondents, the client, and the research profession as well as those of the researcher.

Step 8. Estimation of Time and Financial Requirements

Time refers to the time needed to complete the project. The financial requirement is the monetary representation of personnel time, computer time, and mate­rials requirements. The time and finance requirements are not independent.

Step 9. Preparation of Research Proposal

The research design process provides the researcher with a blueprint, or guide, for conducting and controlling the research project. This blueprint is written in the form of a research proposal. A written research proposal should precede any research project. The re­search proposal helps ensure that the decision-maker and the researcher are still in agreement on the basic management problem, the information re­quired, and the research approach.

The Nature of International Secondary Data

Secondary data for international marketing decisions are subject to some disadvantages. Unfortunately, many of the disadvantages are multiplied when the data involve more countries. An additional problem is that most secondary data are available only in the host country’s language. Thus, multi-country searches require utilizing specializing firms or maintaining a multilingual staff.

Data availability, recency, accessibility, and accuracy vary widely from country to country. Until recently, there were few commercial databases in Japan because of the difficulty of using Japanese characters on computers. Now the problem is resolved. The Japanese government prepares many potentially useful reports, but even Japanese firms seldom use them because they are poorly organized and indexed. Secondary data in many non-democracies often reflect political interests more closely than reality. In general, the amount of secondary data available in a country varies directly with its level of economic development.

Even when accurate data are accessible, it may not be possible to make multinational comparisons. Data from several countries may not be comparable because the data were collected at different times, use different units of measurement, cover slightly different topics, or define the classes (such as age groups) differently. This has become a major problem in the European Community as firms begin to analyze the market as a whole rather than as a collection of individual countries. To resolve part of the problem, ESOMAR has proposed a standardized set of questions to gather demographic data in both government and private surveys. Similar work is underway in Brazil, India, and the Middle East.

Internal Sources of International Secondary Data

The internal sources of data for international decisions can be classified into four broad categories – accounting records, salesforce reports, miscellaneous records, and internal experts. However, utilizing international internal data can be difficult. Different accounting systems , decentralized (often on a country basis) management and information systems, sales forces organized by country or region, and so forth, all increase the difficulty of acquiring and using internal data in a timely manner. To deal with these problems global firms implement international information systems and require some standardization across countries in terms of internal recordkeeping and reporting.

External Sources of International Secondary Data

For example, when a company starts an external search for international secondary data it consults general guides to this type of data, such as the International Marketing Handbook of the US Department of Commerce’s International Trade Administration, The World of Information (Africa Guide), or it contacts Euromonitor, the leading provider of world business information and market analysis. An alternative to conducting such a search “in-house” is to use a specialist firm such as PricewaterhouseCoopers and McKinsey.

a) Databases

Both ABI (Abstract Business Information)/Inform, which contains 150-word abstracts of articles published in about 1,300 business publications worldwide, and Predicasts, which provides 11 online databases, have significant international content in their bibliographic databases. Predicasts coverage is particularly good and it is growing rapidly. In fact, half its information is on companies and industries from outside the U.S. Its major bibliographic database, PROMPT, contains material from all over the world. Both Infomat International Business and Worldcasts are focused on compa­nies, products, industries, economies, and so forth outside the U.S. Predi­casts also have separate F&S Indexes for Europe and for the rest of the world excluding Europe and the U.S. A major advantage of these abstracts is that they are all in English. Copies of the entire article are gen­erally available in the original language.

b) Foreign Government Sources

All developed countries provide census-type data on their populations. However, the frequency of data collection and the type and amount of data collected vary widely from country to country. Germany went 17 years be­tween its last two censuses, and Holland has not conducted a census in 20 years. The U.S. collects income data in its census and marketers make extensive use of it. Most other nations, including Japan, Britain, France, Spain, and Italy, do not. (Australia, Mexico, Sweden, and Finland do.) While the Scan­dinavian countries, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand publish English-language versions of their main census reports, most countries report them only in their home language.

c) International Political Organizations

Three major international political organizations provide significant amounts of data relevant to international marketing activities. The United Nations and its related organization, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, provide hundreds of publications dealing with the population, economic, and social conditions of over 200 countries.

The World Bank lends funds, provides advice, and serves as a catalyst to stimulate investments in developing nations. To carry out its missions, it collects substantial amounts of useful data which can be purchased inexpen­sively.

The Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) con­sists of 24 economically developed countries with the mission of promoting the members’ economic and social welfare by coordinating national policies. As part of this mission, it publishes reports on a broad range of socio-economic topics involving its members and the developing nations.

Issues in International Primary Data Collection

Primary data are the data collected to help solve a problem or take advantage of an opportunity on which a decision is pending.

The main advantage of primary data lies in the fact that it is collected for solving the exact problem and that is why it is characterized by high usefulness and novelty. The disadvantage is that the costs of collecting primary data are much higher in foreign developing markets as there is a lack of an appropriate marketing research infrastructure.

The international primary data is collected with the help of qualitative and quantitative research approaches. Qualitative research is particularly used as a first step in studying international marketing phenomena (focus groups, observation). However, the main constraint is that responses can be affected by culture as individuals may act differently if they know they are being observed.

Quantitative researches are more structured. They involve both descriptive research approaches, such as survey research, and causal research approaches, such as experiments. More respondents take part in quantitative research, although it highlights fewer problems than qualitative research.

International marketing research in a cross-cultural environment requires the measurement of behaviors and attitudes. A major issue in primary data collection is the existence of the so-called EMIC vs. ETIC dilemma. The EMIC school states that attitudinal and behavioral phenomena are unique to a culture. The ETIC school is primarily concerned with identifying and assessing universal attitudinal and behavioral concepts and developing pan-cultural or culture-free measures.

Survey Methods of International Marketing Research

The techniques of data collection used in international marketing research have both advantages and disadvantages.

• Personal interviews are considered to be the most popular method of data collection in international marketing research. However, there are several constraints to the usage of this technique. In Middle East countries, personal interviews are treated with great suspicion. Moreover, the personnel for the survey should be male and they may conduct interviews with housewives only when their husbands are at home. In Latin American countries, where the tax protest movement is being developed, the interviews are thought to be tax inspectors.
• Mall intercept surveys may be used in the United States, Canada, and European countries. As far as the developing countries are concerned they are not common.
• Telephone interviews have several advantages over other survey methods of international marketing research. The time and costs of international telephone calls are reducing, the surveys may be conducted from one place, the results of telephone interviews are considered reliable and it is easier to perform the client and interviewer control. But telephone surveys also have some limitations because of poor telecommunication systems in several countries. For example, in India telephone penetration is only 1 percent and telephone surveys reduce the survey coverage greatly. But even in such developed countries as Great Britain telephone penetration comprises only 80 percent. That is why a lot of marketers are very skeptical about telephone surveys and nowadays there is a great reduction in their application.
• Mailing surveys are widely used in industrialized countries, where there is a high level of literacy, good mailing services, and availability of mailing lists. However, the use of this method in developing countries has some constraints. In some countries people consider the mailing surveys to be an invasion into their private life and the effectiveness of these surveys is reduced. In such countries as Brazil, where only 30 percent of mail is delivered, mailing surveys can not be used as well.
• Electronic surveys become more popular in the United States and Europe and they are used for products that require technological literacy such as computers and computer software. E-mail surveys begin to replace mail and telephone surveys. The limiting factors for electronic surveys are as follow: there are still many countries with low internet access, the internet versions available in various countries may not be compatible and there may be a big number of non-responses because of technical issues. At the same time, the speed of getting responses and the low costs of surveys makes this method suitable for international marketing research.

International marketing research is the systematic design, collection, recording, analysis, interpretation, and reporting of information relating to a particular marketing decision facing a company operating internationally. The international marketing research process has some peculiarities such as the national differences between countries arising out of political, legal, economic, social, and cultural differences and, the comparability of research results due to these differences.

A company performing international marketing research may experience several problems. Firstly, there is a complexity of research design due to operation in a multi-country, multicultural, and multi-linguistic environment. Secondly, the availability of secondary data varies widely from country to country. In some markets, especially emerging and unstable, the data is neither available nor reliable. Thirdly, the costs of collecting primary data are much higher in foreign developing markets as there is a lack of an appropriate marketing research infrastructure. Fourthly, problems associating with coordinating research and data collection in different countries may arise. And finally, there are the difficulties of establishing the comparability and equivalence of data and research conducted in different contexts.

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INTERNATIONAL MARKETING RESEARCH PROCESS

An International Marketing Research Process is the systematic gathering, recording, and analyzing data to provide information useful to marketing decision-making. The information must be communicated across cultural boundaries and these research tools are then often applied in foreign markets. General information about the country, area, and/or market is necessary to forecast future marketing. These requirements are done by anticipating social, economic, consumer, and industry trends within specific markets or countries. Specific market information is then used to make the product, promotion, distribution, and price decisions and develop marketing plans. In domestic operations, most emphasis is placed on gathering specific market information because the other data are often available from secondary sources.

Types of Information:

• Economic and demographic: Data on growth in the economy, inflation, business cycle trends; profitability analysis for the division’s products, specific industry economic studies, analyses of overseas economies, key economic indicators for the US and overseas, and population trends (migration, aging, and immigration).
• Cultural, sociological, and political climate: A non-economic review of conditions affecting the division’s business. Covers ecology, safety, leisure time, and their impact on the business.
• Market conditions: Analysis of market conditions the division faces by market segment including international conditions.
• Technological environment: Summary of the state of the art technology as it relates to the division’s business. Needs to be broken down by product segment.
• Competitive situation:  Review of competitor’s sales revenues, methods of market segmentation, products, and apparent strategies on an international scope.

Research Process:

• Define the research problem and establish research objectives.
• Determine the sources of information to fulfill the research objectives.
• Consider the costs and benefits of the research.
• Gather the relevant data from secondary or primary sources or both.
• Analyze, interpret, and summarize the results.
• Effectively communicate the results to decision-makers.

*Variations and/or problems in implementation occur because of differences in cultural and economic development.*

Economic Dualism

A way of conceptualizing the existence of two (sometimes more) separate but symbiotic sets of economic processes or markets within the same political or national social framework. In third world societies, for example, a dual economy is formed by the coexistence of peasant subsistence agriculture and cash production of basic commodities or industrial goods for the international marketing research process. An analogous division exists in highly industrialized economies between the corporate core and peripheral firms and labor markets.

Multicultural Research Involves countries that have different languages, economies, social structures, behavior, and attitude patterns. Keep this in mind when designing cultural research to ensure comparability and equivalency of results. Different methods have varying reliabilities in different countries (thus different research methods should be applied in different countries). Example: In Latin American countries it is difficult to attract consumers to participate in focus groups because of different views about commercial research and the value of their time. The Japanese don’t respond to mail surveys compared to Americans. Evidence suggests that inefficient attention is paid to non-sampling errors in improperly conducted multicultural studies and the appropriateness of research measure that has not been tested in the multi-cultural context.

Internet Research/P rivacy Issues (a matter of personal and legal consideration) The ability to conduct primary research is one of the most exciting aspects of the internet but the bias of a sample universe composed solely of internet respondents present severe limitations. The firms vary in their abilities to turn data collected into competitive advantages. Today, the real power of the internet for international market research is the ability to easily access volumes of secondary data. Online surveys and buyer panels-have better “branching abilities” (asking different questions based on previous answers). Below are some examples of research. – Online focus groups: Use of bulletin boards. – Web visitor tracking: Auto track time visitors travel through websites. – Advertising measurement: Servers track links to other sites to assess their usefulness. Customer identification systems-track visits and purchases over time creating a “virtual panel”. – E-mail marketing lists: Sign up for direct marketing efforts via the internet. – Embedded research: The internet process people go through searching for info about products, comparison shopping, interacting w/service providers, etc is the research process itself (firms that give the option of custom designing products online are the ultimate in applying research for product development purposes). – Observational research: Chat rooms, blogs, and personal websites monitored to assess customer’s opinions about products.

Two Methods for Forecasting Market Demand 1) Expert Opinion: For market estimation problems, growth rates, and market size particularly in foreign countries new to the marketer, expert opinion is advisable. The key to using expert opinion to forecast demand is triangulation and comparing estimates produced by different sources. 2) Analogy: Assumes that demand for a product develops in much the same way in all countries as comparable economic development occurs in each country. The relationship between a known situation and country in question. Advanced techniques include multiple regression analysis or input-output analysis.

In Review: – The key component in developing successful international marketing research process strategies and avoiding major market blunders is information. – If a researcher interested in a general non-economic review of conditions affecting the company’s business, the best area avenue would be a cultural, sociological, and political estimate. – If a company wants to gather information on its own market environment you should define the research problem and establish research objectives. – Consulting with customers regarding research design is not a standard step in the research process. – The availability and accuracy of recorded secondary data increases as the level of economic development increases. – Survey questionnaires are primary data. – Yes/No questions research format is quantitative research. – The open-ended questions research format is qualitative research. – Lack of randomness in the population is not a problem of drawing a random sample in the international environment. – The language barrier is the most universal survey research problem in foreign countries. – Back translation is when a researcher translates a questionnaire into another language and then another translator translates it back into the original language. – Parallel translation: Analogy assumes that demand for a product develops in much the same way in all countries as comparable economic development occurs in each country.

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Trends in electric cars

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Electric car sales

Electric car availability and affordability.

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Nearly one in five cars sold in 2023 was electric.

Electric car sales neared 14 million in 2023, 95% of which were in China, Europe and the United States

Almost 14 million new electric cars 1 were registered globally in 2023, bringing their total number on the roads to 40 million, closely tracking the sales forecast from the 2023 edition of the Global EV Outlook (GEVO-2023). Electric car sales in 2023 were 3.5 million higher than in 2022, a 35% year-on-year increase. This is more than six times higher than in 2018, just 5 years earlier. In 2023, there were over 250 000 new registrations per week, which is more than the annual total in 2013, ten years earlier. Electric cars accounted for around 18% of all cars sold in 2023, up from 14% in 2022 and only 2% 5 years earlier, in 2018. These trends indicate that growth remains robust as electric car markets mature. Battery electric cars accounted for 70% of the electric car stock in 2023.

Global electric car stock, 2013-2023

While sales of electric cars are increasing globally, they remain significantly concentrated in just a few major markets. In 2023, just under 60% of new electric car registrations were in the People’s Republic of China (hereafter ‘China’), just under 25% in Europe, 2 and 10% in the United States – corresponding to nearly 95% of global electric car sales combined. In these countries, electric cars account for a large share of local car markets: more than one in three new car registrations in China was electric in 2023, over one in five in Europe, and one in ten in the United States. However, sales remain limited elsewhere, even in countries with developed car markets such as Japan and India. As a result of sales concentration, the global electric car stock is also increasingly concentrated. Nevertheless, China, Europe and the United States also represent around two-thirds of total car sales and stocks, meaning that the EV transition in these markets has major repercussions in terms of global trends.

In China, the number of new electric car registrations reached 8.1 million in 2023, increasing by 35% relative to 2022. Increasing electric car sales were the main reason for growth in the overall car market, which contracted by 8% for conventional (internal combustion engine) cars but grew by 5% in total, indicating that electric car sales are continuing to perform as the market matures. The year 2023 was the first in which China’s New Energy Vehicle (NEV) 3 industry ran without support from national subsidies for EV purchases, which have facilitated expansion of the market for more than a decade. Tax exemption for EV purchases and non-financial support remain in place, after an extension , as the automotive industry is seen as one of the key drivers of economic growth. Some province-led support and investment also remains in place and plays an important role in China’s EV landscape. As the market matures, the industry is entering a phase marked by increased price competition and consolidation. In addition, China exported over 4 million cars in 2023, making it the largest auto exporter in the world, among which 1.2 million were EVs. This is markedly more than the previous year – car exports were almost 65% higher than in 2022, and electric car exports were 80% higher. The main export markets for these vehicles were Europe and countries in the Asia Pacific region, such as Thailand and Australia.

In the United States, new electric car registrations totalled 1.4 million in 2023, increasing by more than 40% compared to 2022. While relative annual growth in 2023 was slower than in the preceding two years, demand for electric cars and absolute growth remained strong. The revised qualifications for the Clean Vehicle Tax Credit, alongside electric car price cuts, meant that some popular EV models became eligible for credit in 2023. Sales of the Tesla Model Y, for example, increased 50% compared to 2022 after it became eligible for the full USD 7 500 tax credit. Overall, the new criteria established by the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) appear to have supported sales in 2023, despite earlier concerns that tighter domestic content requirements for EV and battery manufacturing could create immediate bottlenecks or delays, such as for the Ford F-150 Lightning . As of 2024, new guidance for the tax credits means the number of eligible models has fallen to less than 30 from about 45, 4 including several trim levels of the Tesla Model 3 becoming ineligible. However, in 2023 and 2024, leasing business models enable electric cars to qualify for the tax credits even if they do not fully meet the requirements, as leased cars can qualify for a less strict commercial vehicle tax credit and these tax credit savings can be passed to lease-holders. Such strategies have also contributed to sustained electric car roll-out.

In Europe, new electric car registrations reached nearly 3.2 million in 2023, increasing by almost 20% relative to 2022. In the European Union, sales amounted to 2.4 million, with similar growth rates. As in China, the high rates of electric car sales seen in Europe suggest that growth remains robust as markets mature, and several European countries reached important milestones in 2023. Germany, for example, became the third country after China and the United States to record half a million new battery electric car registrations in a single year, with 18% of car sales being battery electric (and another 6% plug-in hybrid).

However, the phase-out of several purchase subsidies in Germany slowed overall EV sales growth. At the start of 2023, PHEV subsidies were phased out, resulting in lower PHEV sales compared to 2022, and in December 2023, all EV subsidies ended after a ruling on the Climate and Transformation Fund. In Germany, the sales share for electric cars fell from 30% in 2022 to 25% in 2023. This had an impact on the overall electric car sales share in the region. In the rest of Europe, however, electric car sales and their sales share increased. Around 25% of all cars sold in France and the United Kingdom were electric, 30% in the Netherlands, and 60% in Sweden. In Norway, sales shares increased slightly despite the overall market contracting, and its sales share remains the highest in Europe, at almost 95%.

Electric car registrations and sales share in China, United States and Europe, 2018-2023

Sales in emerging markets are increasing, albeit from a low base, led by southeast asia and brazil.

Electric car sales continued to increase in emerging market and developing economies (EMDEs) outside China in 2023, but they remained low overall. In many cases, personal cars are not the most common means of passenger transport, especially compared with shared vans and minibuses, or two- and three-wheelers (2/3Ws), which are more prevalent and more often electrified, given their relative accessibility and affordability. The electrification of 2/3Ws and public or shared mobility will be key to achieve emissions reductions in such cases (see later sections in this report). While switching from internal combustion engine (ICE) to electric cars is important, the effect on overall emissions differs depending on the mode of transport that is displaced. Replacing 2/3Ws, public and shared mobility or more active forms of transport with personal cars may not be desirable in all cases.

In India, electric car registrations were up 70% year-on-year to 80 000, compared to a growth rate of under 10% for total car sales. Around 2% of all cars sold were electric. Purchase incentives under the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles (FAME II) scheme, supply-side incentives under the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme, tax benefits and the Go Electric campaign have all contributed to fostering demand in recent years. A number of new models also became popular in 2023, such as Mahindra’s XUV400, MG’s Comet, Citroën’s e-C3, BYD’s Yuan Plus, and Hyundai’s Ioniq 5, driving up growth compared to 2022. However, if the forthcoming FAME III scheme includes a subsidy reduction, as has been speculated in line with lower subsidy levels in the 2024 budget, future growth could be affected. Local carmakers have thus far maintained a strong foothold in the market, supported by advantageous import tariffs , and account for 80% of electric car sales in cumulative terms since 2010, led by Tata (70%) and Mahindra (10%).

In Thailand, electric car registrations more than quadrupled year-on-year to nearly 90 000, reaching a notable 10% sales share – comparable to the share in the United States. This is all the more impressive given that overall car sales in the country decreased from 2022 to 2023. New subsidies, including for domestic battery manufacturing, and lower import and excise taxes, combined with the growing presence of Chinese carmakers , have contributed to rapidly increasing sales. Chinese companies account for over half the sales to date, and they could become even more prominent given that BYD plans to start operating EV production facilities in Thailand in 2024, with an annual production capacity of 150 000 vehicles for an investment of just under USD 500 million . Thailand aims to become a major EV manufacturing hub for domestic and export markets, and is aiming to attract USD 28 billion in foreign investment within 4 years, backed by specific incentives to foster investment.

In Viet Nam, after an exceptional 2022 for the overall car market, car sales contracted by 25% in 2023, but electric car sales still recorded unprecedented growth: from under 100 in 2021, to 7 000 in 2022, and over 30 000 in 2023, reaching a 15% sales share. Domestic front-runner VinFast, established in 2017, accounted for nearly all domestic sales. VinFast also started selling electric sports utility vehicles (SUVs) in North America in 2023, as well as developing manufacturing facilities in order to unlock domestic content-linked subsidies under the US IRA. VinFast is investing around USD 2 billion and targets an annual production of 150 000 vehicles in the United States by 2025. The company went public in 2023, far exceeding expectations with a debut market valuation of around USD 85 billion, well beyond General Motors (GM) (USD 46 billion), Ford (USD 48 billion) or BMW (USD 68 billion), before it settled back down around USD 20 billion by the end of the year. VinFast also looks to enter regional markets, such as India and the Philippines .

In Malaysia, electric car registrations more than tripled to 10 000, supported by tax breaks and import duty exemptions, as well as an acceleration in charging infrastructure roll-out. In 2023, Mercedes-Benz marketed the first domestically assembled EV, and both BYD and Tesla also entered the market.

In Latin America, electric car sales reached almost 90 000 in 2023, with markets in Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica and Mexico leading the region. In Brazil, electric car registrations nearly tripled year-on-year to more than 50 000, a market share of 3%. Growth in Brazil was underpinned by the entry of Chinese carmakers, such as BYD with its Song and Dolphin models, Great Wall with its H6, and Chery with its Tiggo 8, which immediately ranked among the best-selling models in 2023. Road transport electrification in Brazil could bring significant climate benefits given the largely low-emissions power mix, as well as reducing local air pollution. However, EV adoption has been slow thus far, given the national prioritisation of ethanol-based fuels since the late 1970s as a strategy to maintain energy security in the face of oil shocks. Today, biofuels are important alternative fuels available at competitive cost and aligned with the existing refuelling infrastructure. Brazil remains the world’s largest producer of sugar cane, and its agribusiness represents about one-fourth of GDP. At the end of 2023, Brazil launched the Green Mobility and Innovation Programme , which provides tax incentives for companies to develop and manufacture low-emissions road transport technology, aggregating to more than BRA 19 billion (Brazilian reals) (USD 3.8 billion) over the 2024-2028 period. Several major carmakers already in Brazil are developing hybrid ethanol-electric models as a result. China’s BYD and Great Wall are also planning to start domestic manufacturing, counting on local battery metal deposits, and plan to sell both fully electric and hybrid ethanol-electric models. BYD is investing over USD 600 million in its electric car plant in Brazil – its first outside Asia – for an annual capacity of 150 000 vehicles. BYD also partnered with Raízen to develop charging infrastructure in eight Brazilian cities starting in 2024. GM, on the other hand, plans to stop producing ICE (including ethanol) models and go fully electric, notably to produce for export markets. In 2024, Hyundai announced investments of USD 1.1 billion to 2032 to start local manufacturing of electric, hybrid and hydrogen cars.

In Mexico, electric car registrations were up 80% year-on-year to 15 000, a market share just above 1%. Given its proximity to the United States, Mexico’s automotive market is already well integrated with North American partners, and benefits from advantageous trade agreements, large existing manufacturing capacity, and eligibility for subsidies under the IRA. As a result, local EV supply chains are developing quickly, with expectations that this will spill over into domestic markets. Tesla, Ford, Stellantis, BMW, GM, Volkswagen (VW) and Audi have all either started manufacturing or announced plans to manufacture EVs in Mexico. Chinese carmakers such as BYD, Chery and SAIC are also considering expanding to Mexico. Elsewhere in the region, Colombia and Costa Rica are seeing increasing electric car sales, with around 6 000 and 5 000 in 2023, respectively, but sales remain limited in other Central and South American countries.

Throughout Africa, Eurasia and the Middle East, electric cars are still rare, accounting for less than 1% of total car sales. However, as Chinese carmakers look for opportunities abroad, new models – including those produced domestically – could boost EV sales. For example, in Uzbekistan , BYD set up a joint venture with UzAuto Motors in 2023 to produce 50 000 electric cars annually, and Chery International established a partnership with ADM Jizzakh. This partnership has already led to a steep increase in electric car sales in Uzbekistan, reaching around 10 000 in 2023. In the Middle East, Jordan boasts the highest electric car sales share, at more than 45%, supported by much lower import duties relative to ICE cars, followed by the United Arab Emirates, with 13%.

Strong electric car sales in the first quarter of 2024 surpass the annual total from just four years ago

Electric car sales remained strong in the first quarter of 2024, surpassing those of the same period in 2023 by around 25% to reach more than 3 million. This growth rate was similar to the increase observed for the same period in 2023 compared to 2022. The majority of the additional sales came from China, which sold about half a million more electric cars than over the same period in 2023. In relative terms, the most substantial growth was observed outside of the major EV markets, where sales increased by over 50%, suggesting that the transition to electromobility is picking up in an increasing number of countries worldwide.

Quarterly electric car sales by region, 2021-2024

From January to March of this year, nearly 1.9 million electric cars were sold in China, marking an almost 35% increase compared to sales in the first quarter of 2023. In March, NEV sales in China surpassed a share of 40% in overall car sales for the first time, according to retail sales reported by the China Passenger Car Association. As witnessed in 2023, sales of plug-in hybrid electric cars are growing faster than sales of pure battery electric cars. Plug-in hybrid electric car sales in the first quarter increased by around 75% year-on-year in China, compared to just 15% for battery electric car sales, though the former started from a lower base.

In Europe, the first quarter of 2024 saw year-on-year growth of over 5%, slightly above the growth in overall car sales and thereby stabilising the EV sales share at a similar level as last year. Electric car sales growth was particularly high in Belgium, where around 60 000 electric cars were sold, almost 35% more than the year before. However, Belgium represents less than 5% of total European car sales. In the major European markets – France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom (together representing about 60% of European car sales) – growth in electric car sales was lower. In France, overall EV sales in the first quarter grew by about 15%, with BEV sales growth being higher than for PHEVs. While this is less than half the rate as over the same period last year, total sales were nonetheless higher and led to a slight increase in the share of EVs in total car sales. The United Kingdom saw similar year-on-year growth (over 15%) in EV sales as France, about the same rate as over the same period last year. In Germany, where battery electric car subsidies ended in 2023, sales of electric cars fell by almost 5% in the first quarter of 2024, mainly as a result of a 20% year-on-year decrease in March. The share of EVs in total car sales was therefore slightly lower than last year. As in China, PHEV sales in both Germany and the United Kingdom were stronger than BEV sales. In Italy, sales of electric cars in the first three months of 2024 were more than 20% lower than over the same period in 2023, with the majority of the decrease taking place in the PHEV segment. However, this trend could be reversed based on the introduction of a new incentive scheme , and if Chinese automaker Chery succeeds in appealing to Italian consumers when it enters the market later this year.

In the United States, first-quarter sales reached around 350 000, almost 15% higher than over the same period the year before. As in other major markets, the sales growth of PHEVs was even higher, at 50%. While the BEV sales share in the United States appears to have fallen somewhat over the past few months, the sales share of PHEVs has grown.

In smaller EV markets, sales growth in the first months of 2024 was much higher, albeit from a low base. In January and February, electric car sales almost quadrupled in Brazil and increased more than sevenfold in Viet Nam. In India, sales increased more than 50% in the first quarter of 2024. These figures suggest that EVs are gaining momentum across diverse markets worldwide.

Since 2021, first-quarter electric car sales have typically accounted for 15-20% of the total global annual sales. Based on this observed trend, coupled with policy momentum and the seasonality that EV sales typically experience, we estimate that electric car sales could reach around 17 million in 2024. This indicates robust growth for a maturing market, with 2024 sales to surpass those of 2023 by more than 20% and EVs to reach a share in total car sales of more than one-fifth.

Electric car sales, 2012-2024

The majority of the additional 3 million electric car sales projected for 2024 relative to 2023 are from China. Despite the phase-out of NEV purchase subsidies last year, sales in China have remained robust, indicating that the market is maturing. With strong competition and relatively low-cost electric cars, sales are to grow by almost 25% in 2024 compared to last year, reaching around 10 million. If confirmed, this figure will come close to the total global electric car sales in 2022. As a result, electric car sales could represent around 45% of total car sales in China over 2024.

In 2024, electric car sales in the United States are projected to rise by 20% compared to the previous year, translating to almost half a million more sales, relative to 2023. Despite reporting of a rocky end to 2023 for electric cars in the United States, sales shares are projected to remain robust in 2024. Over the entire year, around one in nine cars sold are expected to be electric.

Based on recent trends, and considering that tightening CO 2 targets are due to come in only in 2025, the growth in electric car sales in Europe is expected to be the lowest of the three largest markets. Sales are projected to reach around 3.5 million units in 2024, reflecting modest growth of less than 10% compared to the previous year. In the context of a generally weak outlook for passenger car sales, electric cars would still represent about one in four cars sold in Europe.

Outside of the major EV markets, electric car sales are anticipated to reach the milestone of over 1 million units in 2024, marking a significant increase of over 40% compared to 2023. Recent trends showing the success of both homegrown and Chinese electric carmakers in Southeast Asia underscore that the region is set to make a strong contribution to the sales of emerging EV markets (see the section on Trends in the electric vehicle industry). Despite some uncertainty surrounding whether India’s forthcoming FAME III scheme will include subsidies for electric cars, we expect sales in India to remain robust, and to experience around 50% growth compared to 2023. Across all regions outside the three major EV markets, electric car sales are expected to represent around 5% of total car sales in 2024, which – considering the high growth rates seen in recent years – could indicate that a tipping point towards global mass adoption is getting closer.

There are of course downside risks to the 2024 outlook for electric car sales. Factors such as high interest rates and economic uncertainty could potentially reduce the growth of global electric car sales in 2024. Other challenges may come from the IRA restrictions on US electric car tax incentives, and the tightening of technical requirements for EVs to qualify for the purchase tax exemption in China. However, there are also upside potentials to consider. New markets may open up more rapidly than anticipated, as automakers expand their EV operations and new entrants compete for market share. This could lead to accelerated growth in electric car sales globally, surpassing the initial estimations.

More electric models are becoming available, but the trend is towards larger ones

The number of available electric car models nears 600, two-thirds of which are large vehicles and SUVs

In 2023, the number of available models for electric cars increased 15% year-on-year to nearly 590, as carmakers scaled up electrification plans, seeking to appeal to a growing consumer base. Meanwhile, the number of fully ICE models (i.e. excluding hybrids) declined for the fourth consecutive year, at an average of 2%. Based on recent original equipment manufacturer (OEM) announcements, the number of new electric car models could reach 1 000 by 2028. If all announced new electric models actually reach the market, and if the number of available ICE car models continues to decline by 2% annually, there could be as many electric as ICE car models before 2030.

As reported in GEVO-2023, the share of small and medium electric car models is decreasing among available electric models: in 2023, two-thirds of the battery-electric models on the market were SUVs, 5 pick-up trucks or large cars. Just 25% of battery electric car sales in the United States were for small and medium models, compared to 40% in Europe and 50% in China. Electric cars are following the same trend as conventional cars, and getting bigger on average. In 2023, SUVs, pick-up trucks and large models accounted for 65% of total ICE car sales worldwide, and more than 80% in the United States, 60% in China and 50% in Europe.

Several factors underpin the increase in the share of large models. Since the 2010s, conventional SUVs in the United States have benefited from less stringent tailpipe emissions rules than smaller models, creating an incentive for carmakers to market more vehicles in that segment. Similarly, in the European Union, CO 2 targets for passenger cars have included a compromise on weight, allowing CO 2 leeway for heavier vehicles in some cases. Larger vehicles also mean larger margins for carmakers. Given that incumbent carmakers are not yet making a profit on their EV offer in many cases, focusing on larger models enables them to increase their margins. Under the US IRA, electric SUVs can qualify for tax credits as long as they are priced under USD 80 000, whereas the limit stands at USD 55 000 for a sedan, creating an incentive to market SUVs if a greater margin can be gathered. On the demand side, there is now strong willingness to pay for SUVs or large models. Consumers are typically interested in longer-range and larger cars for their primary vehicles, even though small models are more suited to urban use. Higher marketing spend on SUVs compared to smaller models can also have an impact on consumer choices.

The progressive shift towards ICE SUVs has been dramatically limiting fuel savings. Over the 2010-2022 period, without the shift to SUVs, energy use per kilometre could have fallen at an average annual rate 30% higher than the actual rate. Switching to electric in the SUV and larger car segments can therefore achieve immediate and significant CO 2 emissions reductions, and electrification also brings considerable benefits in terms of reducing air pollution and non-tailpipe emissions, especially in urban settings. In 2023, if all ICE and HEV sales of SUVs had instead been BEV, around 770 Mt CO 2 could have been avoided globally over the cars’ lifetimes (see section 10 on lifecycle analysis). This is equivalent to the total road emissions of China in 2023.

Breakdown of battery electric car sales in selected countries and regions by segment, 2018-2023

Nevertheless, from a policy perspective, it is critical to mitigate the negative spillovers associated with an increase in larger electric cars in the fleet.

Larger electric car models have a significant impact on battery supply chains and critical mineral demand. In 2023, the sales-weighted average battery electric SUV in Europe had a battery almost twice as large as the one in the average small electric car, with a proportionate impact on critical mineral needs. Of course, the range of small cars is typically shorter than SUVs and large cars (see later section on ranges). However, when comparing electric SUVs and medium-sized electric cars, which in 2023 offered a similar range, the SUV battery was still 25% larger. This means that if all electric SUVs sold in 2023 had instead been medium-sized cars, around 60 GWh of battery equivalent could have been avoided globally, with limited impact on range. Accounting for the different chemistries used in China, Europe, and the United States, this would be equivalent to almost 6 000 tonnes of lithium, 30 000 tonnes of nickel, almost 7 000 tonnes of cobalt, and over 8 000 tonnes of manganese.

Larger batteries also require more power, or longer charging times. This can put pressure on electricity grids and charging infrastructure by increasing occupancy, which could create issues during peak utilisation, such as at highway charging points at high traffic times.

In addition, larger vehicles also require greater quantities of materials such as iron and steel, aluminium and plastics, with a higher environmental and carbon footprint for materials production, processing and assembly. Because they are heavier, larger models also have higher electricity consumption. The additional energy consumption resulting from the increased mass is mitigated by regenerative braking to some extent, but in 2022, the sales-weighted average electricity consumption of electric SUVs was 20% higher than that of other electric cars. 6

Major carmakers have announced launches of smaller and more affordable electric car models over the past few years. However, when all launch announcements are considered, far fewer smaller models are expected than SUVs, large models and pick-up trucks. Only 25% of the 400+ launches expected over the 2024-2028 period are small and medium models, which represents a smaller share of available models than in 2023. Even in China, where small and medium models have been popular, new launches are typically for larger cars.

Number of available car models in 2023 and expected new ones by powertrain, country or region and segment, 2024-2028

Several governments have responded by introducing policies to create incentives for smaller and lighter passenger cars. In Norway, for example, all cars are subject to a purchase tax based on weight, CO 2 and nitrogen oxides (NO x ) emissions, though electric cars were exempt from the weight-based tax prior to 2023. Any imported cars weighing more than 500 kg must also pay an entry fee for each additional kg. In France, a progressive weight-based tax applies to ICE and PHEV cars weighing above 1 600 kg, with a significant impact on price: weight tax for a Land Rover Defender 130 (2 550 kg) adds up to more than EUR 21 500, versus zero for a Renault Clio (1 100 kg). Battery electric cars have been exempted to date. In February 2024, a referendum held in Paris resulted in a tripling of city parking fees for visiting SUVs, applicable to ICE, hybrid and plug-in hybrid cars above 1 600 kg and battery electric ones above 2 000 kg, in an effort to limit the use of large and/or polluting vehicles. Other examples exist in Estonia, Finland, Switzerland and the Netherlands. A number of policy options may be used, such as caps and fleet averages for vehicle footprint, weight, and/or battery size; access to finance for smaller vehicles; and sustained support for public charging, enabling wider use of shorter-range cars.

Average range is increasing, but only moderately

Concerns about range compared to ICE vehicles, and about the availability of charging infrastructure for long-distance journeys, also contribute to increasing appetite for larger models with longer range.

With increasing battery size and improvements in battery technology and vehicle design, the sales-weighted average range of battery electric cars grew by nearly 75% between 2015 and 2023, although trends vary by segment. The average range of small cars in 2023 – around 150 km – is not much higher than it was in 2015, indicating that this range is already well suited for urban use (with the exception of taxis, which have much higher daily usage). Large, higher-end models already offered higher ranges than average in 2015, and their range has stagnated through 2023, averaging around 360-380 km. Meanwhile, significant improvements have been made for medium-sized cars and SUVs, the range of which now stands around 380 km, whereas it averaged around 150 km for medium cars and 270 km for SUVs in 2015. This is encouraging for consumers looking to purchase an electric car for longer journeys rather than urban use.

Since 2020, growth in the average range of vehicles has been slower than over the 2015-2020 period. This could result from a number of factors, including fluctuating battery prices, carmakers’ attempts to limit additional costs as competition intensifies, and technical constraints (e.g. energy density, battery size). It could also reflect that beyond a certain range at which most driving needs are met, consumers’ willingness to pay for a marginal increase in battery size and range is limited. Looking forward, however, the average range could start increasing again as novel battery technologies mature and prices fall.

More affordable electric cars are needed to reach a mass-market tipping point

An equitable and inclusive transition to electric mobility, both within countries and at the global level, hinges on the successful launch of affordable EVs (including but not limited to electric cars). In this section, we use historic sales and price data for electric and ICE models around the world to examine the total cost of owning an electric car, price trends over time, and the remaining electric premium, by country and vehicle size. 7 Specific models are used for illustration.

Total cost of ownership

Car purchase decisions typically involve consideration of retail price and available subsidies as well as lifetime operating costs, such as fuel costs, insurance, maintenance and depreciation, which together make up the total cost of ownership (TCO). Reaching TCO parity between electric and ICE cars creates important financial incentives to make the switch. This section examines the different components of the TCO, by region and car size.

In 2023, upfront retail prices for electric cars were generally higher than for their ICE equivalents, which increased their TCO in relative terms. On the upside, higher fuel efficiency and lower maintenance costs enable fuel cost savings for electric cars, lowering their TCO. This is especially true in periods when fuel prices are high, in places where electricity prices are not too closely correlated to fossil fuel prices. Depreciation is also a major factor in determining TCO: As a car ages, it loses value, and depreciation for electric cars tends to be faster than for ICE equivalents, further increasing their TCO. Accelerated depreciation could, however, prove beneficial for the development of second-hand markets.

However, the trend towards faster depreciation for electric vehicles might be reversed for multiple reasons. Firstly, consumers are gaining more confidence in electric battery lifetimes, thereby increasing the resale value of EVs. Secondly, strong demand and the positive brand image of some BEV models can mean they hold their value longer, as shown by Tesla models depreciating more slowly than the average petrol car in the United States. Finally, increasing fuel prices in some regions, the roll-out of low-emissions zones that restrict access for the most polluting vehicles, and taxes and parking fees specifically targeted at ICE vehicles could mean they experience faster depreciation rates than EVs in the future. In light of these two possible opposing depreciation trends, the same fixed annual depreciation rate for both BEVs and ICE vehicles has been applied in the following cost of ownership analysis.

Subsidies help lower the TCO of electric cars relative to ICE equivalents in multiple ways. A purchase subsidy lowers the original retail price, thereby lowering capital depreciation over time, and a lower retail price implies lower financing costs through cumulative interest. Subsidies can significantly reduce the number of years required to reach TCO parity between electric and ICE equivalents. As of 2022, we estimate that TCO parity could be reached in most cases in under 7 years in the three major EV markets, with significant variations across different car sizes. In comparison, for models purchased at 2018 prices, TCO parity was much harder to achieve.

In Germany, for example, we estimate that the sales-weighted average price of a medium-sized battery electric car in 2022 was 10-20% more expensive than its ICE equivalent, but 10-20% cheaper in cumulative costs of ownership after 5 years, thanks to fuel and maintenance costs savings. In the case of an electric SUV, we estimate that the average annual operating cost savings would amount to USD 1 800 when compared to the equivalent conventional SUV over a period of 10 years. In the United States, despite lower fuel prices with respect to electricity, the higher average annual mileage results in savings that are close to Germany at USD 1 600 per year. In China, lower annual distance driven reduces fuel cost savings potential, but the very low price of electricity enables savings of about USD 1 000 per year.

In EMDEs, some electric cars can also be cheaper than ICE equivalents over their lifetime. This is true in India , for example, although it depends on the financing instrument. Access to finance is typically much more challenging in EMDEs due to higher interest rates and the more limited availability of cheap capital. Passenger cars have also a significantly lower market penetration in the first place, and many car purchases are made in second-hand markets. Later sections of this report look at markets for used electric cars, as well as the TCO for electric and conventional 2/3Ws in EMDEs, where they are far more widespread than cars as a means of road transport.

Upfront retail price parity

Achieving price parity between electric and ICE cars will be an important tipping point. Even when the TCO for electric cars is advantageous, the upfront retail price plays a decisive role, and mass-market consumers are typically more sensitive to price premiums than wealthier buyers. This holds true not only in emerging and developing economies, which have comparatively high costs of capital and comparatively low household and business incomes, but also in advanced economies. In the United States, for example, surveys suggest affordability was the top concern for consumers considering EV adoption in 2023. Other estimates show that even among SUV and pick-up truck consumers, only 50% would be willing to purchase one above USD 50 000.

In this section, we examine historic price trends for electric and ICE cars over the 2018-2022 period, by country and car size, and for best-selling models in 2023.

Electric cars are generally getting cheaper as battery prices drop, competition intensifies, and carmakers achieve economies of scale. In most cases, however, they remain on average more expensive than ICE equivalents. In some cases, after adjusting for inflation, their price stagnated or even moderately increased between 2018 and 2022.

Larger batteries for longer ranges increase car prices, and so too do the additional options, equipment, digital technology and luxury features that are often marketed on top of the base model. A disproportionate focus on larger, premium models is pushing up the average price, which – added to the lack of available models in second-hand markets (see below) – limits potential to reach mass-market consumers. Importantly, geopolitical tension, trade and supply chain disruptions, increasing battery prices in 2022 relative to 2021, and rising inflation, have also significantly affected the potential for further cost declines.

Competition can also play an important role in bringing down electric car prices. Intensifying competition leads carmakers to cut prices to the minimum profit margin they can sustain, and – if needed – to do so more quickly than battery and production costs decline. For example, between mid-2022 and early-2024, Tesla cut the price of its Model Y from between USD 65 000 and USD 70 000 to between USD 45 000 and USD 55 000 in the United States. Battery prices for such a model dropped by only USD 3 000 over the same period in the United States, suggesting that a profit margin may still be made at a lower price. Similarly, in China, the price of the Base Model Y dropped from CNY 320 000 (Yuan renminbi) (USD 47 000) to CNY 250 000 (USD 38 000), while the corresponding battery price fell by only USD 1 000. Conversely, in cases where electric models remain niche or aimed at wealthier, less price-sensitive early adopters, their price may not fall as quickly as battery prices, if carmakers can sustain greater margins.

Price gap between the sales-weighted average price of conventional and electric cars in selected countries, before subsidy, by size, in 2018 and 2022

In China, where the sales share of electric cars has been high for several years, the sales-weighted average price of electric cars (before purchase subsidy) is already lower than that of ICE cars. This is true not only when looking at total sales, but also at the small cars segment, and is close for SUVs. After accounting for the EV exemption from the 10% vehicle purchase tax, electric SUVs were already on par with conventional ones in 2022, on average.

Electric car prices have dropped significantly since 2018. We estimate that around 55% of the electric cars sold in China in 2022 were cheaper than their average ICE equivalent, up from under 10% in 2018. Given the further price declines between 2022 and 2023, we estimate that this share increased to around 65% in 2023. These encouraging trends suggest that price parity between electric and ICE cars could also be reached in other countries in certain segments by 2030, if the sales share of electric cars continues to grow, and if supporting infrastructure – such as for charging – is sustained.

As reported in detail in GEVO-2023 , China remains a global exception in terms of available inexpensive electric models. Local carmakers already market nearly 50 small, affordable electric car models, many of which are priced under CNY 100 000 (USD 15 000). This is in the same range as best-selling small ICE cars in 2023, which cost from CNY 70 000 to CNY 100 000. In 2022, the best-selling electric car was SAIC’s small Wuling Hongguang Mini EV, which accounted for 10% of all BEV sales. It was priced around CNY 40 000, weighing under 700 kg for a 170-km range. In 2023, however, it was overtaken by Tesla models, among other larger models, as new consumers seek longer ranges and higher-end options and digital equipment.

United States

In the United States, the sales-weighted average price of electric cars decreased over the 2018-2022 period, primarily driven by a considerable drop in the price of Tesla cars, which account for a significant share of sales. The sales-weighted average retail price of electric SUVs fell slightly more quickly than the average SUV battery costs over the same period. The average price of small and medium models also decreased, albeit to a smaller extent.

Across all segments, electric models remained more expensive than conventional equivalents in 2022. However, the gap has since begun to close, as market size increases and competition leads carmakers to cut prices. For example, in 2023-2024, Tesla’s Model 3 could be found in the USD 39 000 to USD 42 000 range, which is comparable to the average price for new ICE cars, and a new Model Y priced under USD 50 000 was launched. Rivian is expecting to launch its R2 SUV in 2026 at USD 45 000, which is much less than previous vehicles. Average price parity between electric and conventional SUVs could be reached by 2030, but it may only be reached later for small and medium cars, given their lower availability and popularity.

Smaller, cheaper electric models have further to go to reach price parity in the United States. We estimate that in 2022, only about 5% of the electric cars sold in the United States were cheaper than their average ICE equivalent. In 2023, the cheapest electric cars were priced around USD 30 000 (e.g. Chevrolet Bolt, Nissan Leaf, Mini Cooper SE). To compare, best-selling small ICE options cost under USD 20 000 (e.g. Kia Rio, Mitsubishi Mirage), and many best-selling medium ICE options between USD 20 000 and USD 25 000 (e.g. Honda Civic, Toyota Corolla, Kia Forte, Hyundai Avante, Nissan Sentra).

Around 25 new all-electric car models are expected in 2024, but only 5 of them are expected below USD 50 000, and none under the USD 30 000 mark. Considering all the electric models expected to be available in 2024, about 75% are priced above USD 50 000, and fewer than 10 under USD 40 000, even after taking into account the USD 7 500 tax credit under the IRA for eligible cars as of February 2024. This means that despite the tax credit, few electric car models directly compete with small mass-market ICE models.

In December 2023, GM stopped production of its best-selling electric car, the Bolt, announcing it would introduce a new version in 2025. The Nissan Leaf (40 kWh) therefore remains the cheapest available electric car in 2024, at just under USD 30 000, but is not yet eligible for IRA tax credits. Ford announced in 2024 that it would move away from large and expensive electric cars as a way to convince more consumers to switch to electric, at the same time as increasing output of ICE models to help finance a transition to electric mobility. In 2024, Tesla announced it would start producing a next-generation, compact and affordable electric car in June 2025, but the company had already announced in 2020 that it would deliver a USD 25 000 model within 3 years. Some micro urban electric cars are already available between USD 5 000 and USD 20 000 (e.g. Arcimoto FUV, Nimbus One), but they are rare. In theory, such models could cover many use cases, since 80% of car journeys in the United States are under 10 miles .

Pricing trends differ across European countries, and typically vary by segment.

In Norway, after taking into account the EV sales tax exemption, electric cars are already cheaper than ICE equivalents across all segments. In 2022, we estimate that the electric premium stood around -15%, and even -30% for medium-sized cars. Five years earlier, in 2018, the overall electric premium was less advantageous, at around -5%. The progressive reintroduction of sales taxes on electric cars may change these estimates for 2023 onwards.

Germany’s electric premium ranks among the lowest in the European Union. Although the sales-weighted average electric premium increased slightly between 2018 and 2022, it stood at 15% in 2022. It is particularly low for medium-sized cars (10-15%) and SUVs (20%), but remains higher than 50% for small models. In the case of medium cars, the sales-weighted average electric premium was as low as EUR 5 000 in 2022. We estimate that in 2022, over 40% of the medium electric cars sold in Germany were cheaper than their average ICE equivalent. Looking at total sales, over 25% of the electric cars sold in 2022 were cheaper than their average ICE equivalent. In 2023, the cheapest models among the best-selling medium electric cars were priced between EUR 22 000 and EUR 35 000 (e.g. MG MG4, Dacia Spring, Renault Megane), far cheaper than the three front-runners priced above EUR 45 000 (VW ID.3, Cupra Born, and Tesla Model 3). To compare, best-selling ICE cars in the medium segment were also priced between EUR 30 000 and EUR 45 000 (e.g. VW Golf, VW Passat Santana, Skoda Octavia Laura, Audi A3, Audi A4). At the end of 2023, Germany phased out its subsidy for electric car purchases, but competition and falling model prices could compensate for this.

In France, the sales-weighted average electric premium stagnated between 2018 and 2022. The average price of ICE cars also increased over the same period, though more moderately than that of electric models. Despite a drop in the price of electric SUVs, which stood at a 30% premium over ICE equivalents in 2022, the former do not account for a high enough share of total electric car sales to drive down the overall average. The electric premium for small and medium cars remains around 40-50%.

These trends mirror those of some of the best-selling models. For example, when adjusting prices for inflation, the small Renault Zoe was sold at the same price on average in 2022-2023 as in 2018-2019, or EUR 30 000 (USD 32 000). It could be found for sale at as low as EUR 25 000 in 2015-2016. The earlier models, in 2015, had a battery size of around 20 kWh, which increased to around 40 kWh in 2018‑2019 and 50 kWh in newer models in 2022-2023. Yet European battery prices fell more quickly than the battery size increased over the same period, indicating that battery size alone does not explain car price dynamics.

In 2023, the cheapest electric cars in France were priced between EUR 22 000 and EUR 30 000 (e.g. Dacia Spring, Renault Twingo E-Tech, Smart EQ Fortwo), while best-selling small ICE models were available between EUR 10 000 and EUR 20 000 (e.g. Renault Clio, Peugeot 208, Citroën C3, Dacia Sandero, Opel Corsa, Skoda Fabia). Since mid-2024, subsidies of up to EUR 4 000 can be granted for electric cars priced under EUR 47 000, with an additional subsidy of up to EUR 3 000 for lower-income households.

In the United Kingdom, the sales-weighted average electric premium shrank between 2018 and 2022, thanks to a drop in prices for electric SUVs, as in the United States. Nonetheless, electric SUVs still stood at a 45% premium over ICE equivalents in 2022, which is similar to the premium for small models but far higher than for medium cars (20%).

In 2023, the cheapest electric cars in the United Kingdom were priced from GBP 27 000 to GBP 30 000 (USD 33 000 to 37 000) (e.g. MG MG4, Fiat 500, Nissan Leaf, Renault Zoe), with the exception of the Smart EQ Fortwo, priced at GBP 21 000. To compare, best-selling small ICE options could be found from GBP 10 000 to 17 000 (e.g. Peugeot 208, Fiat 500, Dacia Sandero) and medium options below GBP 25 000 (e.g. Ford Puma). Since July 2022, there has been no subsidy for the purchase of electric passenger cars.

Elsewhere in Europe, electric cars remain typically much more expensive than ICE equivalents. In Poland , for example, just a few electric car models could be found at prices competitive with ICE cars in 2023, under the PLN 150 000 (Polish zloty) (EUR 35 000) mark. Over 70% of electric car sales in 2023 were for SUVs, or large or more luxurious models, compared to less than 60% for ICE cars.

In 2023, there were several announcements by European OEMs for smaller models priced under EUR 25 000 in the near-term (e.g. Renault R5, Citroën e-C3, Fiat e-Panda, VW ID.2all). There is also some appetite for urban microcars (i.e. L6-L7 category), learning from the success of China’s Wuling. Miniature models bring important benefits if they displace conventional models, helping reduce battery and critical mineral demand. Their prices are often below USD 5 000 (e.g. Microlino, Fiat Topolino, Citroën Ami, Silence S04, Birò B2211).

In Europe and the United States, electric car prices are expected to come down as a result of falling battery prices, more efficient manufacturing, and competition. Independent analyses suggest that price parity between some electric and ICE car models in certain segments could be reached over the 2025-2028 period, for example for small electric cars in Europe in 2025 or soon after. However, many market variables could delay price parity, such as volatile commodity prices, supply chain bottlenecks, and the ability of carmakers to yield sufficient margins from cheaper electric models. The typical rule in which economies of scale bring down costs is being complicated by numerous other market forces. These include a dynamic regulatory context, geopolitical competition, domestic content incentives, and a continually evolving technology landscape, with competing battery chemistries that each have their own economies of scale and regional specificities.

Japan is a rare example of an advanced economy where small models – both for electric and ICE vehicles – appeal to a large consumer base, motivated by densely populated cities with limited parking space, and policy support. In 2023, about 60% of total ICE sales were for small models, and over half of total electric sales. Two electric cars from the smallest “Kei” category, the Nissan Sakura and Mitsubishi eK-X, accounted for nearly 50% of national electric car sales alone, and both are priced between JPY 2.3 million (Japanese yen) and JPY 3 million (USD 18 000 to USD 23 000). However, this is still more expensive than best-selling small ICE cars (e.g. Honda N Box, Daihatsu Hijet, Daihatsu Tanto, Suzuki Spacia, Daihatsu Move), priced between USD 13 000 and USD 18 000. In 2024, Nissan announced that it would aim to reach cost parity (of production, not retail price) between electric and ICE cars by 2030.

Emerging market and developing economies

In EMDEs, the absence of small and cheaper electric car models is a significant hindrance to wider market uptake. Many of the available car models are SUVs or large models, targeting consumers of high-end goods, and far too expensive for mass-market consumers, who often do not own a personal car in the first place (see later sections on second-hand car markets and 2/3Ws).

In India, while Tata’s small Tiago/Tigor models, which are priced between USD 10 000 and USD 15 000, accounted for about 20% of total electric car sales in 2023, the average best-selling small ICE car is priced around USD 7 000. Large models and SUVs accounted for over 65% of total electric car sales. While BYD announced in 2023 the goal of accounting for 40% of India’s EV market by 2030, all of its models available in India cost more than INR 3 million (Indian rupees) (USD 37 000), including the Seal, launched in 2024 for INR 4.1 million (USD 50 000).

Similarly, SUVs and large models accounted for the majority share of electric car sales in Thailand (60%), Indonesia (55%), Malaysia (over 85%) and Viet Nam (over 95%). In Indonesia, for example, Hyundai’s Ionic 5 was the most popular electric car in 2023, priced at around USD 50 000. Looking at launch announcements, most new models expected over the 2024-2028 period in EMDEs are SUVs or large models. However, more than 50 small and medium models could also be introduced, and the recent or forthcoming entry of Chinese carmakers suggests that cheaper models could hit the market in the coming years.

In 2022-2023, Chinese carmakers accounted for 40-75% of the electric car sales in Indonesia, Thailand and Brazil, with sales jumping as cheaper Chinese models were introduced. In Thailand, for example, Hozon launched its Neta V model in 2022 priced at THB 550 000 (Thai baht) (USD 15 600), which became a best-seller in 2023 given its relative affordability compared with the cheapest ICE equivalents at around USD 9 000. Similarly, in Indonesia, the market entry of Wuling’s Air EV in 2022-2023 was met with great success. In Colombia, the best-selling electric car in 2023 was the Chinese mini-car, Zhidou 2DS, which could be found at around USD 15 000, a competitive option relative to the country’s cheapest ICE car, the Kia Picanto, at USD 13 000.

Electric car sales in selected countries, by origin of carmaker, 2021-2023

Second-hand markets for electric cars are on the rise.

As electric vehicle markets mature, the second-hand market will become more important

In the same way as for other technology products, second-hand markets for used electric cars are now emerging as newer generations of vehicles progressively become available and earlier adopters switch or upgrade. Second-hand markets are critical to foster mass-market adoption, especially if new electric cars remain expensive, and used ones become cheaper. Just as for ICE vehicles – for which buying second-hand is often the primary method of acquiring a car in both emerging and advanced economies – a similar pattern will emerge with electric vehicles. It is estimated that eight out of ten EU citizens buy their car second-hand, and this share is even higher – around 90% – among low- and middle-income groups. Similarly, in the United States, about seven out of ten vehicles sold are second-hand, and only 17% of lower-income households buy a new car.

As major electric car markets reach maturity, more and more used electric cars are becoming available for resale. Our estimates suggest that in 2023, the market size for used electric cars amounted to nearly 800 000 in China , 400 000 in the United States and more than 450 000 for France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom combined. Second-hand sales have not been included in the numbers presented in the previous section of this report, which focused on sales of new electric cars, but they are already significant. On aggregate, global second-hand electric car sales were roughly equal to new electric car sales in the United States in 2023. In the United States, used electric car sales are set to increase by 40% in 2024 relative to 2023. Of course, these volumes are dwarfed by second-hand ICE markets: 30 million in the European countries listed above combined, nearly 20 million in China, and 36 million in the United States . However, these markets have had decades to mature, indicating greater longer-term potential for used electric car markets.

Used car markets already provide more affordable electric options in China, Europe and the United States

Second-hand car markets are increasingly becoming a source of more affordable electric cars that can compete with used ICE equivalents. In the United States, for example, more than half of second-hand electric cars are already priced below USD 30 000. Moreover, the average price is expected to quickly fall towards USD 25 000, the price at which used electric cars become eligible for the federal used car rebate of USD 4 000, making them directly competitive with best-selling new and used ICE options. The price of a second-hand Tesla in the United States dropped from over USD 50 000 in early 2023 to just above USD 33 000 in early 2024, making it competitive with a second-hand SUV and many new models as well (either electric or conventional). In Europe , second-hand battery electric cars can be found between EUR 15 000 and EUR 25 000 (USD 16 000‑27 000), and second-hand plug-in hybrids around EUR 30 000 (USD 32 000). Some European countries also offer subsidies for second-hand electric cars, such as the Netherlands (EUR 2 000), where the subsidy for new cars has been steadily declining since 2020, while that for used cars remains constant, and France (EUR 1 000). In China , used electric cars were priced around CNY 75 000 on average in 2023 (USD 11 000).

In recent years, the resale value 8 of electric cars has been increasing. In Europe, the resale value of battery electric cars sold after 12 months has steadily increased over the 2017-2022 period, surpassing that of all other powertrains and standing at more than 70% in mid-2022. The resale value of battery electric cars sold after 36 months stood below 40% in 2017, but has since been closing the gap with other powertrains, reaching around 55% in mid-2022. This is the result of many factors, including higher prices of new electric cars, improving technology allowing vehicles and batteries to retain greater value over time, and increasing demand for second-hand electric cars. Similar trends have been observed in China.

High or low resale values have important implications for the development of second-hand electric car markets and their contributions to the transition to road transport electrification. High resale values primarily benefit consumers of new cars (who retain more of the value of their initial purchase), and carmakers, because many consumers are attracted by the possibility of reselling their car after a few years, thereby fostering demand for newer models. High resale values also benefit leasing companies, which seek to minimise depreciation and resell after a few years.

Leasing companies have a significant impact on second-hand markets because they own large volumes of vehicles for a shorter period (under three years, compared to 3 to 5 years for a private household). Their impact on markets for new cars can also be considerable: leasing companies accounted for over 20% of new cars sold in Europe in 2022.

Overall, a resale value for electric cars on par with or higher than that of ICE equivalents contributes to supporting demand for new electric cars. In the near term, however, a combination of high prices for new electric cars and high resale values could hinder widespread adoption of used EVs among mass-market consumers seeking affordable cars. In such cases, policy support can help bridge the gap with second-hand ICE prices.

International trade for used electric cars to emerging markets is expected to increase

As the EV stock ages in advanced markets, it is likely that more and more used EVs will be traded internationally, assuming that global standards enable technology compatibility (e.g. for charging infrastructure). Imported used vehicles present an opportunity for consumers in EMDEs, who may not have access to new models because they are either too expensive or not marketed in their countries.

Data on used car trade flows are scattered and often contradictory, but the history of ICE cars can be a useful guide to what may happen for electric cars. Many EMDEs have been importing used ICE vehicles for decades. UNEP estimates that Africa imports 40% of all used vehicles exported worldwide, with African countries typically becoming the ultimate destination for used imports. Typical trade flows include Western European Union member states to Eastern European Union member states and to African countries that drive on the right-hand side; Japan to Asia and to African countries that drive on the left-hand side; and the United States to the Middle East and Central America.

Used electric car exports from large EV markets have been growing in recent years. For China, this can be explained by the recent roll-back of a policy forbidding exports of used vehicles of any kind. Since 2019 , as part of a pilot project, the government has granted 27 cities and provinces the right to export second-hand cars. In 2022, China exported almost 70 000 used vehicles, a significant increase on 2021, when fewer than 20 000 vehicles were exported. About 70% of these were NEVs, of which over 45% were exported to the Middle East. In 2023, the Ministry of Commerce released a draft policy on second-hand vehicle export that, once approved, will allow the export of second-hand vehicles from all regions of China. Used car exports from China are expected to increase significantly as a result.

In the European Union, the number of used electric cars traded internationally is also increasing . In both 2021 and 2022, the market size grew by 70% year-on-year, reaching almost 120 000 electric cars in 2022. More than half of all trade takes place between EU member states, followed by trade with neighbouring countries such as Norway, the United Kingdom and Türkiye (accounting for 20% combined). The remainder of used EVs are exported to countries such as Mexico, Tunisia and the United States. As of 2023, the largest exporters are Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and Spain.

Last year, just over 1% of all used cars leaving Japan were electric. However these exports are growing and increased by 30% in 2023 relative to 2022, reaching 20 000 cars. The major second-hand electric car markets for Japanese vehicles are traditionally Russia and New Zealand (over 60% combined). After Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022, second-hand trade of conventional cars from Japan to Russia jumped sharply following a halt in operations of local OEMs in Russia, but this trade was quickly restricted by the Japanese government, thereby bringing down the price of second-hand cars in Japan. New Zealand has very few local vehicle assembly or manufacturing facilities, and for this reason many cars entering New Zealand are used imports. In 2023, nearly 20% of all electric cars that entered New Zealand were used imports, compared to 50% for the overall car market.

In emerging economies, local policies play an important role in promoting or limiting trade flows for used cars. In the case of ICE vehicles, for example, some countries (e.g. Bolivia, Côte d’Ivoire, Peru) limit the maximum age of used car imports to prevent the dumping of highly polluting cars. Other countries (e.g. Brazil, Colombia, Egypt, India, South Africa) have banned used car imports entirely to protect their domestic manufacturing industries.

Just as for ICE vehicles, policy measures can either help or hinder the import of used electric cars, such as by setting emission standards for imported used cars. Importing countries will also need to simultaneously support roll-out of charging infrastructure to avoid problems with access like those reported in Sri Lanka after an incentive scheme significantly increased imports of used EVs in 2018.

The median age of vehicle imports tends to increase as the GDP per capita of a country decreases. In some African countries, the median age of imports is over 15 years. Beyond this timeframe, electric cars may require specific servicing to extend their lifetime. To support the availability of second-hand markets for electric cars, it will be important to develop strategies, technical capacity, and business models to swap very old batteries from used vehicles. Today, many countries that import ICE vehicles, including EMDEs, already have servicing capacity in place to extend the lifetimes of used ICE vehicles, but not used EVs. On the other hand, there are typically fewer parts in electric powertrains than in ICE ones, and these parts can even be more durable. Battery recycling capacity will also be needed, given that the importing country is likely to be where the imported EV eventually reaches end-of-life. Including end-of-life considerations in policy making today can help mitigate the risk of longer-term environmental harm that could result from the accumulation of obsolete EVs and associated waste in EMDEs.

Policy choices in more mature markets also have an impact on possible trade flows. For example, the current policy framework in the European Union for the circularity of EV batteries may prevent EVs and EV batteries from leaving the European Union, which brings energy security advantages but might limit reuse. In this regard, advanced economies and EMDEs should strengthen co-operation to facilitate second-hand trade while ensuring adequate end-of-life strategies. For example, there could be incentives or allowances associated with extended vehicle lifetimes via use in second-hand markets internationally before recycling, as long as recycling in the destination market is guaranteed, or the EV battery is returned at end of life.

Throughout this report, unless otherwise specified, “electric cars” refers to both battery electric and plug-in hybrid cars, and “electric vehicles” (EVs) refers to battery electric (BEV) and plug-in hybrid (PHEV) vehicles, excluding fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV). Unless otherwise specified, EVs include all modes of road transport.

Throughout this report, unless otherwise specified, regional groupings refer to those described in the Annex.

In the Chinese context, the term New Energy Vehicles (NEVs) includes BEVs, PHEVs and FCEVs.

Based on model trim eligibility from the US government website as of 31 March 2024.

SUVs may be defined differently across regions, but broadly refer to vehicles that incorporate features commonly found in off-road vehicles (e.g. four-wheel drive, higher ground clearance, larger cargo area). In this report, small and large SUVs both count as SUVs. Crossovers are counted as SUVs if they feature an SUV body type; otherwise they are categorised as medium-sized vehicles.

Measured under the Worldwide Harmonised Light Vehicles Test Procedure using vehicle model sales data from IHS Markit.

Price data points collected from various data providers and ad-hoc sources cover 65-95% of both electric and ICE car sales globally. By “price”, we refer to the advertised price that the customer pays for the acquisition of the vehicle only, including legally required acquisition taxes (e.g. including Value-Added Tax and registration taxes but excluding consumer tax credits). Prices reflect not only the materials, components and manufacturing costs, but also the costs related to sales and marketing, administration, R&D and the profit margin. In the case of a small electric car in Europe, for example, these mark-up costs can account for around 40% of the final pre-tax price. They account for an even greater share of the final pre-tax price when consumers purchase additional options, or opt for larger models, for which margins can be higher. The price for the same model may differ across countries or regions (e.g. in 2023, a VW ID.3 could be purchased in China at half its price in Europe). Throughout the whole section, prices are adjusted for inflation and expressed in constant 2022 USD.

This metric of depreciation used in second-hand technology markets represents the value of the vehicle when being resold in relation to the value when originally purchased. A resale value of 70% means that a product purchased new will lose 30% of its original value, on average, and sell at such a discount relative to the original price.

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The overarching role of international marketing: Relevance and centrality in research and practice

• Published: 18 May 2021
• Volume 52 , pages 1429–1444, ( 2021 )

Cite this article

• Saeed Samiee 1 ,
• Constantine S. Katsikeas 2 &
• G. Tomas M. Hult 3  

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Classic business literature asserts the central role of marketing as foundational to the existence of organizations, and further notes that marketing must permeate all areas of a business enterprise. Leveraging this premise, we examine marketing scholars’ contributions to the international business (IB) literature – specifically notable works in exporting and market entry. Despite the overarching role of marketing in business, our systematic examination of published works in JIBS identified only 11 marketing contributions among the top 100 most frequently cited publications. More recent Web of Science data for the most cited contributions since 2015 demonstrate a decline in the number of international marketing (IM) and IB-related contributions by marketing scholars. Our goal in this editorial is to re-emphasize marketing’s critical importance and centrality in IB research, especially with reference to its dominant role in such areas as exporting and market entry decisions, customer acquisition, and relationship management. This special issue is intended to highlight IM and to motivate more contributions by IM scholars, as well as to call for greater integration of marketing thought in IB research.

La littérature classique en management affirme le rôle central du marketing comme fondement de l'existence des organisations, et souligne en outre que le marketing doit imprégner tous les domaines d'une entreprise. Nous appuyant sur cette prémisse, nous examinons les contributions des chercheurs en marketing à la littérature du commerce international (IB – International Business ), plus spécifiquement, les travaux importants portés sur l’exportation et l’entrée sur les marchés. Malgré le rôle fondamental du marketing dans les affaires, notre examen systématique des travaux publiés dans la revue JIBS n'a identifié que 11 contributions liées au marketing parmi les 100 publications les plus fréquemment citées. Les données plus récentes sur le Web of Science liées aux contributions les plus citées depuis 2015 montrent une baisse du nombre de contributions relatives au marketing international (IM – International Marketing ) et au IB par les chercheurs en marketing. Dans cet éditorial, notre objectif est de souligner à nouveau l’importance critique et la centralité du marketing dans la recherche en IB, notamment par rapport à son rôle dominant dans les domaines tels que les décisions d’exportation et d’entrée sur les marchés, l’acquisition de clients et la gestion des relations. Ce numéro spécial a pour but de mettre en valeur le IM, de stimuler davantage de contributions de la part des chercheurs en IM, ainsi que d'appeler à une plus grande intégration de la pensée marketing dans la recherche en IB.

La literatura empresarial clásica reivindica el papel del marketing como primordial a la existencia de las organizaciones y además nota que el marketing debe permear todas las áreas de una empresa. Apalancándonos en esta premisa, examinamos las contribuciones de los académicos de marketing a la literatura de negocios internacionales – específicamente los trabajos más destacados sobre la exportación y la entrada del mercado. A pesar del papel global del marketing en los negocios, nuestro examen sistemático de los trabajos publicados en JIBS identificamos sólo 11 contribuciones de marketing entre las 100 publicaciones más citadas. Los datos más recientes de Web of Science de las contribuciones más citadas desde el 2015 demuestran una disminución en el numero de contribuciones relacionadas con marketing y negocios internacionales por parte de los estudiosos de marketing. Nuestra meta con este editorial es hacer hincapié a importancia fundamental del marketing y su centralidad en la investigación de negocios internacionales, especialmente con referencia a su papel dominante en áreas como la exportación y las decisiones de entrada al mercado, la adquisición de clientes y la gestión de relaciones. Esta edición especial busca resaltar el marketing internacional y motivar más contribuciones de académicos de marketing internacional, y también hacer un llamado a una mayor integración del pensamiento de marketing en la investigación de negocios internacionales.

A literatura clássica de negócios afirma o papel central do marketing como fundamental para a existência de organizações e, além disso, observa que o marketing deve permear todas as áreas de uma empresa. Aproveitando essa premissa, examinamos contribuições dos acadêmicos de marketing para a literatura de negócios internacionais (IB), especificamente trabalhos notáveis em exportação e entrada no mercado. Apesar do papel abrangente do marketing nos negócios, nosso exame sistemático de trabalhos publicados no JIBS identificou apenas 11 contribuições de marketing entre as 100 publicações mais citadas. Dados mais recentes da Web of Science para as contribuições mais citadas desde 2015 demonstram um declínio no número de contribuições de marketing internacional (IM) e relacionadas a IB por acadêmicos de marketing. Nosso objetivo neste editorial é reenfatizar a importância crítica e centralidade do marketing na pesquisa em IB, especialmente com referência ao seu papel dominante em áreas como exportação e decisões de entrada no mercado, aquisição de clientes e gerenciamento de relacionamento. Esta edição especial tem como objetivo destacar o IM e motivar mais contribuições de acadêmicos de IM, bem como pedir uma maior integração do pensamento de marketing na pesquisa de IB.

经典的商业文献断言市场营销对组织存在有着基础的中心的作用, 并进一步指出, 市场营销必须渗透到商业企业的所有领域。 利用这一前提, 我们研究了市场营销学者对国际商务 (IB) 文献的贡献, 特别是在出口和市场准入方面的著名作品。 尽管市场营销在商业中起着举足轻重的作用, 我们对JIBS发表的作品的系统检查发现, 在最常被引用的前100篇文章中只有11篇是市场营销的贡献。最新的Web of Science数据 (自2015年以来被引用最多的数据) 表明, 市场营销学者对国际市场营销 (IM) 和与IB相关的贡献数量有所下降。 我们这篇社论的目标是重新强调市场营销在IB研究中的至关重要性和中心地位, 尤其是参考市场营销在出口和进入市场决策、客户获取以及关系管理等领域的主导作用。 本期专刊旨在突出IM和激发IM学者做出更多的贡献, 并呼吁将市场营销思想与IB研究有更大的整合。

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INTRODUCTION

Marketing is the raison d’etre and the force that drives organizations. Among the many axioms advanced by Peter Drucker, the father of modern management, are that the purpose of a business is “to create customers”, and that an organization has only two functions: one role relates to marketing (i.e., innovation) and the other is marketing (Drucker, 1954 , p. 37; Trout, 2006 ; Webster, 2009 ). Drucker further observed that only innovation and marketing produce results (i.e., revenue streams); the rest are costs (Cohen, 2013 ). Product innovation is a key marketing strategy component and an important means of creating and keeping customers, and, hence, a central element of a successful competitive strategy. This marketing-based view is also shared by other management thought leaders. Ted Levitt ( 2006 , p. 129), for example, notes that “the entire corporation must be viewed as a customer-creating and customer-satisfying organism.”

The “marketing-based” position held by seasoned management opinion leaders underscores the “overarching” role and centrality of marketing as a philosophy that should drive virtually all organizations. In fact, McKenna ( 1991 ) takes this notion even further by claiming “…successful companies are becoming market driven, adapting their products to fit their customers’ strategies” (p. 66). Adopting market orientation and becoming a market-driven organization, in turn, require marketing to “permeate” all aspects of organizational decision-making, inclusive of international business activities, before a product is produced or externally sourced. Parenthetically, since marketing represents the interface of all businesses with their customers, it should be expected to play a central role in published academic works in business, including international business (IB) – the focus of attention in this editorial.

Many studies have examined research themes covered in IB journals. One such effort surveyed academic publications in the six leading IB-related journals, and identified and classified 112 articles with at least 20 citations each for the 1996–2006 period (Griffith, Cavusgil, & Xu, 2008 ). Collectively, with over 22% of the most-cited publications, marketing was identified as having the largest number of publications. 1 In keeping with business thought leaders’ position on the purpose of an enterprise, one would expect a higher proportion of (1) internationally oriented marketing topics and/or (2) published works on other topics, such as IB, that actively include marketing in some meaningful way. Surprisingly, much of the published research in IB excludes marketing considerations. As an example, in examining foreign market entry and expansion modes [e.g., foreign direct investment (FDI)], the ultimate goal – beyond the theoretical lens in use, efficiencies, drivers, order of market entry, and resultant models and theories – is to gain or create new customers and/or better serve current customers in markets worldwide. Such an approach constitutes a marketing-centric view of FDI.

The IB literature has demonstrated that firms engaging in FDI invest more in research and development (R&D) and innovation (e.g., Anand & Kogut, 1997 ); however, the IB literature is not explicit about why firms invest in innovation in the first place. 2 A marketing-centric view (e.g., Ellis, 2000 ; Knight & Cavusgil, 2004 ; Leonidou & Katsikeas, 1996 ) does not imply a necessity to include marketing in every (e.g., market entry) project. Rather, it consists of a researcher mindset that conceives of and fine-tunes research projects in light of the ultimate purpose of an organization (per Drucker, Levitt, and McKenna) when marketing is not an explicit aspect of the study. The business worldview from within the marketing discipline is that marketing permeates the entire organization (including innovation). IB scholars recognize the integrated nature of marketing across various firm activities in specific sectors (e.g., in the services industry per Rugman & Verbeke, 2008 , p. 409), however, creating and serving customers necessitate the broadening of this perspective across all industries, as predicated in marketing. Stated differently, framing marketing as a single value chain function, or adopting a strictly downstream view of it inhibits richer and more meaningful customer-centric, as well as increasingly more realistic conceptualizations of critical activities and decisions in IB (cf. Takeuchi & Porter, 1986 ). Among other downsides, the narrow conceptualization of marketing functions as downstream activities in the value chain undermines marketing’s true role and influence in shaping strategy formulation. Global strategy decisions envisioned and designed by the C-suite inherently involve a very significant level of marketing content, without which a sound global strategy is not possible.

Concurrently, Buckley ( 2002a ) voices concern that international marketing (IM) has neglected the proximal issue of globalization in studies of IM strategy. This concern is in line with the broader criticism that IM has also largely abandoned strategy issues (Kotabe, 2001 ). Indeed, the marketing discipline can be criticized for failing to fully embrace the influences of international and global dimensions across the many critical strategy pillars inherently thought of as marketing’s intellectual domain. An examination of research priorities published by the influential Marketing Science Institute (MSI) demonstrates the discipline’s relative inactive posture in IM/IB. In all, the 2020–2022 MSI Research Priorities report includes four internationally oriented topics among 126 research questions listed. 3 It is thus not too surprising that IM scholars have paid only scant attention to research opportunities at the intersection of IM strategy and globalization, which, in turn, has limited our understanding of the crucial role that marketing plays in establishing, developing, and sustaining effective business operations across markets worldwide. In parallel, we assert that investigations of globalization should also include marketing strategy considerations.

IM CONTRIBUTIONS TO JIBS

To develop a better understanding of the contributions of marketing scholarship to the IB literature and, more specifically, to the Journal of International Business Studies ( JIBS ), we examined all highly cited articles published in JIBS since the journal’s inception. We rank-ordered all articles by their total citation frequencies using the Web of Science (WOS) database. We identified 11 marketing articles on topics generally considered to belong to the marketing domain among the top 100 most-cited JIBS publications (Table 1 ). 4 We further observed that scholars with marketing ties have also made highly cited general IB contributions to the literature. Overall, it is evident that marketing scholars have made significant contributions in JIBS to the extant IM and IB knowledge. However, it is also apparent that the most highly cited IM publications in JIBS were published in the 1982–2002 period. This pattern raises a question about the relative impact of IM, as measured by WOS citation frequencies, in JIBS published works. We thus examined the most-cited JIBS publications since 2015 (Table 2 ). The data indicate that, in contrast to pre-2015, fewer marketing studies have been among the top 100 most-cited articles published in JIBS as of late. In addition, fewer contributions on broader IB topics are by authors with close marketing ties.

Despite the centrality and importance of marketing in business, the influence of IM scholars and IM publications in the broader IB discipline via the field’s leading journal has been on the decline. The marketing theme of this special issue of JIBS builds on business and management thought leaders’ (e.g., Drucker, Levitt) view regarding the purpose of a business enterprise; that is, we start with the premise of the critical importance of marketing to all facets of business and leverage broad-based agreement about the declining role of marketing in IB research as well as broader IB contributions by marketing scholars in JIBS . Our overarching objective in this issue is to motivate relevant and rigorous research that advances IM and, in turn, IB thought on an ongoing basis, beyond the confines of this special issue. If one subscribes to Drucker’s vision about the purpose of a business, then IM should be better integrated into and represented within IB publications, notably within JIBS , the leading and most highly cited journal in IB. To this end, our goals in this essay are to (1) highlight the role of IM within IB, (2) detail the many critical roles of marketing in today’s business enterprise, and (3) introduce the marketing contributions in this special issue.

THE ROLE OF IM WITHIN IB OVER TIME

Beyond Drucker’s view of the purpose of a business, IB at its core is inherently intertwined with marketing. For centuries, individuals and firms have sought to expand sales through exporting, which constitutes the most common foreign market entry and international expansion mode; for many firms, therefore, export marketing has defined IB. Indeed, all exporting is strictly rooted in marketing (see, for example, Anderson & Gatignon, 1986 ). 5 This view is implied in the broader perspective of export development, which emphasizes internal and external triggers to exporting (cf. Cavusgil & Nevin, 1980 ; Wiedersheim-Paul, Welch, & Olson, 1978 ), both of which are export marketing centered. Some scholars view all international market entry forms as essentially marketing driven (e.g., Douglas & Craig, 1989 ). Indeed, many early contributors to foreign market entry and the export development process are closely associated with the marketing discipline (e.g., Bilkey & Tesar, 1977 ; Cavusgil, 1980 ; Czinkota, & Johnston, 1981 ; Katsikeas, 1996 ; Samiee & Walters, 1991 ). Over time, some firms continue to reap the benefits of increased sales and profits via export marketing, whereas others, recognizing the broader and longer-term potential of global markets, have sought to establish different forms of engagement in markets abroad. For example, international leasing and licensing (i.e., limited-term rental contract of an asset) as means of foreign market entry or expansion constitute marketing activities, but they are often viewed as activities related to, for example, market expansion and operational strategy (e.g., Contractor, 1985 ; Ricks & Samiee, 1974 ). It may be that the role and critical importance of IM is widely recognized by IB scholars. However, making marketing’s presence more explicit in IB research can result in framing issues such that corresponding research findings will yield greater marketplace and marketing relevance, in line with Drucker’s and Levitt’s views on the purpose of business. In short, regardless of entry mode or a firm’s structural configuration, market expansion and increased sales via (in)direct marketing internationally is central to IB. Such a view highlights the centrality and critical role of IM activities, while emphasizing the significance of IM contributions to the broader IB field.

Interest in and focus on scholarly research in IM began to intensify during the 1980s, and empirical investigations of IM problems and challenges facing firms have received heightened research attention for decades. Initial scholarly research in IM was limited, though there is noteworthy work on export market entry triggers as well as motivations and explanations for internationalization decisions (Ford & Leonidou, 2013 ). Since this early research, IM scholars have amassed a growing, multifaceted, and well-developed body of knowledge. Despite these advances, however, the growing importance and relevance of IM remains underappreciated and understudied (Day, 1996 ). As an unfortunate outcome of this, IM topics in the top IB journals are sparse (cf. Griffith et al., 2008 ), and a current survey of several leading marketing and IB journals reveals a relative paucity of scholarly work on IM issues. 6 Given IM’s centrality to all enterprises, the primary purpose of this special issue is to reinforce IM’s broad-based importance, with a particular focus on IM in the broader IB context.

RESEARCH IN IM

A recent survey of the IM literature published in the top six IB/IM journals during the 1995–2015 period identified 1,722 published works (Leonidou, Katsikeas, Samiee, & Aykol, 2017 ). The knowledge structure on which this body of scholarly work indicates that many of the developments in IM thought are driven by 14 key knowledge nodes identified in Samiee and Chabowski ( 2012 ). 7 It is evident from the results of the investigation by Samiee and Chabowski ( 2012 ) that, in terms of knowledge base, IM has much in common with IB. A relatively high proportion (approximately 40%) of key sources used in IM research are also commonly cited in IB research, including Hofstede ( 1980 , 1991 , 2001 ), Porter ( 1980 , 1985 , 1990 ), Williamson ( 1975 , 1985 ), Buckley and Casson ( 1976 ), Bartlett and Ghoshal ( 1989 ), Nelson and Winter ( 1982 ), Penrose ( 1959 ), and Pfeffer and Salancik ( 1978 ). Of the 26 most influential works in IM, serving as foundational knowledge for the 2004–2008 period, the majority (18) were published in outlets not specifically designated as marketing-related (Samiee & Chabowski, 2012 ), thus demonstrating IM’s shared knowledge and close relationship to IB. Key IM knowledge nodes serving as the foundation of IM scholarship during this period appear in Table 3 .

IM research has evolved across numerous themes, with some areas receiving disproportionate scholarly attention over time (Leonidou et al., 2017 ). Foreign market entry and export marketing are among the oldest topics of interest for IM researchers, and these remain relevant and important. Collectively, origin-related research topics likely constitute the most popular IM theme among IM researchers and potentially the most researched area, with hundreds of publications (e.g., Kotabe, 2001 ; Papadopoulos, el Banna, Murphy, & Rojas-Méndez, 2011 ; Samiee & Chabowski, 2021 ). 8 Origin-related research – or more specifically, the country-of-origin line of research within IM – can be traced back broadly to Dichter ( 1962 ) and, more specifically, to Schooler ( 1965 ). Although the concept was applied strictly to customer product choice, it can and has been applied to other facets of IB (e.g., liability of foreignness). Beyond marketing, explicit recognition of business problems associated with nonlocal origins of firms began to emerge in the IB literature in the 1970s. For example, Buckley and Casson ( 1976 ) refer to the political problems of “foreignness,” and Boddewyn and Hansen ( 1977 , p. 550) note that “American companies were faced with handicaps due to their foreignness.” Although IB challenges related to nonlocal origins of products and firms seem intuitive, international marketers’ close proximity to markets and customers afforded them the opportunity to recognize the issue much earlier than appears to have been the case in the broader IB discipline. We highlight this issue to point to how IM and IB can and should leverage each other for a more comprehensive analysis and rapid advancement of the field.

RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES GOING FORWARD

Much of the intellectual capital in IM works has been devoted to various aspects of buyer behavior (Kotabe, 2001 ; Leonidou et al., 2017 ). This trend is not surprising given that, in general, a large majority of MSI research priorities ( 2020 ) are focused on customer-related issues (including three of the four internationally oriented themes out of the 126 research questions posed). Among international themes, one research question pertains to gaining global perspectives on prioritizing customer value at all touchpoints during the omnichannel customer experience; another theme seeks to understand whether customer behavior is the same or different in emerging markets; and a third issue addresses ways in which firms might integrate consumer-focused strategies globally. A sharp focus on the buyer and, more specifically, the consumer and his/her behavior highlights an ongoing emphasis on behavioral issues within marketing at the expense of advancing other equally salient issues in need of development. As a result, some important IM research areas are not receiving sufficient scholarly attention. To this end, 25 years ago, Day ( 1996 , p. 15) noted that “studies of cross-cultural differences in buyer behavior or the effect of country of origin do not suffice when the big issues needing answers are about global competitive interactions, global new product development and launch practices, sharing of market insights across borders, or the coordination and integration of multicountry operations.” An overemphasis on the buyer behavior aspects of IM, frequently via experiments, has indeed curbed scholarly efforts to advance IM and the exploration of “big issues”: for example, the short- and long-term effects of radical shifts in the external environment and competitive structures on various aspects of marketing strategy, notably, global supply chain management, innovation, and global product development activities, among others. In general, innovation can be related to and affect any facet of an enterprise’s operations (e.g., processes). The key innovation concern within marketing has centered on product breakthroughs and service delivery, as well as how firms can adapt to a changing landscape often marked by disruptive technological developments. Nevertheless, studies of global innovation or R&D can benefit from cross-fertilization, with significant advances in this area within marketing.

Despite the decades-long practice of international outsourcing by firms, few IM researchers have explored this critical area (e.g., Kotabe & Murray, 1990 ; Swamidass & Kotabe, 1993 ). As a result, scant research is available within this important area to shed light on IM practices [e.g., innovate vs. import (buy) new products; make vs. buy] that can facilitate enhanced IM performance. To this end, a fourth research priority identified by MSI ( 2020 ) is the global supply chain impact of the pandemic (p. 11). Sourcing considerations, such as exporting and importing, are by nature customer-centric and marketing-based. Nevertheless, much of the research in the area is conducted within other disciplines (Buckley, Doh, & Benischke, 2017 ). The importance of a focus on the bigger picture, including the organization, human capital, capabilities, innovation, and metrics, has been stressed in marketing (Moorman & Day, 2016 ). Behavioral components should continue to play important roles in advancing marketing (and IM); however, these topics need to be examined within the context of organizational priorities and not strictly limited to consumer-based studies.

Given the commonality of direct and indirect international involvement across firms and industries, a host of new and exciting challenges related to customers, suppliers, and relationship management are raised. Today’s global marketplace is characterized by disruptive external forces, intense competition from a multitude of foreign and indigenous companies, and heterogeneous customer behavior shaped by differences across a range of host-market conditions, notably culture. Technological advances create marketplace opportunities and novel business models and segments (e.g., social media, collaborative consumption/shared economy, product cocreation), while undermining long-established global brands, product/service markets, and business patterns and processes on a global scale. For example, local and international ride-hailing services such as Ola and Uber competing with long established global car rental firms; collaboratively developed HD DVD losing the industry-wide format war to the technologically more advanced Blu-ray by Sony shortly after its debut which, in turn, lost popularity as the market shifted to streaming services; photorefractive keratectomy developed in the U.S. essentially undermined the Russian-born radial keratectomy; and MP3/FLAC and streaming services largely replaced tangible music CDs developed through an R&D joint venture between Philips and Sony. Concurrently, new technologies are promoting new forms of interaction for businesses and customers that transcend national boundaries (e.g., social media; short message service-SMS; online reviews; using proprietary consumer data via artificial intelligence activated voice recognition to drive host-market demand, as is the case with Amazon’s Alexa or Google Assistant). Concurrently, innovative breakthroughs and rapid dissemination of information have given rise to intellectual property theft on a global scale, undermining marketing strategies, global brands, and distribution network relationships and their management, while requiring all firms to canvass markets globally to identify potential abuses and to assert control over their intellectual property. 9

Although the Internet and information technology (IT) continue to have a significant influence on customers and businesses (e.g., exporters, importers, concept-testing, global marketing strategy planning), a citations-based review of the IM literature revealed that IT-related topics did not constitute a knowledge base in IM (Samiee & Chabowski, 2012 ). This finding was corroborated by Leonidou et al. ( 2017 ), who noted that less 4% of IM-related academic articles reviewed included various facets of Internet connectivity. In addition, a literature review of 29 academic journals addressing the Internet’s impact on relational approaches to foreign market entry identified only 94 published articles, constituting approximately 3% of all the articles reviewed (Watson, Weaven, Perkins, Sardana, & Palmatier, 2018 ). IT has transformed how firms enter and manage markets globally to varying degrees in ways that are often not self-evident. In addition, IT's ubiquity and intangible nature make its detection and true impact on IM difficult, thus leading to a growing knowledge gap. The paucity of IT-motivated IM research uncovered by these reviews demonstrate the need to incorporate various facets of IT in more IM projects, including initial online export/import information gathering, marketing research, market entry and development, and export customer acquisition by both manufacturers and channel intermediaries. Furthermore, a research focus on cross-border e-commerce, especially as a means of internationalizing the scope of smaller firms’ marketing, is underdeveloped. It is surprising that, while origin-related buyer behavior topics remain popular, almost no effort has been made to explore how origin affects choice in online and, in particular, international e-commerce contexts (e.g., Ulgado, 2002 ). Buckley ( 2002a ) rightfully identified e-commerce as a frontier in IM research nearly two decades ago. Firms allocate significant amounts of financial resources to adopt promising technologies to improve their marketing performance, yet little research has been devoted to assessing the performance impact of digital tools (e.g., customer relationship management software) in terms of establishing new cross-border relationships or maintaining existing ones. Although IM has generally ignored such impactful areas of research as the influence of the Internet in global marketing, the IB literature, and more specifically international management, has also been shortsighted with respect to its limited pursuit of pertinent Internet-related research topics (e.g., international human resource management, global strategy development, management of global collaborative ventures and partnerships) (Chabowski & Samiee, 2020 ).

Social media influence both the demand and the supply side of exchange. On the supply side, firms are engaging people by allowing them to participate in cocreation and product development processes. Enterprises are increasingly engaging the public in idea generation via social media (e.g., Dell IdeaStorm, LEGO World Builder), new product development, and start-up capital (e.g., Quirky, Kickstarter). The degree to which firms engage social media audiences internationally (including both global and local social media sites) for one or more aspects of cocreation, and the influence of such activity on multinational corporations’ competitiveness across markets, remain unexplored. Examining the extent to which customers from around the world participate in knowledge development processes and help firms improve their existing products and/or create innovative ones also remains a fertile research area (Bayus, 2013 ; Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004 ).

Equally important research issues on the demand side also warrant research attention. For example, customers located in distant parts of the world use social media, but the impact of such engagement, and the positive or negative ripple effect it creates in or across social networks with respect to local and global brands, has received insufficient research attention (McAlexander, Schouten, & Koenig, 2002 ). Furthermore, the extent to which various customer segments rely on and ways in which they use social media across markets remain unexplored. This knowledge void, in turn, impacts the development of effective international cocreation strategies on the supply side. Relatedly, the global ubiquity of the Internet and social networks has made these media a major target for cybercriminals. Regular revelations of firm and customer data breaches are bound to have a consequential impact, not only on firm image and the customer engagement process, scope, and depth but also on demands for greater privacy and protection by customers and governments. Thus, IM research should explore the impact of, for example, cross-national privacy regulations on the efficacy of relationship development and management as well as online marketing processes.

Globalization has transformed the way business relationships are formed, managed, and evaluated, and customer engagement is likely to play a prominent role in business-to-business contexts. Business relationships are complex, interpersonal, and interdependent, and relationship marketing efforts can make a difference in promoting common goals and facilitating joint activities that create value for both partners; value that each company could not achieve outside the relationship or with other partners (Palmatier, 2008 ). In an international context, companies need to manage their cross-border relationships more skillfully to address geographic separation, cultural distance, administrative (e.g., currencies, legal jurisdictions) and economic (Katsikeas, Samiee, & Theodosiou, 2006 ; Leonidou, Samiee, Aykol, & Talias, 2014 ; Samiee, Chabowski, & Hult, 2015 ) differences between local and foreign markets, and increased levels of risk and uncertainty inherent in international operations (Johanson & Vahlne, 2009 ; Katsikeas, Skarmeas, & Bello, 2009 ). How does the international environment affect the activities, strategies, structures, and decision-making processes of companies with respect to their business relationships? How can companies manage their overseas business relationships as value-bearing assets? Are cross-border business relationships part of a value-creating network that delivers superior value to the end customer? What is the role of international relationship building and management in overcoming the liability of foreignness? Likewise, the roles of overseas business partners (e.g., distributors, suppliers) in knowledge development, innovation, and goal achievement are relevant and important areas that require research attention.

The fit between IM strategy and international relationships also deserves ongoing research attention. How can companies ensure that their different suppliers and partners abroad are well-aligned with their IM strategy? Strategy standardization offers significant economies of scale in value-adding activities (e.g., R&D, production, marketing), facilitates the development of a consistent corporate/brand image across countries, enhances coordination and control of international operations, and reduces operational and managerial complexity, whereas adaptation is based on the premise that variations between countries necessitate adjustment of the marketing strategy to the idiosyncrasies of each local market. The contingency approach suggests that the appropriateness of the selected IM strategy – typically positioned between the two standardization–adaptation extremes – should be evaluated based on its alignment, or fit, with dominant factors in the international environment, as fit facilitates enhanced performance outcomes (Katsikeas et al., 2006 ). Despite long-standing traditions in these areas, sensemaking in some overarching topics is needed. For example, the pursuit of a market orientation strategy demands sensitivity to local market conditions and IM strategy adaptation. Given the importance of market orientation for many firms, there is a need to better understand how market orientation influences IM strategy. On the one hand, market and customer orientation demand more localized or adapted IM strategies. On the other hand, a high degree of IM strategy standardization seemingly impedes a high degree of market orientation. How do firms reconcile their IM strategy and market orientation efforts? Moreover, how do customer relationships in particular and business relationships in general interact with the perennial issue of adaptation or standardization of IM strategy? Do overseas business relationships help the company determine which specific strategic elements are feasible or desirable to standardize or adapt? If so, under what conditions, and to what degree? To what extent is cocreation possible and appropriate under each IM strategy scenario?

In addition, the assessment of performance in international market operations is an issue that requires particular attention in the IM literature. The relevance and importance of IM resources, strategies, and actions is reflected in the extent to which these favorably influence firm performance outcomes achieved via international market operations and, in turn, contribute to organizational performance. However, there are a large number and wide diversity of IM performance measures employed in the literature, which makes the development of a coherent cumulative body of knowledge in the field particularly challenging (Katsikeas, Morgan, Leonidou, & Hult, 2016 ). Scant attention has been given in IM as to how performance should be conceptualized and operationalized, and studies commonly do not provide a definition or any justification for the assessment of performance that is adopted and for the specific measures used in the context of foreign market operations (Katsikeas, Leonidou, & Morgan, 2000 ; Leonidou, Katsikeas, & Samiee, 2002 ). Given that performance is inherently a multidimensional construct, it is essential that IM researchers be selective in choosing specific performance dimensions, and justify their choice on the basis of some theory-based logic, conceptual framing, and/or for pragmatic reasons. Performance assessment in international market operations should be in line with the theoretical perspective(s) adopted in the study. For example, empirical research grounded in the resource-based view and/or the dynamic capabilities perspective, which underpins much of the strategy-related and competitive advantage work in IM, requires a competitor-centered assessment of performance outcomes; that is, individual performance aspects and items need to be assessed in relation to competition in the foreign market targeted by the firm’s IM strategy (see Katsikeas et al., 2016 ).

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE SPECIAL ISSUE

The call for papers for this special issue has been received with much enthusiasm, as demonstrated by the large number of submissions covering a wide range of IM topics. Accordingly, manuscripts accepted for inclusion in this issue represent the diversity of submissions, with each making a unique contribution to the IM body of knowledge. The first article focuses on the sharing economy (SE), which is a timely and important issue that influences business operations across industries worldwide. Kozlenkova, Lee, Xiang, and Palmatier’s meta-analytic effort examines the effects of value-based (i.e., utilitarian, social, hedonic, and sustainability value) and governance-based (i.e., trust) factors on SE participation and investigates their relative effectiveness under different global contingencies (i.e., economic/competitive, cultural, societal, technological, regulatory, and demographic factors). Based on 55 empirical articles, with 60 independent samples from 15 countries, representing 123 correlations across 26,377 customers during the 2009–2019 period, the findings suggest that hedonic value exerts the largest effect on SE participation, followed by trust and utilitarian value, while social value and sustainability have the smallest effects. The analysis reveals a complex pattern of global contingency effects that firms should consider when advancing their entry strategies, formulating governance mechanisms, and evaluating promising markets. Kozlenkova et al. integrate their key insights into three tenets, reflecting the most important and surprising findings. These tenets are grounded in the vitally important roles of inequality, the hierarchy of needs, and governance mechanisms that can serve as a platform for establishing an emerging perspective of global SE participation.

Marketing metrics represent another critically important topic that has received little research attention in IM or IB. Sound managerial decisions and marketing strategy are based on quantitative measures, including outcomes (Moorman & Day, 2016 ). In their contribution to this special issue, Mintz, Currim, Steenkamp, and de Jong focus on metric use in marketing decisions across 16 countries, using a cultural perspective. The authors leverage a rich dataset containing more than 4,300 marketing decisions in more than 1,600 firms across 16 countries. Respondents chose from 24 general metrics pertinent to marketing (12) and financial (12) decisions, plus 6 metrics specific to each of 10 marketing mix decisions. The findings indicate that, for all markets combined, an average of 9 metrics are used per marketing decision. With nearly 12 metrics per decision, South Korean managers use the highest number of metrics, while Japanese managers use the fewest, with approximately 4 metrics per marketing decision. China and India, each with approximately 11 metrics, are close to Korea and are heavy users of marketing metrics, whereas France and the United States, with nearly 6 and 7, respectively, are moderate users of metrics in decision-making. Importantly, satisfaction, awareness, and return on investment are the three most commonly used metrics across markets. In addition, the study finds that metric use is affected by both firm and country culture.

Business-to-business (B2B) electronic platforms (e-platforms) play a critical role in helping exporting firms reach, serve, and penetrate foreign markets. However, the IB literature is unclear about how and under what conditions firms can use B2B e-platforms to boost their export performance outcomes. Drawing on signaling theory, Jean, Kim, Zhou, and Cavusgil propose and empirically test a model that investigates how exporters’ e-platform use affects export sales performance by boosting foreign market contact (i.e., quotations from foreign buyers) and how the institutional environment and export growth strategies influence the e-platform use–foreign market contact link. Using survey and archival lagged data on a sample of 205 exporters that subscribe to Alibaba.com, the authors reveal that e-platform use enhances foreign buyer contact and, in turn, export sales performance. The findings also suggest that the positive impact of e-platform use among exporters is further boosted when they come from regions that have less-developed market intermediaries or under conditions of high institutional distance between the home and host countries. The study also demonstrates that the effect of e-platform use on a foreign buyer contact becomes weaker under conditions of high export market diversification or high product diversification.

Platform-based mobile payments have experienced significant growth worldwide in recent years, partly because they offer unique value for both customers and companies over other digital payment methods. Kumar, Nim, and Agarwal note, however, that patterns of such payment adoption grow differently across countries, with some emerging countries (e.g., China) outperforming developed ones. The authors propose a conceptual model of mobile payment adoption, and develop hypotheses using explanations from the literature on network effects and institutional theory. Based on data collected across 30 countries (17 developed and 13 emerging), the study confirms the existence of network effects and differential influences of perceived value, inertia, and cultural factors on the mobile payment adoption of innovators and imitators. The presence of significant heterogeneity both within and between countries regarding the adoption of mobile payments, which offers additional evidence of leapfrogging by emerging markets with regard to mass mobile payment use, has important implications for theory development and marketing management practice in IB.

Global brands and perceived brand globalness (PBG) research have received much scholarly attention in the IM literature (Aaker & Joachimsthaler, 1999 ; Batra, Ramaswamy, Alden, Steenkamp, & Ramachander, 2000 ; Steenkamp et al., 2003 ). Contributing to this growing literature, Mandler, Bartsch, and Han tap the potential aversion to globalization among consumers and examine sentiments with respect to branding as the basis for corporate decisions regarding the appropriateness of global branding. The authors leverage signaling theory to conduct two studies that (1) assess brand credibility on the basis of consumer PBG and perceived brand localness (PBL) across two countries (Germany and South Korea), and (2) examine the role of three moderators (perceived country of origin, category social signaling value, and category cultural grounding). The findings demonstrate that both PBG and PBL are positively associated with brand credibility across markets; a split-sample test offers a contrast between globalized and globalizing markets, and demonstrates a relationship between brand credibility and PBL in Germany but not in South Korea, where brand credibility is associated with PBG. The study reports the impact of brand origin on brand credibility and demonstrates that effect of PBL on brand credibility does not vary with the brand’s origin in Germany, but the effect is stronger for domestic brands than for foreign brands in South Korea. The contrast between consumer perceptions in globalized and globalizing markets offers fruitful theoretical and managerial implications, while raising a series of consumer and IM strategy questions that have the potential to expand the boundaries of IM knowledge.

Origin-related research and animosity with reference to consumer perceptions, preferences, and choice have played major roles in the marketing literature (Klein, Ettenson, & Morris, 1998 ; Lu, Heslop, Thomas, & Kwan, 2016 ; Samiee, 1994 ; Verlegh & Steenkamp, 1999 ). In line with this stream of IM research, Westjohn, Magnusson, Peng, and Jung contrast animosity’s effect on product judgement versus willingness to buy. The first part of their contribution consists of a meta-analysis of 43 post–Klein et al. ( 1998 ) published works focusing on animosity, involving 18 nations, to address the inconsistencies reported in the literature. The authors follow this with an examination of the contextual role of culture on animosity effects using six experiments in the United States and China. They leverage three Hofstede dimensions (i.e., collectivism, long-term orientation, and power distance), measured at the individual level. The results indicate that collectivism and long-term orientation lessen the negative effects of animosity and support the position that animosity’s effect on willingness to buy is stronger than it is on product judgments. The findings offer useful insights for managers regarding, among others, consumers’ attitudes toward brands. Although the findings indicate that product judgements are not affected by animosity, the results indicate that product sales could be affected. In addition to demonstrating cross-cultural differences, the authors find that cultural values influence consumers’ willingness to buy.

The establishment, development, and management of cross-border interorganizational exchange relationships has received considerable research attention in the IB literature (e.g., Bello & Gilliland, 1997 ; Robson, Katsikeas, Schlegelmilch, & Pramböck, 2019 ; Skarmeas, Katsikeas, & Schlegelmilch, 2002 ). The starting point for Obadia and Robson’s study is the inconsistent findings in the literature regarding the effects of cooperation on performance in exporter–importer relationships. The authors argue that the relationship of cooperation with performance in IB associations has an inverted U shape; at high levels, the performance impact of cooperation weakens greatly and becomes negative. They also find that the importer’s specific investments mediate the link between cooperation and performance, which advances the idea that relational phenomena affect exporter performance only if they foster an importer’s productive behaviors. The study also points to the role of interdependence in moderating the inverted U-shaped relationship between cooperation and the importer’s specific investments. The findings reveal that a limited increase of interdependence enhances the impact of low to moderate levels of cooperation on the importer’s specific investments.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Overall, criticisms of IM scholarship (e.g., Buckley, 2002a ; Douglas & Craig, 1992 ; Kotabe, 2001 ) are generally well placed and to the point. Marketing and IM are pivotal to a firm’s existence and should play overarching roles in charting firms’ management and strategy. Yet IM has largely abandoned the “big picture” by focusing on microresearch and behavioral questions, notably, country-of-origin, and cross-cultural consumer behavior topics (Day, 1996 ; Kotabe, 2001 ; Leonidou et al., 2017 ).

Much work remains for IM scholars to advance the field by placing greater emphasis and effort on strategy-related topics and exploring macro-areas of business: for example, by bridging IM strategy with regard to market entry modes and globalization and addressing issues related to disruptive external change to global supply chains and e-commerce, among others. Indeed, Buckley’s ( 2002b ) position regarding the past successes of IB scholarship in exploring international market entry (the “big picture”) may seem premature if one agrees that marketing, a central concern of which is the customer and the idiosyncrasies associated with the demand-side, is largely absent from much of this success. The relative absence of “marketing” in much of the market entry literature is a call for IB and IM scholars to leverage this critical aspect of firms’ internationalization decisions. This view is consistent with Drucker’s position that “Concern and responsibility for marketing must therefore permeate all areas of the enterprise” (Drucker, 1954 , pp. 38–39). Additionally, the fact that IB and IM are close in their fundamentals, and that the IM knowledge structure significantly taps into management scholarship (Buckley, 2002a ; Samiee & Chabowski, 2012 ), further validates marketing’s relevance and centrality in the broader international business thought. Consequently, the perceived proximity of these disciplines appears to be greater than one might expect. A major strength of IB has been its ability to embrace and integrate other business disciplines from which crucial research questions emerge (Peng, 2004 ). A more marketing- and customer-centric view of IB research is also in line with this position.

There appears to be ample research opportunity to adopt a marketing mindset in IB research and to explicitly introduce marketing considerations to achieve a marketing-based view of IB activities, most notably the macro-issues, including market entry mode choice, international expansion patterns, cross-border buyer–seller relationships, and strategic alliances. Although this special issue is primarily intended to inspire and broadly direct researchers’ focus on developing IM projects that fill key knowledge gaps in IM thought, in keeping with Drucker’s and Levitt’s positions regarding the marketing purpose of all enterprises, we very much hope that this work offers pathways for general IB scholars to embrace, leverage, and contribute to IM knowledge.

The proportion of marketing articles reported by Griffith et al. ( 2008 ) is likely inflated, as two of the six journals surveyed are dedicated entirely to international marketing topics.

This issue maybe exacerbated by the use of varying terminologies across disciplines; however, despite marketing’s centrality in business, “marketing” and “consumer” or “customer” are rare terms in much IB research (cf. Anand & Kogut, 1997 ; Hejazi, Tang, & Wang, 2020 ).

MSI is a non-profit organization led by academic researchers, in collaborations with industry, aiming to address marketing issues faced by firms. Although we do not observe an ongoing internationally related research momentum in its current list of priorities, MSI has periodically addressed selective IM-related topics.

We also calculated citation per year to account for the timing of the published works; however, as Tables 1 and 2 show, among the highly cited works, the most-cited set and the order of articles remain largely the same.

This includes intracorporate export transactions involving parts and semifinished products. International firms frequently require subsidiaries to effectively compete in quality, price, and service with other suppliers, effectively marketing themselves as the premier supplier to the internal customer. Even if intrafirm export sales were guaranteed, as is the case in some firms, the final assembled product must still compete with other firms in every respect. In other words, the marketing function of intracorporate export transactions is merely pushed to the firm assembling and selling the final product.

Several journals, led by Journal of International Marketing and International Marketing Review , are dedicated to publishing scholarly IM research.

This is based on the spatial configuration generated by multidimensional scaling for works published in 34 scholarly journals (2,709 articles) in the 2004–2008 period. Other analyses (factor analysis and clustering) produced slightly fewer knowledge groups.

Estimates of the number of publications in this IM domain vary. For example, Samiee and Chabowski ( 2021 ) identify more than 482 country-of-origin publications listed in the Web of Science database, whereas Lu et al. ( 2016 ) estimate that the number of country-of-origin-related publications exceed 600.

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Samiee, S., Katsikeas, C.S. & Hult, G.T.M. The overarching role of international marketing: Relevance and centrality in research and practice. J Int Bus Stud 52 , 1429–1444 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41267-021-00433-2

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Demographics

Urban layout, before the 20th century, 20th and 21st centuries, administrative and municipal status, transportation, culture and art, notable people, twin towns – sister cities, external links.

The name Belgorod (Белгород) in Russian literally means "white city", a compound of " белый " ( bely , "white, light") and " город " ( gorod , "town, city"). The name is a reference to the region's historical abundance of limestone . [14] Etymologically, the name corresponds to other Slavic city-names of identical meaning: Belgrade , Belogradchik , Białogard , Biograd , Bilhorod Kyivskyi , and Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi .

The population of Belgorod is 339,978 as of the most recent censuses: 339,978   ( 2021 Census ) ; [13] 356,402   ( 2010 Census ) ; [6] 337,030   ( 2002 Census ) ; [15] 300,408   ( 1989 Census ) . [16]

As of the 2021 Census , the ethnic composition of Belgorod was:

1 149,931 people (or 44.1% of the population) residing in Belgorod did not state their ethnicity in the 2021 census.

Like many Russian cities, Belgorod began as a fortified settlement. The oldest Belgorod fortress was built at the end of the 16th century on a chalk mountain. According to scientific excavations and surviving archival data, the first fortress outpost was erected in 1596. [19] The site of the construction of the defensive facility was the top of the Belaya Gora ("White Mountain"). This is the highest point of the right bank of the Seversky Donets channel. On 17 September 1650, voivode Vasily Petrovich Golovin laid the foundation for the third Belgorod Fortress on the left bank of the Vezenitsa River, which flows into the Seversky Donets. [20] In the fall of 1650, a wooden fort with 11 towers was attached to the rampart of the Belgorod line, which runs from the fortress town Bolkhovets to the mouth of the Vezelka River in the area of the former brewery. The two parts of the city were connected by the Nikolskaya Passage Tower located in the eastern wall of the Kremlin. The position of the eastern wall of the Kremlin corresponded to the modern street of the 50th anniversary of the Belgorod Oblast. With the expansion of the borders of the Russian state , the military significance of the Belgorod fortress gradually decreased and by the middle of the 18th century, only the Kremlin remained from the formidable fortress. [21]

In the fall of 1766, the new governor, Andrei Fliverk pushed for a new city plan. A regular street plan was developed and signed on 18 April 1767. The architect's signature is not legible, but it may have been signed by Andrey Kvasov . The central part of the plan was occupied by an octahedral "marketplace" with 64 stone shops and 20 warehouse barns. Moskovskaya, Kievskaya, Voronezhskaya and Kharkovskaya streets ran from the trading area in four directions. According to the plan, it was supposed to divide the entire city into 16 quarters, 4 of which should be built up with stone houses, and the rest with wooden and huts. The plan was executed formally without taking into account the buildings that survived the fire, the Kremlin fortress and the terrain. [22] On 28 April 1768, a new plan was developed [23] under the leadership of Andrey Kvasov who was the author of a number of city plans. The plans overlaid the old city center layout and the projected one. It provided for a trading area, which in the west adjoined the fortress Kremlin, and in the east ended with stone benches of the Gostiny dvor in the form of two arcs. The central planning axis was also chosen relative to which the directions of mutually perpendicular streets were formed.

Travel notes which were published in 1781 showed the location of a sketch of the ramparts of the lost ancient settlement. Only in the middle of the 1950s, the archaeologist Arkady Nikitin carried out excavations at the site of the first fortress, where the remains of ancient ramparts and ditches were still clearly visible. [24] though the fortress itself was destroyed already in the 1860s during the construction of the railway the eastern part of the chalk mountain, on which the Kremlin was located, was collapsed. The location of the first fortress approximately corresponded to the location of the modern car market on Byelaya Gora. [25] [26]

In the 1780s, during the general survey of the Russian lands, several plans of Belgorod were fulfilled. When drawing up plans, an overlay of the old and new layouts of Kvasov was used. The plans described above give a distorted position of church estates, which were fixed when the city was laid and, as a rule, did not change. The plan, signed by the titular adviser Salkov, is the most accurate plan of Belgorod in the second half of the 18th century. [27]

Belgorod's climate is humid continental ( Köppen climate classification Dfb slightly cooler than Dfa ) featuring moderate precipitation. Winters are rather cold and changeable with frequent warmings followed by rains. Temperatures may occasionally fall below −15   °C (5   °F) for about one week or more. Summer is warm and either humid and rainy or hot and droughty. Autumn is mild and rainy. The Belgorod reservoirs get covered with ice by the end of November or the beginning of December, and the ice layer typically lasts until March or April.

• average year temperature : + 7.7   °C
• average humidity : 76%
• average wind speed: 5–7   m/s
• average precipitation 380–620   mm (14.96–24.41   in) , mostly in summer.

There was a settlement of the Slavic tribe of Severians in the area, which was probably destroyed at the beginning of the 10th century by the nomadic Pechenegs . In 965, the lands in the upper reaches of Seversky Donets were annexed to the Principality of Pereyaslavl .

Records first mention the settlement in 1237, when the Mongol-led army of Batu Khan ravaged it during the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus' . It is unclear whether this Belgorod stood on the same site as the current city. In 1596 Tsar Feodor Ioannovich of Russia ordered its re-establishment as one of numerous forts set up to defend Russian southern borders from the Crimean Tatars . [2] Belgorod was part of a chain of fortification lines , created by Grand Duchy of Moscow and later the Tsardom of Russia to protect it from the Crimean–Nogai slave raids that ravaged the southern provinces of the country during the Russo-Crimean Wars . [30] The tsar appointed two princes-governors to supervise the construction of Belgorod: Mikhail Vasilyevich Nozdrovaty and Andrei Romanovich Volkonsky. The first Belgorod fortress was built on the high right bank of the Seversky Donets, in the area of the current car market; the Belgorod Kremlin was close to the present-day Belaya Gora restaurant. The legendary White Mountain has not survived, as it was completely torn down for chalk mining in the 1950s.

The first Belgorod fortress stood for sixteen years, withstanding several major attacks, both from the Tatars and from the Polish–Lithuanian troops who participated in the wars with the Russian state during the Time of Troubles . In 1612 the Belgorod fortress was taken and burned by a detachment of Lithuanians. The governor, Nikita Likharev, by order of the tsar, was already building the second Belgorod fortress on the opposite bank of the Seversky Donets the following year, 1613. Over the next decades, Belgorodians repulsed a large number of attacks on their lands. By the middle of the 17th century, the question arose about the construction of a new Belgorod fortress three kilometers south of the existing one.

In the 17th century Belgorod suffered repeatedly from Tatar incursions , against which Russia built (from 1633 to 1740) an earthen wall, with twelve forts, extending upwards of 200 miles (320 kilometres) from the Vorskla in the west to the Don in the east, and called the Belgorod line   [ ru ] . In 1666 the Moscow Patriarchate established an archiepiscopal see in the town. [31]

Tsar Peter the Great visited Belgorod on the eve of the Battle of Poltava in 1709.

After the Russian border moved south following successful wars against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the second half of the 17th century, the strategic importance of the city gradually decreased, and on 13 May 1785, by decree of Catherine II , Belgorod was excluded from the number of fortresses of the Russian Empire . From that moment on, the city plunged into the measured provincial life of the central black earth zone of Russia. Military life was replaced by agricultural life, the number of spiritual, educational, industrial and commercial institutions were growing, and in the historical chronicles of the Russian Empire, the city seems to have fallen asleep for a century. The Belgorod province disappeared from the geographical maps, and the city was for a long time a part of the first Kursk Governorate , then the Kursk province, and, finally, the Kursk region. A dragoon regiment had its base in the town until 1917.

Ioasaph of Belgorod , an 18th-century bishop of Belgorod and Oboyanska, became widely venerated as a miracle worker and was glorified as a saint of the Russian Orthodox Church in 1911.

Soviet power was established in the city on 26 October (8 November) 1917. On 10 April 1918, troops of the Imperial German Army occupied Belgorod. After the conclusion of the Brest-Litovsk peace treaty of 9 February 1918 the demarcation line passed to the north of the city. Belgorod became part of the newly proclaimed Ukrainian People's Republic (February to May 1918) and Ukrainian State headed by Hetman Pavlo Skoropadskyi .

On 20 December 1918, after the overthrow of German-backed Skoropadskyi, the Soviet Red Army regained control over the city, which became part of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic . From 24 December 1918 to 7 January 1919, the Provisional Workers' and Peasants' Government of Ukraine , then led by General Georgy Pyatakov , was based in Belgorod. The city served as the temporary capital of the Ukrainian People's Republic. From 23 June to 7 December 1919, the Volunteer Army occupied the town as part of White -controlled South Russia .

From September 1925, the territorial 163rd Infantry Regiment of the 55th Infantry Division of Kursk was stationed in Belgorod. In September 1939, it was deployed to the 185th Infantry Division.

On 2 March 1935, the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union decided to allocate the city of Belgorod, Kursk region, into an independent administrative unit directly subordinate to the Kursk Regional Executive Committee.

The German Wehrmacht occupied Belgorod from 25 October 1941 to 9 February 1943. The Germans re-captured it on 18 March 1943 in the final move of the Third Battle of Kharkov . On 12 July 1943, during the Battle of Kursk , the largest tank battle in world history took place near Prokhorovka , and Red Army definitively retook the city on 5/6 August 1943. The Belgorod Diorama is one of the World War II monuments commemorating the event.

In 1954, the city became the administrative center of Belgorod Oblast and rapidly developed as a regional industrial and cultural center. [32] The major educational centers of the city are Belgorod State University , the Belgorod Technological University , the Belgorod Agrarian University   [ ru ] , and the Financial Academy. Belgorod Drama Theater is named after the famous 19th-century actor Mikhail Shchepkin , who was born in this region.

On 22 April 2013, a mass shooting occurred at approximately 2:20 PM Moscow time on a street in Belgorod. The shooter, identified as 31-year-old Sergey Pomazun ( Russian : Сергей Помазун ), opened fire with a semi-automatic rifle on several people at a gun store and on a sidewalk, killing all six people whom he hit: three people at the store and three passers-by, including two teenage girls. Pomazun was apprehended after an extensive day-long manhunt; during his arrest, he wounded a policeman with a knife. He was sentenced to life in prison on 23 August 2013.

There were several attacks and incidents reported in Belgorod following the start of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, during which Belgorod was an important logistics centre for Russian armies. Notably, on 1 April 2022 two Ukrainian Mi-24 performed a night raid and set fire to a fuel depot in Belgorod, in a low-altitude airstrike. [33] [34] On 20 April 2023, a Russian Su-34 fighter jet accidentally dropped a bomb on the city, leaving a crater 20 metres (66   ft) across and injuring two people. [35] [36] On 22 April, more than 3,000 people were evacuated from their homes after an undetonated explosive was found; it was not known if the second bomb had come from the same aircraft. [37] On 30 December, a Ukrainian airstrike that Ukraine claimed was "strictly targeting military infrastructure" killed 24 people, including four children, according to the Russian Ministry of Emergency Situations . [38] [39]

Belgorod is the administrative center of the oblast . [1] Within the framework of administrative divisions , it is incorporated as the city of oblast significance of Belgorod—an administrative unit with status equal to that of the districts . [1] As a municipal division , the city of oblast significance of Belgorod is incorporated as Belgorod Urban Okrug. [8]

For administrative purposes, Belgorod is divided into two city okrugs :

• Vostochny ("Eastern"), population: 141,844 (2010 Census) [6]
• Zapadny ("Western"), population: 214,558 (2010 Census) [6]

There has been a railway connection between Belgorod and Moscow since 1869. [40] The city is served by Belgorod International Airport (EGO) in the north of the city.

There are two bus stations: Bus Belgorod, Belgorod- 2 Bus Terminal (located on the forecourt), and the bus stop complex Energomash. The Energomash bus station is mainly for commuter buses. Buses run from the Belgorod-2 station mainly to nearby regional centers, and depart in accordance with the arrival of trains.

Trolleybus services were discontinued on 30 June 2022 and replaced by diesel buses, despite public support for retention of the trolleybus system. The officially cited reason for the closure was inadequate condition of the overhead contact lines and insufficient funds for its modernization. The length of trolley lines was over 120   km (75   mi) . Trolleybus city park consisted of 150 pieces of equipment, mainly Russian-made trolley ZiU-682V, 2 units ZiU-683, operated from 1990, and 3 units ZiU-6205, 30 units "Optima", and one trolley Skoda-VSW -14Tr, which started operation in 1996. The city administration purchased 15 new ZiU-682G trolleybuses in 2002, another 20 new ZiU-682Gs in 2005, 30 Trolza-5275.05 "Optima" trolleybuses in 2011, and 20 new ACSM-420 trolleybuses in 2013. [ citation needed ]

• Belgorod Drama Theater
• Belgorod Puppet Theater
• Two monkeys, Belgorod clowning theater
• Belgorod historical museum
• Belgorod Art Museum
• Belgorod Museum of Folk Culture
• Belgorod Diorama of the Tank Battle of 1943
• White mask, a festival of street arts
• Ioasaph of Belgorod , 18th century bishop
• Viktoria Brezhneva , wife of Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev
• Svetlana Khorkina , Olympic gymnast
• Natalia Zuyeva , Olympic rhythmic gymnast
• Alexey Shved , basketball player
• Vadim Nemkov , mixed martial artist
• Nikita Bedrin , racing driver

Belgorod is twinned with: [41]

Former twin town:

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• 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Law #248
• ↑ Charter of Belgorod, Article   26
• ↑ Charter of Belgorod, Article   35
• ↑ "Мэр Белгорода ушел в отставку" . www.rbc.ru (in Russian). 31 October 2022.
• 1 2 3 4 Russian Federal State Statistics Service (2011). Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года. Том   1 [ 2010 All-Russian Population Census, vol.   1 ] . Всероссийская перепись населения 2010   года [2010 All-Russia Population Census] (in Russian). Federal State Statistics Service .
• ↑ Belgorod Oblast Territorial Branch of the Federal State Statistics Service . Численность населения Белгородской области по муниципальным образованиям на 1 января 2015 года Archived 18 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine (in Russian)
• 1 2 3 Law #159
• ↑ "Об исчислении времени" . Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации (in Russian). 3 June 2011 . Retrieved 19 January 2019 .
• ↑ Почта России. Информационно-вычислительный центр ОАСУ РПО. ( Russian Post ). Поиск объектов почтовой связи ( Postal Objects Search ) (in Russian)
• ↑ "Dialing Code for Belgorod - Russia" .
• ↑ Charter of Belgorod Oblast, Article   6
• 1 2 Russian Federal State Statistics Service. Всероссийская перепись населения 2020 года. Том 1 [ 2020 All-Russian Population Census, vol. 1 ] (XLS) (in Russian). Federal State Statistics Service .
• ↑ "History of Belgorod" . rusmania.com . Retrieved 5 July 2018 .
• ↑ Russian Federal State Statistics Service (21 May 2004). Численность населения России, субъектов Российской Федерации в составе федеральных округов, районов, городских поселений, сельских населённых пунктов   – районных центров и сельских населённых пунктов с населением 3   тысячи и более человек [ Population of Russia, Its Federal Districts, Federal Subjects, Districts, Urban Localities, Rural Localities—Administrative Centers, and Rural Localities with Population of Over 3,000 ] (XLS) . Всероссийская перепись населения 2002   года [All-Russia Population Census of 2002] (in Russian).
• ↑ Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989   г. Численность наличного населения союзных и автономных республик, автономных областей и округов, краёв, областей, районов, городских поселений и сёл-райцентров [ All Union Population Census of 1989: Present Population of Union and Autonomous Republics, Autonomous Oblasts and Okrugs, Krais, Oblasts, Districts, Urban Settlements, and Villages Serving as District Administrative Centers ] . Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989   года [All-Union Population Census of 1989] (in Russian). Институт демографии Национального исследовательского университета: Высшая школа экономики [Institute of Demography at the National Research University: Higher School of Economics]. 1989 – via Demoscope Weekly .
• ↑ "Том 4. Национальный состав и владение языками. Гражданство" . Территориальный органФедеральной службы государственной статистикипо Белгородской области . Retrieved 24 May 2023 .
• ↑ "Национальный состав населения" (PDF) . Территориальный органФедеральной службы государственной статистикипо Белгородской области . Retrieved 24 May 2023 .
• ↑ "Russia At a Glance. Belgorod" . HED . Retrieved 1 November 2023 .
• ↑ Сальникова О.Н. История Белгородской крепости на берегу реки Везелицы в контексте развития геодезического краеведения (in Russian).
• ↑ П.М. Беляев, А.П. Чиченков (1962). Белгород: Очерк о прошлом, настоящем и будущем города (in Russian). pp.   150–154.
• ↑ П.М. Беляев, А.П. Чиченков (1962). Белгород: Очерк о прошлом, настоящем и будущем города (in Russian). pp.   156–158.
• ↑ "ИСТОРИЯ ГРАЖДАНСКОГО ПРОСПЕКТА — САМОЙ СТАРОЙ УЛИЦЫ БЕЛГОРОДА" (in Russian) . Retrieved 30 October 2023 .
• ↑ "Письмо в редакцию по поводу "1000-летия" г. Белгорода" (in Russian). historybel.narod.ru . Retrieved 1 November 2023 .
• ↑ "Belgorod Krepost". Sovitskaya Archeologia . 3 : 262–264.
• ↑ Зуев, Василий Федорович (1762). Путешественныя записки Василья Зуева от С. Петербурга до Херсона в 1781 и 1782 году (in Russian).
• ↑ "КРАСОТА РЕГУЛЯРСТВА" . ssafro-n.livejournal.com . 9 January 2013.
• ↑ "Belgorod oblast meteodata" . Archived from the original on 28 December 2011.
• ↑ "Belgorod Climate" . Archived from the original on 22 January 2016 . Retrieved 15 February 2016 .
• ↑ Khodarkovsky,Michael, "Russia's Steppe Frontier", 2002.
• ↑ "Belgorod   :: Regions & Cities   :: Russia-InfoCentre" . russia-ic.com . Retrieved 20 July 2018 .
• ↑ "Ukraine attacks Russian oil depot as Mariupol awaits evacuations and Putin's troops abandon Chernobyl" . CBS News . 1 April 2022 . Retrieved 2 April 2022 .
• ↑ Axe, David. "Ukrainian Attack Helicopters Just Slipped Into Russia And Blew Up A Fuel Depot" . Forbes . Retrieved 1 April 2022 .
• ↑ Wright, George (21 April 2023). "Ukraine war: Russian warplane 'accidentally bombs own city' " . BBC News . Retrieved 21 April 2023 .
• ↑ Lendon, Radina; Gigova, Victoria; Butenko, Josh; Pennington, Brad (21 April 2023). "Russian jet drops bomb on Russian city, state media says" . CNN . Retrieved 21 April 2023 .
• ↑ "Russia's Belgorod sees mass evacuations over undetonated bomb" . BBC News . 22 April 2023.
• ↑ "Ukraine war: Missile and drone attacks launched against Russia" . BBC News . 30 December 2023 . Retrieved 30 December 2023 .
• ↑ "Live: Russia says 14 dead after Ukraine strikes border city" . BBC News . 30 December 2023 . Retrieved 30 December 2023 .
• ↑ "Train Station in Belgorod" (in Russian). Archived from the original on 29 September 2013.
• ↑ "Внешние связи" . beladm.ru (in Russian). Belgorod. Archived from the original on 5 September 2011 . Retrieved 3 February 2020 .
• ↑ "Ukraine: Wakefield to sever tries with Russian twin city" . BBC News . 28 February 2022 . Retrieved 28 February 2022 .
• Белгородский городской Совет депутатов.   Решение   №197   от   29 ноября 2005 г. «О принятии Устава городского округа "Город Белгород"», в ред. Решения №262 от   22 июля 2015 г.   «О внесении изменений в Устав городского округа "Город Белгород"». Вступил в силу   1 января 2006 г. (за исключением отдельных положений). Опубликован: "Наш Белгород", №50, 16 декабря 2005 г. (Belgorod City Council of Deputies.   Decision   # 197   of   November   29, 2005 On the Adoption of the Charter of the Urban Okrug of the "City of Belgorod" , as amended by the Decision   # 262 of   July   22, 2015 On Amending the Charter of the Urban Okrug of the "City of Belgorod" . Effective as of   January   1, 2006 (with the exception of certain clauses).).
• Белгородская областная Дума.   Закон   №248   от   15 декабря 2008 г. «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Белгородской области», в ред. Закона №213 от   4 июля 2013 г.   «О внесении изменения в Закон Белгородской области "Об административно-территориальном устройстве Белгородской области"». Вступил в силу   по истечении 10 дней со дня официального опубликования за исключением положений, для которых предусмотрены иные сроки вступления в силу. Опубликован: "Белгородские известия", №219-220, 19 декабря 2008 г. (Belgorod Oblast Duma.   Law   # 248   of   December   15, 2008 On the Administrative-Territorial Structure of Belgorod Oblast , as amended by the Law   # 213 of   July   4, 2013 On Amending the Law of Belgorod Oblast "On the Administrative-Territorial Structure of Belgorod Oblast" . Effective as of   10 days after the day of the official publication; except for the portions for which other effective dates are specified.).
• Белгородская областная Дума.   Закон   №159   от   20 декабря 2004 г. «Об установлении границ муниципальных образований и наделении их статусом городского, сельского поселения, городского округа, муниципального района», в ред. Закона №244 от   4 декабря 2013 г.   «О внесении изменения в статью   12 Закона Белгородской области "Об установлении границ муниципальных образований и наделении их статусом городского, сельского поселения, городского округа, муниципального района"». Вступил в силу   по истечении 10   дней со дня официального опубликования. Опубликован: "Белгородские известия", №218–220, 24 декабря 2004 г. (Belgorod Oblast Duma.   Law   # 159   of   December   20, 2004 On Establishing the Borders of the Municipal Formations and on Granting Them a Status of Urban, Rural Settlement, Urban Okrug, Municipal District , as amended by the Law   # 244 of   December   4, 2013 On Amending Article   12 of the Law of Belgorod Oblast "On Establishing the Borders of the Municipal Formations and on Granting Them a Status of Urban, Rural Settlement, Urban Okrug, Municipal District" . Effective as of   the day which is 10   days after the official publication.).
• Official website (in Russian)
• Directory of organizations in Belgorod (in Russian)
• War in Ukraine: Russia accuses Ukraine of attacking oil depot . BBC News , April 1, 2022