management theories essay

Module 1: Introduction to Organizational Behavior

Different management theories, learning outcomes.

• Differentiate among Scientific, Administrative, and Bureaucratic Management Theories
• Differentiate among Human Relations, General, and X&Y Management Theories

During the Industrial Revolution, it became obvious that the ways companies operated their businesses had to drastically change. While many people were in agreement that change was inevitable, pioneers in management theory differed in how they believed things should change and operate. In this page, we are going to explore six different management theories, all of which helped to form the base of management as it is known today. Keep in mind as you read about each one, that while some parts of the theories may be common sense to us today, at the time they were developed, they were groundbreaking. While the Industrial Revolution sparked these new theories, even more innovation came in the decades that followed as companies changed to adapt to business needs.

Scientific Management Theory

Frederick Winslow Taylor developed and published his Scientific Management Theory in 1909. At its core, scientific management theory believes that it is vital to find the most effective way to complete each and every task, no matter how small. In the early 1900s, managers would give orders to their workers with no guidance on how to accomplish them. Managers and employees rarely, if ever, had interaction with one another. Taylor believed this was an inefficient way to operate a business and recommended some key changes.

Taylor argued each task should be completed as efficiently as possible. In addition, everyone should be assigned a particular job based on their skills and abilities and must be evaluated based on the quantity and quality of their work. Taylor did not think it was fair or cost effective to pay every employee the same amount, regardless of their output. While this may sound like common sense today, this was a groundbreaking idea in the early 1900s. Another big component of scientific management theory is the idea of training and development. Taylor argued it was extremely important to monitor and train your employees on the tasks they are assigned to. By ensuring your employees are efficient at their work, the output will be larger and of a higher quality.

One part of the scientific management theory that is not common today is the idea that managers strictly manage and employees simply work. Nowadays, most companies offer room for growth and advancement for their employees as opposed to keeping a distinct barrier between management and employees. This theory had a huge impact on the way companies operated and how they were able to create a more balanced pay system, better training, and a more efficient workforce.

Administrative Management Theory

Administrative management theory was developed by Henri Fayol in the early 1900s and is considered to be highly relevant even today. Fayol created fourteen principles which he believed outlined the basis for strong and successful companies. It is important to know that Fayol agreed with many of Taylor’s ideas and ideologies, however, the main difference is that Taylor focused on the process of completing the work most effectively, and Fayol focuses on the organizational structure of a company as a whole.

Some of Fayol’s principles included a clear division of labor, ensuring each employee had only one direct manager to report to, and a healthy manager-employee relationship. Another important part of Fayol’s administrative management theory is the idea that everyone in a company should be aligned by organizational goals. Fayol believed that organizational structure was vital to the success and productivity of a company.

Bureaucratic Management Theory

The word bureaucracy tends to sound pejorative, or negative, by implying that a bureaucratic organization is an impersonal machine that focuses more on numbers and output than on the wellbeing of its employees. However, its intended meaning is actually quite different. At the end of the 19th century, Max Weber created the bureaucratic management theory. Unlike today’s interpretation of the word, Weber believed that bureaucracy meant carefully developing and spelling out company objectives and divisions of labor. While this included developing a hierarchy of command within the company, it also included supporting and developing employees.

Weber built onto Taylor’s theory by adding a few key ideas of his own. Like Taylor, Weber believed efficiency in completing tasks was a key component to success and recommended detailed record keeping at all levels to monitor efficiency as well as areas of opportunity. He agreed that all employees need to have clear job expectations and each job should be standardized to allow for maximum productivity. The greatest difference between the scientific theory and the bureaucratic theory is that Weber believed in the importance of human emotion.

Emotion in business? This was absolutely unheard of during the Industrial Revolution. However, Weber believed the two words were closely associated. Weber argued that the increased use of technology could have a negative impact on a company’s culture. Too much change can be harmful to company morale and create long lasting negative effects on company success. In addition, Weber argued it was extremely important to hire based on skill and, just as importantly, personality. To ensure the safety and longevity of a company’s culture, Weber believed hiring employees based on their personality was critical.

Even in today’s business world, there is an anti-bureaucratic tone. For example, the term management is often replaced with leadership. The argument for this is that management is a mundane and structured task while leadership is a unique and heroic act. With this thought process, managers are viewed in a negative light while leaders are appreciated and recognized. Although in many places managers and leaders may appear to perform their job the same way, the focus on eliminating bureaucratic tone and perceived terminology from today’s workplace is evident [1] .

Practice Question

Now that you have read about three management theories, do any of them seem familiar? Maybe you have experienced certain aspects of each of these theories first hand. During an interview process, onboarding process, or the day-to-day work environment, some parts of these theories are still active today. Try connecting some of these theories to your personal experiences as we move onto the next three theories we are going to discuss in this module: Human Relations Management Theory, General Management Theory, and X&Y Management Theory.

Human Relations Management Theory

As the title implies, Human Relations Management Theory is centered around human interactions and relationships. Elton Mayo believed that all early management theories only focused on how money affects employee performance. He believed there were more factors that influenced how employees behaved and performed at work. To test his theory, he began a study at Chicago’s Western Electric Hawthorne Plant in the 1920s and 1930s and created his own management theory based on his findings which are more commonly known today as The Hawthorne Effect.

The initial goal of the The Hawthorne Study was to determine how changing the lighting would or would not affect employee productivity. They began the study with a small group of employees who they interacted with throughout the process. The study found that regardless of how they changed the lighting, productivity increased. When they were unable to make a connection as to why productivity improved, they began branching out to other departments to see if the results were similar. They realized that the lighting changes did not affect productivity but instead the daily interactions with the employees throughout the process motivated them to work more efficiently and increase their output. They allowed employees to voice their opinions, frustrations, and successes which in turn helped the employees feel more valuable. In addition, since they knew they were being monitored, they were more motivated to perform on a higher level. This was a revolutionary discovery that put the spotlight on human relations and highlighted the importance of individual and group dynamics.

General Systems Theory

In the 1940s, biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy created his General Systems Theory. You might be wondering why a biologist would have any impact on management. Keep reading to see if you can connect the dots.

Ludwig von Bertalanffy believed that your body is the sum of all parts. For example, your nervous system works together with your digestive system, which work with each organ and muscle group to allow a person to function. If one function of the body fails to work, the body as a whole cannot effectively operate. Humans are most healthy and functional when all aspects of their being are working together effectively. He also argued that the environment can have an effect on each of the parts. A broken leg can prevent you from walking or the flu can have you bedridden for days. Each of these issues can damage the overall productivity of a person.

Ludwig von Bertalanffy’s theory is still found today in many management styles and theories. His work shows that external factors can prove to be toxic to an environment. Although he was referring to the human body, the same can be said for the workplace. Negativity and other toxic outlooks can have a harmful effect on motivation and performance at all levels in an organization. And, like his theory states, even when only one component of the organization isn’t executing properly, it will have an undesirable effect on the rest of the organization.

X&Y Management Theory

Based on his observations in the 1950s and 1960s, Douglas McGregor developed the X&Y Management Theory, by arguing that all managers can be grouped into two categories. The first category known as Theory X explains that managers have a negative view of their employees and believe that employees need to be forced or coaxed into working. Theory X Managers tend to micromanage with the belief that employees will not motivate themselves to complete their work. This theory can be linked back to the scientific management theory and its focus on output above employee development and input.

On the opposite side of the spectrum, Theory Y Managers believe that employees are inherently motivated to work. Theory Y managers value the importance of helping their employees to thrive by providing opportunities for learning and development. Theory Y is focused on the idea of team versus independent work. McGregor argued that a team environment paired with an emphasis on individual professional development produces better results and a healthier work environment. Theory Y continues to prove its relevance and is still present in today’s business world.

Now that we’ve discussed six different management theories, where do we go next? I’m so glad you asked! There is a very important link between management theory and organizational behavior. Although the concepts are different, these six management theories helped develop organizational behavior into its own unique field. Let’s move on to learn more about how the two are connected!

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Realism for Social Sciences pp 235–246 Cite as

An Essay on the Realism of Management Theory: The Actuality of Management Phenomena and the Reality of Management Theory

• Izumi Mitsui 6  
• First Online: 14 November 2023

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Part of the book series: Translational Systems Sciences ((TSS,volume 36))

The purpose of this chapter is to explore the ‘realism’ that exists between the phenomenon of management and the ‘management theory’ or ‘conceptual schemes’ that try to capture it from a certain perspective. Here, we refer to “reality within phenomena” as “actuality,” and the kind of virtual reality that researchers perceive through “theories” and “conceptual frameworks” as “reality.” To explore the relationship between actuality and reality is main theme. When considering this theme, we follow two steps. At the first step, consider the relationship between the observer (for example, a researcher) and the business phenomenon that is its object. At the second step, after taking up and characterizing two representative positions in the history of American management theory, namely, the “clinical method” and the “scientific method,” shows these two positions are incorporated into the practice of management. We also point out that these two positions exist simultaneously. By these discussions, we would like to consider the relationship between “realism” and “methodology” in management study.

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What I mean by “pragmatism” here is that Bernard analyzes “truth” in terms of the purpose of people’s actions and the validity of their purposes, rather than in terms of their essence. This is reminiscent of James’s view of truth. In other words, I believe that Bernard’s attitude is that there is no “essential truth” behind either “scientific knowledge” or “clinical knowledge” in a positive sense.

See the last chapter in Barnard ( 1938 ) for more information.

The basis of this method is the “clinical method” (the Hippocratic method in medicine) advocated by Henderson. Katsuyasu Kato explains it as follows: First, doctors gain “intuitive familiarity” (intuitive familiarity with things) by working continuously, wisely, and responsibly in the hospital room (not in the laboratory or library). Second, from the above perspective, to observe things and events in character, and to select, categorize, and systematize salient and recurring phenomena. Third, to create a correct theory based on the above—a kind of “walking stick” that helps one to walk without elbowing one’s shoulders (Kato, 1996 , p. 418).

The definition of “logical positivism” varies widely, but here it is defined as “a methodology to analyze a phenomenon by deductively deriving a hypothesis (proposition) from an existing established theory (or inductively from experience), verifying or disproving it in light of reality, and determining the ‘truth or falsehood’ of the theory.” That is, the truth or falsehood of a theory is determined by the success or failure of logical procedures.

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Mitsui, I. (2023). An Essay on the Realism of Management Theory: The Actuality of Management Phenomena and the Reality of Management Theory. In: Urai, K., Katsuragi, M., Takeuchi, Y. (eds) Realism for Social Sciences. Translational Systems Sciences, vol 36. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4153-7_12

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Essay on Management Theories and Their Impact on Social Care Setting

Leaders in social work settings are faced with the responsibility of leading social workers and keeping them motivated to continue offering their services. Social work managers may produce higher outcomes when they combine their expertise with theoretical perspectives. Motivating and organising workers requires leadership and management skills. The following is an overview of three management theories and their application in social work.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is one of the most popular theories of management. Maslow’s approach is based on a pyramid of needs. At the bottom of the pyramid are needed that must be met before higher-level needs can be satisfied. Social work managers apply the theory’s principles by identifying each employee’s level of needs and understanding the motivating factors for each level of the pyramid. The basic needs at the bottom are physiological, followed by security needs, after which social needs become essential, esteem needs, and finally, self-actualisation needs.

Social work managers must understand the relevant motivators at every level of Maslow’s needs pyramid. Food, clothing, and shelter make up the greatest motivators at the bottom of the pyramid. Security needs involve the need for protection from threats or loss, including employment loss. Acceptance and a sense of belonging are critical social needs motivators. Human beings need recognition and higher self-esteem status to satisfy their esteem needs. At the highest level of the pyramid, social care workers will be motivated by available opportunities to apply their talents, creativity, and innovation to exploit their full potential (Soni & Soni, 259, 2016).

The different levels of needs at Maslow’s hierarchy are the foundations of motivating workers. Social work managers must recognise that the desire to meet unmet needs is a source of motivation (Soni & Soni, 2016). Once a need is satisfied, it stops being a motivator, and the immediate unmet need becomes the source of motivation. For example, a person who can comfortably meet the basic needs of food, clothing, and shelter cannot draw motivation from the desire to meet these needs but rather focus on the next immediate needs.

Social work managers must understand how Maslow’s theory influences their management styles and avoids misinterpreting its founding principles. Most social workers follow that career path guided by the desire to help people and the community. However, it would be misguided to ignore that their needs are essential and must be satisfied. Social workers are also a human being and have individual needs whose satisfaction are critical and influences the delivery of their services (Hopper, 2019, 2019).

Human experiences have shown that Maslow’s pyramid represents a flexible, attainable, and the equally critical need for human existence. For a social worker, Maslow’s summary of needs can present troubling challenges (Downes, 167, 2018). Paradoxically, the theory exposes potential flows in the modern social work environment where social workers focus on a single element of a client ‘s problem rather than a holistic approach. For instance, making a real difference in a homeless person’s life may need more than providing a home. Such a person may need social workers to consider employment, counselling services, child support, financial literacy, and a support system. Like Maslow’s hierarchy or pyramid of needs, the US welfare system stresses goods and services provided and activities provided. The welfare system rarely considers intangible human aspects such as autonomy, self-esteem, support system, and spiritual nourishment.

A holistic approach in social work provides each individual with empowerment. It influences them to develop a personal vision that provides the tools for the advancement and power of breaking social barriers (Fallatah & Syed, 50, 2018). From my perspective, effective social work involves assuming a holistic approach that blends social connectedness with other human aspects to care for vulnerable people. Social work programs should appreciate the value of human dignity, autonomy and emphasising these needs like Maslow’s first-tier needs, such as housing and transportation provided.

McClelland’s Trichotomy of Needs

McClelland hypothesised three needs that motivate individuals: the need for power, affiliation, and the need for achievement (Verma, 70, 2017) .  The needs are not ranked in any hierarchy. McClelland holds that all three needs influence workers, but strong motivation is drawn from one of the three factors. Effective management requires managers to understand which of the three needs strongly motivates their workers and uses that knowledge to design measures that will maintain motivation for that particular employee.

Power is about being in control and influencing others. People who draw motivation from power and control are more productive assigned positions of authority and influence. Such individuals typically have outspoken personalities and exploit their potential through power and influence. The theory identified two forms of power that influence people’s actions: socialised and personalised power. The latter motivates individuals to gain personal influence and power without due concern to the organisational goals. Personalised power can be a setup for shared goals because persons motivated by this kind of power are often willing to sacrifice shared goals to gain personal power.

Socialised power involves influencing people towards achieving organisational goals. Opportunities to lead people to achieve the desired goal or deliver a specific mandate are sources of satisfaction for people motivated by socialised power. The two powers’ needs can also explain the reasons why different leaders apply different leadership styles. The source of motivation influences a social manager’s leadership style and the weight placed on other goals and objectives (Doeze Jager-van Vliet et al., 10, 2017).

Persons motivated by affiliation needs are more productive when working in an environment where they feel accepted and expect little rejection. These are the kind of workers who are typically non-judgmental, friendly, and always avoid conflict. Social workers with affiliation needs may be motivated by having them included in social gatherings. On the other hand, achievement needs motivated social workers are influenced by the need to succeed and fear of failure. Social workers motivated by the desire for achievement may sometimes have unattainable and unrealistic goals. It would be critical for managers to help such workers acknowledge small successes and set realistic goals.

It is challenging to manage a group of people with diverse personalities. When one is leading or managing a team, it is critical to understand the members’ motivating factors, understand how they respond to different stressors, and what responsibilities exploit their talents and potential. Theories provide a framework for isolating individual motivating factors that can help a manager give feedback effectively, assign workers the appropriate tasks, and ignite and maintain motivation. Each social worker has a dominant motivator, and it is upon the social work manager to determine what it is and provide the appropriate drivers. For example, suppose you identify an individual who always takes charge of projects, persuades others in meetings, and delegates responsibilities to achieve shared goals. In that case, they are likely motivated by the need for power.

A detailed understanding of motivation can be used to examine the causes of different employee behaviours in an organisation and assess the impacts of specific management actions ((Verma, 70, 2017). Research suggests that knowledge of the motivational factors influences the goal-oriented incentives presented in organisations. All organisations are set with particular objectives and goals, and it is the goal of every management team to deliver on these goals. Social work encompasses many objectives that must be met. The delivery of social work goals is dependent on the greater network of social workers. Social work managers must understand the motivating factors critical in pushing the workers to deliver the best results out of every situation. A focused individual and a motivating environment can create a collective group that is determined to push a common agenda.

Human Relations Theory

The human relations theory of organisations is developed on three main components. The first component is that it places a great focus on the organisation’s value. A human being is more than a machine because of his or her capacity to respond to the environment (Nicotera, 60, 2017). Human productivity maximisation requires a working environment that takes into account the unique individual characteristics. The second element is that the theory considers informal setups in the working environment (Nicotera, 60, 2017). A worker’s productivity is influenced by many variables, some of which fall out of the official organisational formation, such as relationships with peers. Third, the theory stresses the value of participative management. Participative management are approaches built on the belief that workers are likely to be more productive if they are engaged in making critical workplace decisions (Nicotera, 2017). Failure to seek employee’s opinions makes them feel like their contribution is not value and respect, something that can create demotivation and diminished productivity.

The modern world has been influenced by diverse beliefs and a shift from the traditional belief system that believed social order is a design of God’s will. The Enlightenment has changed most of the conventional reasoning. For example, the belief that kings were divine has been substituted by the belief that people can use their independent reasoning instead of relying on others’ authority (Oyerinde, 130, 2017). An autonomous human being is capable of making choices and behaving in a moral, rational way. The qualities can be exploited in social work to deliver services that are sensitive to human needs.

Social workers and social work managers’ relationships are of substantive importance in the social care setting (Kapur, 30, 2017). Human relations involve equipping employees with the relevant skills, addressing their needs, cultivating an excellent workplace culture, resolving emerging conflicts between different groups, and understanding how human relations impact social work to underscore their value.

Human relations are a critical part of what makes service delivery efficient. Workers have to collaborate and interrelate in different ways to achieve shared goals. Without a friendly and motivating workplace culture, many challenges are bound to emerge in people management and logistics. In the end, the objective of any social work project might be challenging to achieve (Kovalenko, 2019). Social workers must be well trained and motivated to foster loyalty and meet the rapidly changing social care setting’s challenges.

Studies on participative management strategies have highly focused on their positive motivational effects and the various ways workers commit and involvement in a decision-making process increase their productivity. Participative practices also contribute to employee job satisfaction. Participative approaches are sources of motivation that enable employees to gain greater independence and develop a sense of ownership. Social work is a demanding practise that requires social workers to be motivated and to own the process. However, participative practices have limitations, especially if the organisational culture and management practices are not congruent.

Management theories impact social work in many ways. Theoretical perspectives influence many decisions in diverse ways. From the literature, it’s apparent that social work managers should get relevant knowledge of the correlation between motivation and management. The paper has attempted to synthesise three management theories and their potential implications to the social work setting. Social work managers should make deliberate efforts to learn about the relationship between motivation, management, and leadership.

Doeze Jager-van Vliet, S., Born, M., and Van der Molen, H., 2017. Self-other agreement between employees on their need for achievement, power, and affiliation: A social relations study.  Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health ,  2 (9), pp.1-12.

Downes, P., 2018. Complexity in social work.  International Journal of Emotional Education ,  10 (2), pp.167-168.

Fallatah, R.H.M. and Syed, J., 2018. A critical review of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.  Employee Motivation in Saudi Arabia  (pp. 19-59). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.

Hopper, E., 2019. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Explained.  Viitattu ,  12 , p.2019.

Kapur, R., 2017. Management of day-to-day organisational human relations: a Henri Rey perspective.  Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy ,  31 (1), pp.21-36.

Kovalenko, E., 2019. Administrative culture of human relations.  National Academy of Managerial Staff of Culture and Arts Herald , (2).

Nicotera, A.M., 2019. 6 Human Relations Theory.  Origins and Traditions of Organizational Communication: A Comprehensive Introduction to the Field .

Oyerinde, O.F., 2017. Team management in the 21 st century: A human relations theory angle.  Nigerian School Library Journal ,  16 , pp.125-136.

Soni, B. and Soni, R., 2016, July. Enhancing Maslow’s hierarchy of needs for effective leadership. In  Competition Forum  (Vol. 14, No. 2, p. 259). American Society for Competitiveness.

Verma, N., 2017. A profile based study on McClelland’s needs.  Journal of Management Research ,  17 (2), pp.65-73.

Marusin, A., Marusin, A., & Ablyazov, T. (2019, September). Transport infrastructure safety improvement based on digital technology implementation. In  International Conference on Digital Technologies in Logistics and Infrastructure (ICDTLI 2019)  (pp. 348-352). Atlantis Press.

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