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• 10 Research Question Examples to Guide Your Research Project

10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project

Published on October 30, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on October 19, 2023.

The research question is one of the most important parts of your research paper , thesis or dissertation . It’s important to spend some time assessing and refining your question before you get started.

The exact form of your question will depend on a few things, such as the length of your project, the type of research you’re conducting, the topic , and the research problem . However, all research questions should be focused, specific, and relevant to a timely social or scholarly issue.

Once you’ve read our guide on how to write a research question , you can use these examples to craft your own.

Note that the design of your research question can depend on what method you are pursuing. Here are a few options for qualitative, quantitative, and statistical research questions.

Other interesting articles

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

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4. Research Questions

4.2. Types of Research Questions

Learning Objectives

• Define empirical and normative questions and provide examples of each.
• Understand the differences between exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory studies and research questions.

As you move from a research topic to a research question, there are some considerations that should guide how you pose your question. First, social scientists are best equipped to answer empirical questions —questions about the facts of the world around us—as opposed to normative or ethical questions—questions about what we as a society should value. Empirical questions can be answered through research, but the answers to normative questions depend on people’s moral opinions. (To say something is “normative” means that it relates to our norms or standards—what we should do.) While research projects can inform how we make decisions about ethical issues, they cannot directly answer normative questions, which are fundamentally a matter of debate within communities and societies about what sorts of principles they want to uphold.

For example, a student in one of our methods classes wanted to research student athletes. Their original research question was: “Should college athletes be paid?” Outside of a research context, this is a great question—the matter of paying or not paying athletes affects the lives of millions of students, and it speaks to critical issues about what we as a society think a college education should entail, and what is a fair reward for the work people do. Unfortunately, this specific question is a normative one that we need to debate, not an empirical question that we can resolve with research. A tip-off here is that it begins with the word “should,” a normative phrasing that you generally want to avoid in research questions. The answer to such a question would be a series of moral arguments, based on the particular values the author and their audience hold in common.

It’s true that research can help us to make moral arguments. For example, if we learn how much money universities make from college sports, or how all the work that athletes put into training and playing shapes their experience of college, that empirical knowledge could help us decide whether we believe student athletes are being exploited by their universities, and whether we believe they have a moral right to be paid for their labor. But then those questions would be our research questions, rather than the normative question of whether athletes “should” be paid.

Let’s consider another ethical question that research can inform but not answer: is SpongeBob SquarePants immoral? In 2012, a Ukrainian government commission began reviewing that cartoon show in response to complaints by a right-wing religious group that its depiction of depraved behaviors—such as SpongeBob’s regular practice of holding his male sidekick Patrick’s hand—amounted to the “promotion of homosexuality” (Marson 2012). (Before the government body was disbanded in 2015, the National Expert Commission of Ukraine on the Protection of Public Morality evaluated media to ensure television shows and other content adhered to the country’s morality laws regarding pornography and other controversial issues.) The agency called a special session to discuss SpongeBob and other suspect kids’ shows, though ultimately the eponymous sponge and his starfish companion stayed on Ukrainian TV. A decade earlier, SpongeBob had also drawn the ire of U.S. conservative groups for appearing with other popular cartoon characters in a music video intended to teach children about multiculturalism—which the advocacy group Focus on the Family said was “pro-homosexual” and served as an “insidious means” of “manipulating and potentially brainwashing kids” (Kirkpatrick 2005).

Can research answer the question of whether SpongeBob SquarePants is immoral? No, because questions of morality are ethical, not empirical. Your family members and pundits on TV can rant about sponge creatures all they want, and they can make better or worse moral arguments for their positions, but this is not a question a social scientist should build a study around. That said, we sociologists could certainly choose to study the public opinions and cultural meanings that surround a popular show like SpongeBob SquarePants . We could conduct experiments measuring the detrimental effects that watching the show has on children’s behavior. We could even use surveys to find out precisely how many people in the United States find SpongeBob and/or Patrick repugnant. But sadly, we could not settle the question of whether SpongeBob is indeed morally reprehensible, given that it is not an empirical question.

As you start designing your study, your choice of a particular empirical question will also be influenced by your study’s general purpose. There are three approaches that a research study will typically take: exploration , description , or explanation . These are not mutually exclusive categories, and a study may fall into multiple categories.

Exploratory research is often conducted in new areas of inquiry, where the goals of the research are: (1) to scope out the magnitude or extent of a particular phenomenon; (2) to generate some initial ideas or hunches about that phenomenon; or (3) to test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study. For instance, if the citizens of a country are generally dissatisfied with their government’s policies during an economic recession, sociologists could create and implement new surveys to measure the extent of that dissatisfaction and probe for possible causes of it, such as anxieties about unemployment, inflation, or higher taxes. This research may not lead to a very accurate understanding of the target problem, but it may be worthwhile nonetheless in order to get a preliminary sense of its nature and extent, serving as a stepping stone to more in-depth research.

Descriptive research is directed at making careful observations and detailed documentation of a phenomenon of interest. Because these observations follow the scientific method, they hopefully are more accurate than casual observations by untrained people. Much exploratory research overlaps with descriptive research: we often want to describe the magnitude of an emerging problem as a starting point in understanding it. Yet descriptive research is also helpful to conduct on an ongoing basis, and it can involve well-studied topics.

A common type of descriptive research is the work of government agencies to tabulate statistics about the population. In the United States, for example, the Bureau of Labor Statistics uses survey questions to estimate employment by sector every month. The U.S. Census Bureau regularly conducts demographic surveys that allow policymakers and social scientists to track the growth of a wide range of racial and ethnic groups over many years. In general, government agencies, corporations, nonprofits, and other organizations are in great need of such descriptive research so that they understand the circumstances that their citizens, clients, and members are experiencing. They can use these assessments to create new programs or policies to meet people’s needs or preferences. For that reason, if you decide to use your sociological research skills in a nonacademic setting (as described in Chapter 2: Using Sociology in Everyday Life ), you will likely be doing a lot of descriptive research.

That said, descriptive research is also a large component of many studies that academic sociologists do. For example, a sociologist’s ethnographic study of gang activities among adolescent youth in urban areas might entail detailed observations of the children’s activities. A study of religious practices in immigrant communities might chronicle the evolution of those practices over time. In conducting this descriptive research, sociologists are gathering essential information about what is actually going on in the social spaces they observe.

Explanatory research seeks explanations of observed behaviors, problems, or other phenomena. You might think of the difference between descriptive and explanatory research in this way: while the former seeks answers to basic “what,” “where,” “who,” and “when” types of questions, the latter examines questions that are more complex—whether or not one concept affects another, and “why” and “how” those concepts are related. Put another way, explanatory research attempts to “connect the dots” in research, by identifying certain important factors and showing how they lead to specific outcomes. Let’s consider the hypothetical studies we discussed at the end of the last paragraph in this light. For an explanatory study about urban gangs, sociologists might seek to understand the reasons that adolescent youth in urban areas get involved with gangs. For an explanatory study of immigrant religious practices, researchers might examine why these practices evolve in the ways they do within particular local or national contexts.

Most studies you read in the academic literature will be explanatory. Why is that? Explanatory research tries to identify causal relationships that are generalizable across space and time. That means the findings of such research should matter to many people: because we’re learning something fundamental about the relationships between the concepts we’re interested in, our conclusions aren’t limited to a one-off situation or scenario. It also means our findings are actionable: because we know what causes what, we can act individually or collectively to promote, discourage, or alter the phenomenon we’re studying. In other words, explanatory research gives us a better sense of how and why society operates the way it does, rather than just describing what particular aspects of society look like.

Arriving at compelling explanations for social phenomena requires especially strong theoretical and empirical skills. You need to have a sophisticated understanding of how a social process operates and rule out any alternative stories, and you need to collect empirically sound data and rigorously analyze it. For these reasons, sociologists often see explanatory research as a “higher” form of research, one that is exceedingly challenging to do well. At the same time, they will frequently engage in some amount of exploratory and descriptive research for any given study, particularly during its initial phases. Indeed, these other approaches can be especially important in helping us understand a relatively new or hard-to-study phenomenon: without good descriptive research to draw from, any theorizing we do will be built on shaky empirical foundations.

Deciding on the primary purpose of your research will shape the study you ultimately propose and conduct. If you are doing academic work, your instructor or advisor may push you to be less “descriptive” in your approach, and to focus more on seeking out explanations for what you observe. If you are studying a topic that so far has generated only a small amount of literature, however, you may very well want to conduct exploratory research to generate plausible theories, or descriptive research to understand the scale or characteristics of a particular phenomenon.

The overall purpose of your research will also inform the research questions that you pose. Probably the easiest questions to think of are descriptive research questions. For example, “What is the average student debt load of college graduates?” is a descriptive question—and an important one. In this case, you aren’t trying to identify a causal relationship. You’re simply trying to describe how much debt students carry. When you seek to answer a descriptive research question like this one, you might find yourself generating descriptive statistics —counting the number of instances of a phenomenon, or determining an average, median, or percentage. You can also pursue descriptive research questions using qualitative methods. For instance, you might conduct in-depth interviews or focus groups to gauge the public’s view of student debt, describing the range of opinions on that subject.

In the next section, we’ll focus on explanatory research questions. We will detail one strategy for developing questions based on whether your study is using quantitative methods or qualitative methods. We’ll also connect those two types of research questions to two kinds of empirical analysis—deduction and induction.

Key Takeaways

• Empirical questions can be answered through the gathering and analyzing of data. Normative questions have to do with people’s moral values and opinions and can only be informed, but not answered, through empirical research.
• Exploratory research focuses on tentatively understanding new and emerging phenomena by gathering details and formulating plausible theories. Descriptive research involves a careful measurement of what a phenomenon looks like. Explanatory research tries to understand whether and to what extent two concepts are causally related, and how and why they are related.
• Descriptive questions are helpful for assessing current conditions for policy implementation and other purposes, but they do not investigate causal relationships between variables, which social scientists are often interested in.

The Craft of Sociological Research by Victor Tan Chen; Gabriela León-Pérez; Julie Honnold; and Volkan Aytar is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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189+ Best Social Science Research Paper Topics For Students

• Post author By Pooja Barman
• October 23, 2023

Social Science Research Paper Topics can be intriguing, insightful, and engaging, offering students an opportunity to explore a wide range of subjects that impact our society. Are you looking for the most interesting and good topics for a sociology research paper?

If yes, in this article, we will explore what Social Science Research Paper Topics are, provide guidance on how to choose and find them, and discuss why they are beneficial for students.

Additionally, we’ll present a comprehensive list of research paper topics across various social science fields.

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Table of Contents

What Are Social Science Research Paper Topics

Social Science Research Paper Topics are subjects, questions, or themes within the realm of social sciences that students investigate and write about in research papers. These topics cover a broad spectrum of disciplines, including sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, political science, and more.

They aim to shed light on various aspects of human behavior, society, and culture, offering valuable insights and understanding.

How to Choose and Find Social Science Research Paper Topics

Selecting an engaging and relevant social science research paper topic is crucial for a successful paper. Here are some tips on how to choose and find the right topic:

1. Identify Your Interests

Start by considering your personal interests within the social sciences. What subjects or issues captivate your attention? Choosing a topic you’re passionate about will make the research and writing process more enjoyable.

2. Review Course Material

Reflect on what you’ve learned in your social science courses. Often, your coursework can spark ideas for research topics based on your studies and readings.

3. Current Events and Trends

Stay informed about current events and societal trends. These can provide inspiration for research topics that are both timely and relevant.

4. Consult with Professors

Seek guidance from your professors or advisors. They can offer suggestions and help refine your topic ideas.

5. Consider Feasibility

Ensure that your chosen topic is manageable within the scope of your assignment. You should be able to find sufficient research material and complete the project within the given timeframe.

6. Narrow or Broaden Your Focus

Depending on the assignment’s length and requirements, you may need to narrow down a broad topic or expand on a more specific aspect of a larger subject.

Now, let’s dive into a comprehensive list of Social Science Research Paper Topics across various fields:

Sociology Research Paper Topics

• Income Inequality and Social Mobility
• The Impact of Immigration on Host Societies
• Gender Roles and Stereotypes in Society
• Social Isolation in the Digital Age
• Social Media’s Influence on Political Movements
• Social Media and Self-esteem: Impacts on Mental Health
• Gun Control Policies and Their Effects on Society
• The Sociology of Protests and Social Movements
• The Role of Religion in Social Cohesion
• Cultural Appropriation and Its Social Implications

Psychology Research Paper Topics

• The Psychology of Resilience in Adversity
• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety Disorders
• Effects of Childhood Trauma on Adult Mental Health
• Cross-Cultural Differences in Psychological Disorders
• The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination
• Positive Psychology and Well-being
• The Impact of Technology on Cognitive Abilities
• Child Development and Attachment Theory
• The Psychology of Prejudice in Online Communities
• Understanding and Addressing Teenage Depression

Anthropology Research Paper Topics

• Cultural Relativism and Ethical Dilemmas
• Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainability
• Human-Environment Interactions in Archaeology
• Anthropological Perspectives on Global Health
• Cultural Change and Adaptation in the Modern World
• Urban Anthropology and the Study of City Life
• Ethical Dilemmas in Anthropological Research
• Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Agriculture
• Anthropology of Food and Cultural Significance
• Archaeological Methods and Discoveries

Economics Research Paper Topics

• The Economic Impact of Natural Disasters
• Minimum Wage Policies and Their Consequences
• Behavioral Economics and Consumer Decision-Making
• The Gig Economy and Labor Market Trends
• The Economics of Healthcare and Insurance
• Global Economic Recession: Causes and Impacts
• Economic Consequences of the COVID-19 Pandemic
• Economic Inequality and Social Unrest
• Behavioral Economics and Decision-Making in Investment

Political Science Research Paper Topics

• International Diplomacy and Conflict Resolution
• Political Polarization and Its Effects on Governance
• Comparative Analysis of Political Systems
• Global Governance and International Organizations
• Political Propaganda and Media Manipulation
• Women in Politics: Representation and Challenges
• Political Extremism and Counterterrorism Policies
• The Role of Soft Power in International Relations
• Political Populism and Its Rise in Contemporary Politics
• Environmental Policies and Political Will

Social Science Education Research Paper Topics

• Inclusive Education and Special Needs Programs
• Homeschooling: Trends and Outcomes
• The Impact of Standardized Testing on Students
• Teacher Training and Professional Development
• Education Funding and Equity
• The Impact of Technology in Classroom Learning
• Education and Socioeconomic Achievement Gap
• Teacher-Student Relationships and Academic Performance
• School Bullying Prevention and Interventions

Environmental Social Science Research Paper Topics

• Urbanization and Urban Planning for Sustainability
• The Role of Wetlands in Ecosystem Health
• Environmental Ethics and Conservation
• Environmental Justice and Marginalized Communities
• Renewable Energy Policies and Implementation
• Ecotourism and Sustainable Tourism Practices
• Soil Erosion and Agricultural Sustainability
• Wildlife Conservation and Biodiversity Preservation
• Environmental Education and its Role in Society
• Sustainable Urban Planning and Green Cities

History-Social Science Research Paper Topics

• The Historical Roots of Colonialism
• Decolonization Movements in the 20th Century
• The Impact of the Cold War on Global Politics
• Historical Perspectives on Women’s Rights
• The Cultural Significance of Historical Artifacts
• The Impact of the Renaissance on Art and Culture
• Historical Perspectives on the American Civil Rights Movement
• The Decline of Ancient Civilizations: Causes and Lessons
• Historical Analysis of Ancient Trade Routes
• Impact of Colonialism on Indigenous Peoples

Social Work Research Paper Topics

• Social Work in Crisis Intervention and Trauma Counseling
• Substance Abuse Treatment in Vulnerable Populations
• Child Protective Services and Family Welfare
• The Role of Social Workers in Healthcare
• Human Rights and Social Justice Advocacy
• Trauma-Informed Social Work Practice
• Homelessness and Social Services Interventions
• Social Work in Correctional Facilities
• Child Welfare and Family Reunification
• Human Rights and Advocacy in Social Work

Communication Research Paper Topics

• Crisis Communication in the Social Media Age
• The Impact of Fake News on Public Perception
• Visual Communication and its Influence
• Cross-Cultural Communication Challenges
• The Rhetoric of Political Speeches
• Digital Media and the Future of Journalism
• Intercultural Communication in a Globalized World
• Communication Technology and its Impact on Relationships
• Visual Communication and its Persuasive Power
• The Art of Public Speaking and Rhetoric

Criminology Research Paper Topics

• Cybersecurity and the Role of Law Enforcement
• Criminal Behavior and Psychological Profiles
• Recidivism and Rehabilitation Programs
• White-Collar Crime and Corporate Responsibility
• Policing Strategies and Community Relations
• Juvenile Justice and Rehabilitation Programs
• Cybersecurity and Law Enforcement Challenges
• Criminal Profiling and Offender Characteristics
• Hate Crimes and their Motivations
• The Effectiveness of Restorative Justice Programs

Gender Studies Research Paper Topics

• Toxic Masculinity in Popular Culture
• The Impact of #MeToo Movement
• Intersections of Gender and Race
• Transgender Rights and Healthcare Access
• The Influence of Gender in Language and Media
• Women’s Reproductive Rights and Policies
• Men’s Mental Health and Societal Expectations
• Gendered Violence and Prevention Strategies
• Gender Roles in Fairy Tales and Popular Culture
• The Role of Gender in Language and Linguistics

Social Policy Research Paper Topics

• Drug Policy and Harm Reduction Strategies
• Universal Basic Income and Poverty Alleviation
• Maternity and Paternity Leave Policies
• Aging Population and Social Security
• Immigration and Asylum Policies
• Universal Basic Income and Economic Equality
• Housing Policies and Affordable Housing Initiatives
• Youth and Social Services Programs
• Immigration and Family Reunification Policies
• Disability Rights and Social Inclusion

Health Science Research Paper Topics

• Healthcare Disparities in Underserved Communities
• Nutrition and Public Health Interventions
• The Opioid Epidemic and Prescription Drug Abuse
• Mental Health Services in Rural Areas
• Aging and Long-Term Care Services
• Mental Health Stigma in Healthcare
• The Impact of Social Determinants on Health Disparities
• Healthcare Access and Rural Communities
• Health Communication in Public Health Campaigns
• Healthcare Systems in Developing Countries

Family Studies Research Paper Topics

• The Impact of Divorce Mediation on Children
• Foster Care and Adoption Policies
• Sibling Relationships and Birth Order Effects
• Interethnic and Intercultural Marriages
• The Role of Grandparents in Child-Rearing
• The Effect of Divorce on Sibling Relationships
• Parental Involvement and Child Development
• Foster Care and Child Welfare Reforms
• Domestic Violence and Support Services
• Aging Parents and Caregiver Stress

Globalization and Development Research Paper Topics

• The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
• Humanitarian Aid and International Crisis Response
• Cultural Exchange Programs and Diplomacy
• Global Supply Chain and Labor Conditions
• Sustainable Tourism and Cultural Preservation
• The Role of Multinational Corporations in Developing Economies
• Indigenous Rights and Sustainable Development
• Microfinance and Poverty Alleviation
• Fair Trade and Ethical Consumerism
• Global Health Partnerships and Disease Prevention

Social Justice Research Paper Topics

• Environmental Racism and its Implications
• Disability Rights and Inclusion
• LGBTQ+ Refugees and Asylum Seekers
• Juvenile Justice and Restorative Practices
• Mass Incarceration and Prison Reform
• LGBTQ+ Rights and Global Advocacy
• Refugee Rights and Resettlement Challenges
• Disability Rights and Access to Healthcare
• Criminal Justice Reform and Social Equity
• Indigenous Land Rights and Environmental Justice

Sociology of Religion Research Paper Topics

• Religious Fundamentalism in Contemporary Society
• Religion and Healthcare Decision-Making
• Interfaith Dialogue and Understanding
• Cults and Their Social Impact
• Religion and Ethics in Bioengineering
• Religious Pluralism and Interfaith Dialogue
• Religious Radicalism and Terrorism
• Religion’s Influence on Political Policies
• The Role of Religion in Environmental Ethics
• Secularism and Non-religious Worldviews

Social Impact of Technology Research Paper Topics

• Online Privacy and Digital Surveillance
• Artificial Intelligence and Its Ethical Challenges
• E-Government and Online Civic Engagement
• Social Media Activism and Its Limitations
• Technology and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
• Ethical Implications of Artificial Intelligence
• The Digital Divide and Technological Inequities
• Social Media Activism and Online Movements
• Cybersecurity and Data Privacy Concerns
• Virtual Reality and Its Applications in Education

Social Movements and Activism Research Paper Topics

• Black Panther Party and its Legacy
• Disability Rights Movements
• Global Youth Activism and Climate Change
• The Arab Spring and Political Change
• Indigenous Rights Movements in Latin America
• Youth-Led Movements and Their Impact on Social Change
• Women’s Suffrage and the Fight for Voting Rights
• Environmental Activism and Conservation Efforts
• Indigenous Rights Movements in Asia

Why Social Science Research Paper Topics Are Beneficial for Students

Social Science Research Paper Topics offer several advantages for students:

• Critical Thinking : Researching and writing about social science topics fosters critical thinking skills. It encourages students to analyze, interpret, and evaluate information and arguments.
• Understanding Society : Social science research topics help students better understand the complexities of human society, culture, and behavior.
• Research Skills : Students develop valuable research skills, including finding and assessing sources, conducting surveys or interviews, and drawing meaningful conclusions.
• Communication Skills : Writing research papers hones students’ communication skills, including the ability to express complex ideas clearly and persuasively.
• Awareness of Social Issues : Exploring social science topics can raise awareness of pressing social issues and encourage students to engage with them more deeply.
• Preparation for Future Careers : Many careers in fields like sociology, psychology, and political science require strong research and analytical skills. Engaging in social science research prepares students for these roles.

Social Science Research Paper Topics provide students with an opportunity to explore, analyze, and contribute to our understanding of human society and its complexities. By following the guidance on selecting topics and recognizing their benefits, students can embark on research projects that are not only academically fulfilling but also socially relevant and impactful.

Whether you choose a topic from sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, political science, or any other social science field. With this extensive list of Social Science Research Paper Topics, students have a wide range of subjects to choose from, spanning sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, political science, and more.

These topics offer an opportunity to delve into critical societal issues, analyze their implications, and contribute to a deeper understanding of human behavior and society’s complexities.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is an example of a social science research question.

What are the sources of social inequality, and how does it relate to political institutions and social structures?

How do you write a good social science research paper?

The information should be detailed enough for someone to replicate the study, but it should also be concise.

What is social science research essay?

Social Science Research is the activity of gathering, analysing and interpreting information for a variety of social, economic, educational and political purposes.

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Recent Posts

9 9. Writing your research question

Chapter outline.

• Empirical vs. ethical questions (4 minute read)
• Characteristics of a good research question (4 minute read)
• Quantitative research questions (7 minute read)
• Qualitative research questions (3 minute read)
• Evaluating and updating your research questions (4 minute read)

Content warning: examples in this chapter include references to sexual violence, sexism, substance use disorders, homelessness, domestic violence, the child welfare system, cissexism and heterosexism, and truancy and school discipline.

9.1 Empirical vs. ethical questions

Learning objectives.

Learners will be able to…

• Define empirical questions and provide an example
• Define ethical questions and provide an example

Writing a good research question is an art and a science. It is a science because you have to make sure it is clear, concise, and well-developed. It is an art because often your language needs “wordsmithing” to perfect and clarify the meaning. This is an exciting part of the research process; however, it can also be one of the most stressful.

Creating a good research question begins by identifying a topic you are interested in studying. At this point, you already have a working question. You’ve been applying it to the exercises in each chapter, and after reading more about your topic in the scholarly literature, you’ve probably gone back and revised your working question a few times. We’re going to continue that process in more detail in this chapter. Keep in mind that writing research questions is an iterative process, with revisions happening week after week until you are ready to start your project.

Empirical vs. ethical questions

When it comes to research questions, social science is best equipped to answer empirical   questions —those that can be answered by real experience in the real world—as opposed to  ethical   questions —questions about which people have moral opinions and that may not be answerable in reference to the real world. While social workers have explicit ethical obligations (e.g., service, social justice), research projects ask empirical questions to help actualize and support the work of upholding those ethical principles.

In order to help you better understand the difference between ethical and empirical questions, let’s consider a topic about which people have moral opinions. How about SpongeBob SquarePants? [1] In early 2005, members of the conservative Christian group Focus on the Family (2005) [2] denounced this seemingly innocuous cartoon character as “morally offensive” because they perceived his character to be one that promotes a “pro-gay agenda.” Focus on the Family supported their claim that SpongeBob is immoral by citing his appearance in a children’s video designed to promote tolerance of all family forms (BBC News, 2005). [3] They also cited SpongeBob’s regular hand-holding with his male sidekick Patrick as further evidence of his immorality.

So, can we now conclude that SpongeBob SquarePants is immoral? Not so fast. While your mother or a newspaper or television reporter may provide an answer, a social science researcher cannot. Questions of morality are ethical, not empirical. Of course, this doesn’t mean that social science researchers cannot study opinions about or social meanings surrounding SpongeBob SquarePants (Carter, 2010). [4] We study humans after all, and as you will discover in the following chapters of this textbook, we are trained to utilize a variety of scientific data-collection techniques to understand patterns of human beliefs and behaviors. Using these techniques, we could find out how many people in the United States find SpongeBob morally reprehensible, but we could never learn, empirically, whether SpongeBob is in fact morally reprehensible.

Let’s consider an example from a recent MSW research class I taught. A student group wanted to research the penalties for sexual assault. Their original research question was: “How can prison sentences for sexual assault be so much lower than the penalty for drug possession?” Outside of the research context, that is a darn good question! It speaks to how the War on Drugs and the patriarchy have distorted the criminal justice system towards policing of drug crimes over gender-based violence.

Unfortunately, it is an ethical question, not an empirical one. To answer that question, you would have to draw on philosophy and morality, answering what it is about human nature and society that allows such unjust outcomes. However, you could not answer that question by gathering data about people in the real world. If I asked people that question, they would likely give me their opinions about drugs, gender-based violence, and the criminal justice system. But I wouldn’t get the real answer about why our society tolerates such an imbalance in punishment.

As the students worked on the project through the semester, they continued to focus on the topic of sexual assault in the criminal justice system. Their research question became more empirical because they read more empirical articles about their topic. One option that they considered was to evaluate intervention programs for perpetrators of sexual assault to see if they reduced the likelihood of committing sexual assault again. Another option they considered was seeing if counties or states with higher than average jail sentences for sexual assault perpetrators had lower rates of re-offense for sexual assault. These projects addressed the ethical question of punishing perpetrators of sexual violence but did so in a way that gathered and analyzed empirical real-world data. Our job as social work researchers is to gather social facts about social work issues, not to judge or determine morality.

Key Takeaways

• Empirical questions are distinct from ethical questions.
• There are usually a number of ethical questions and a number of empirical questions that could be asked about any single topic.
• While social workers may research topics about which people have moral opinions, a researcher’s job is to gather and analyze empirical data.
• Take a look at your working question. Make sure you have an empirical question, not an ethical one. To perform this check, describe how you could find an answer to your question by conducting a study, like a survey or focus group, with real people.

9.2 Characteristics of a good research question

• Identify and explain the key features of a good research question
• Explain why it is important for social workers to be focused and clear with the language they use in their research questions

Now that you’ve made sure your working question is empirical, you need to revise that working question into a formal research question. So, what makes a good research question? First, it is generally written in the form of a question. To say that your research question is “the opioid epidemic” or “animal assisted therapy” or “oppression” would not be correct. You need to frame your topic as a question, not a statement. A good research question is also one that is well-focused. A well-focused question helps you tune out irrelevant information and not try to answer everything about the world all at once. You could be the most eloquent writer in your class, or even in the world, but if the research question about which you are writing is unclear, your work will ultimately lack direction.

In addition to being written in the form of a question and being well-focused, a good research question is one that cannot be answered with a simple yes or no. For example, if your interest is in gender norms, you could ask, “Does gender affect a person’s performance of household tasks?” but you will have nothing left to say once you discover your yes or no answer. Instead, why not ask, about the relationship between gender and household tasks. Alternatively, maybe we are interested in how or to what extent gender affects a person’s contributions to housework in a marriage? By tweaking your question in this small way, you suddenly have a much more fascinating question and more to say as you attempt to answer it.

A good research question should also have more than one plausible answer. In the example above, the student who studied the relationship between gender and household tasks had a specific interest in the impact of gender, but she also knew that preferences might be impacted by other factors. For example, she knew from her own experience that her more traditional and socially conservative friends were more likely to see household tasks as part of the female domain, and were less likely to expect their male partners to contribute to those tasks. Thinking through the possible relationships between gender, culture, and household tasks led that student to realize that there were many plausible answers to her questions about how  gender affects a person’s contribution to household tasks. Because gender doesn’t exist in a vacuum, she wisely felt that she needed to consider other characteristics that work together with gender to shape people’s behaviors, likes, and dislikes. By doing this, the student considered the third feature of a good research question–she thought about relationships between several concepts. While she began with an interest in a single concept—household tasks—by asking herself what other concepts (such as gender or political orientation) might be related to her original interest, she was able to form a question that considered the relationships  among  those concepts.

This student had one final component to consider. Social work research questions must contain a target population. Her study would be very different if she were to conduct it on older adults or immigrants who just arrived in a new country. The target population is the group of people whose needs your study addresses. Maybe the student noticed issues with household tasks as part of her social work practice with first-generation immigrants, and so she made it her target population. Maybe she wants to address the needs of another community. Whatever the case, the target population should be chosen while keeping in mind social work’s responsibility to work on behalf of marginalized and oppressed groups.

In sum, a good research question generally has the following features:

• It is written in the form of a question
• It is clearly written
• It cannot be answered with “yes” or “no”
• It has more than one plausible answer
• It considers relationships among multiple variables
• It is specific and clear about the concepts it addresses
• It includes a target population
• A poorly focused research question can lead to the demise of an otherwise well-executed study.
• Research questions should be clearly worded, consider relationships between multiple variables, have more than one plausible answer, and address the needs of a target population.

Okay, it’s time to write out your first draft of a research question.

• Once you’ve done so, take a look at the checklist in this chapter and see if your research question meets the criteria to be a good one.

Brainstorm whether your research question might be better suited to quantitative or qualitative methods.

• Describe why your question fits better with quantitative or qualitative methods.
• Provide an alternative research question that fits with the other type of research method.

9.3 Quantitative research questions

• Describe how research questions for exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory quantitative questions differ and how to phrase them
• Identify the differences between and provide examples of strong and weak explanatory research questions

Quantitative descriptive questions

The type of research you are conducting will impact the research question that you ask. Probably the easiest questions to think of are quantitative descriptive questions. For example, “What is the average student debt load of MSW students?” is a descriptive question—and an important one. We aren’t trying to build a causal relationship here. We’re simply trying to describe how much debt MSW students carry. Quantitative descriptive questions like this one are helpful in social work practice as part of community scans, in which human service agencies survey the various needs of the community they serve. If the scan reveals that the community requires more services related to housing, child care, or day treatment for people with disabilities, a nonprofit office can use the community scan to create new programs that meet a defined community need.

Quantitative descriptive questions will often ask for percentage, count the number of instances of a phenomenon, or determine an average. Descriptive questions may only include one variable, such as ours about student debt load, or they may include multiple variables. Because these are descriptive questions, our purpose is not to investigate causal relationships between variables. To do that, we need to use a quantitative explanatory question.

Quantitative explanatory questions

Most studies you read in the academic literature will be quantitative and explanatory. Why is that? If you recall from Chapter 2 , explanatory research tries to build nomothetic causal relationships. They are generalizable across space and time, so they are applicable to a wide audience. The editorial board of a journal wants to make sure their content will be useful to as many people as possible, so it’s not surprising that quantitative research dominates the academic literature.

Structurally, quantitative explanatory questions must contain an independent variable and dependent variable. Questions should ask about the relationship between these variables. The standard format I was taught in graduate school for an explanatory quantitative research question is: “What is the relationship between [independent variable] and [dependent variable] for [target population]?” You should play with the wording for your research question, revising that standard format to match what you really want to know about your topic.

Let’s take a look at a few more examples of possible research questions and consider the relative strengths and weaknesses of each. Table 9.1 does just that. While reading the table, keep in mind that I have only noted what I view to be the most relevant strengths and weaknesses of each question. Certainly each question may have additional strengths and weaknesses not noted in the table. Each of these questions is drawn from student projects in my research methods classes and reflects the work of many students on their research question over many weeks.

Making it more specific

A good research question should also be specific and clear about the concepts it addresses. A student investigating gender and household tasks knows what they mean by “household tasks.” You likely also have an impression of what “household tasks” means. But are your definition and the student’s definition the same? A participant in their study may think that managing finances and performing home maintenance are household tasks, but the researcher may be interested in other tasks like childcare or cleaning. The only way to ensure your study stays focused and clear is to be specific about what you mean by a concept. The student in our example could pick a specific household task that was interesting to them or that the literature indicated was important—for example, childcare. Or, the student could have a broader view of household tasks, one that encompasses childcare, food preparation, financial management, home repair, and care for relatives. Any option is probably okay, as long as the researcher is clear on what they mean by “household tasks.” Clarifying these distinctions is important as we look ahead to specifying how your variables will be measured in Chapter 11 .

Table 9.2 contains some “watch words” that indicate you may need to be more specific about the concepts in your research question.

It can be challenging to be this specific in social work research, particularly when you are just starting out your project and still reading the literature. If you’ve only read one or two articles on your topic, it can be hard to know what you are interested in studying. Broad questions like “What are the causes of chronic homelessness, and what can be done to prevent it?” are common at the beginning stages of a research project as working questions. However, moving from working questions to research questions in your research proposal requires that you examine the literature on the topic and refine your question over time to be more specific and clear. Perhaps you want to study the effect of a specific anti-homelessness program that you found in the literature. Maybe there is a particular model to fighting homelessness, like Housing First or transitional housing, that you want to investigate further. You may want to focus on a potential cause of homelessness such as LGBTQ+ discrimination that you find interesting or relevant to your practice. As you can see, the possibilities for making your question more specific are almost infinite.

Quantitative exploratory questions

In exploratory research, the researcher doesn’t quite know the lay of the land yet. If someone is proposing to conduct an exploratory quantitative project, the watch words highlighted in Table 9.2 are not problematic at all. In fact, questions such as “What factors influence the removal of children in child welfare cases?” are good because they will explore a variety of factors or causes. In this question, the independent variable is less clearly written, but the dependent variable, family preservation outcomes, is quite clearly written. The inverse can also be true. If we were to ask, “What outcomes are associated with family preservation services in child welfare?”, we would have a clear independent variable, family preservation services, but an unclear dependent variable, outcomes. Because we are only conducting exploratory research on a topic, we may not have an idea of what concepts may comprise our “outcomes” or “factors.” Only after interacting with our participants will we be able to understand which concepts are important.

Remember that exploratory research is appropriate only when the researcher does not know much about topic because there is very little scholarly research. In our examples above, there is extensive literature on the outcomes in family reunification programs and risk factors for child removal in child welfare. Make sure you’ve done a thorough literature review to ensure there is little relevant research to guide you towards a more explanatory question.

• Descriptive quantitative research questions are helpful for community scans but cannot investigate causal relationships between variables.
• Explanatory quantitative research questions must include an independent and dependent variable.
• Exploratory quantitative research questions should only be considered when there is very little previous research on your topic.
• Identify the type of research you are engaged in (descriptive, explanatory, or exploratory).
• Create a quantitative research question for your project that matches with the type of research you are engaged in.

Preferably, you should be creating an explanatory research question for quantitative research.

9.4 Qualitative research questions

• List the key terms associated with qualitative research questions
• Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research questions

Qualitative research questions differ from quantitative research questions. Because qualitative research questions seek to explore or describe phenomena, not provide a neat nomothetic explanation, they are often more general and openly worded. They may include only one concept, though many include more than one. Instead of asking how one variable causes changes in another, we are instead trying to understand the experiences ,  understandings , and  meanings that people have about the concepts in our research question. These keywords often make an appearance in qualitative research questions.

Let’s work through an example from our last section. In Table 9.1, a student asked, “What is the relationship between sexual orientation or gender identity and homelessness for late adolescents in foster care?” In this question, it is pretty clear that the student believes that adolescents in foster care who identify as LGBTQ+ may be at greater risk for homelessness. This is a nomothetic causal relationship—LGBTQ+ status causes changes in homelessness.

However, what if the student were less interested in  predicting  homelessness based on LGBTQ+ status and more interested in  understanding  the stories of foster care youth who identify as LGBTQ+ and may be at risk for homelessness? In that case, the researcher would be building an idiographic causal explanation . The youths whom the researcher interviews may share stories of how their foster families, caseworkers, and others treated them. They may share stories about how they thought of their own sexuality or gender identity and how it changed over time. They may have different ideas about what it means to transition out of foster care.

Because qualitative questions usually center on idiographic causal relationships, they look different than quantitative questions. Table 9.3 below takes the final research questions from Table 9.1 and adapts them for qualitative research. The guidelines for research questions previously described in this chapter still apply, but there are some new elements to qualitative research questions that are not present in quantitative questions.

• Qualitative research questions often ask about lived experience, personal experience, understanding, meaning, and stories.
• Qualitative research questions may be more general and less specific.
• Qualitative research questions may also contain only one variable, rather than asking about relationships between multiple variables.

Qualitative research questions have one final feature that distinguishes them from quantitative research questions: they can change over the course of a study. Qualitative research is a reflexive process, one in which the researcher adapts their approach based on what participants say and do. The researcher must constantly evaluate whether their question is important and relevant to the participants. As the researcher gains information from participants, it is normal for the focus of the inquiry to shift.

For example, a qualitative researcher may want to study how a new truancy rule impacts youth at risk of expulsion. However, after interviewing some of the youth in their community, a researcher might find that the rule is actually irrelevant to their behavior and thoughts. Instead, their participants will direct the discussion to their frustration with the school administrators or the lack of job opportunities in the area. This is a natural part of qualitative research, and it is normal for research questions and hypothesis to evolve based on information gleaned from participants.

However, this reflexivity and openness unacceptable in quantitative research for good reasons. Researchers using quantitative methods are testing a hypothesis, and if they could revise that hypothesis to match what they found, they could never be wrong! Indeed, an important component of open science and reproducability is the preregistration of a researcher’s hypotheses and data analysis plan in a central repository that can be verified and replicated by reviewers and other researchers. This interactive graphic from 538 shows how an unscrupulous research could come up with a hypothesis and theoretical explanation  after collecting data by hunting for a combination of factors that results in a statistically significant relationship. This is an excellent example of how the positivist assumptions behind quantitative research and intepretivist assumptions behind qualitative research result in different approaches to social science.

• Qualitative research questions often contain words or phrases like “lived experience,” “personal experience,” “understanding,” “meaning,” and “stories.”
• Qualitative research questions can change and evolve over the course of the study.
• Using the guidance in this chapter, write a qualitative research question. You may want to use some of the keywords mentioned above.

9.5 Evaluating and updating your research questions

• Evaluate the feasibility and importance of your research questions
• Begin to match your research questions to specific designs that determine what the participants in your study will do

Feasibility and importance

As you are getting ready to finalize your research question and move into designing your research study, it is important to check whether your research question is feasible for you to answer and what importance your results will have in the community, among your participants, and in the scientific literature

Key questions to consider when evaluating your question’s feasibility include:

• Do you have access to the data you need?
• Will you be able to get consent from stakeholders, gatekeepers, and others?
• Does your project pose risk to individuals through direct harm, dual relationships, or breaches in confidentiality? (see Chapter 6 for more ethical considerations)
• Are you competent enough to complete the study?
• Do you have the resources and time needed to carry out the project?

Key questions to consider when evaluating the importance of your question include:

• Can we answer your research question simply by looking at the literature on your topic?
• How does your question add something new to the scholarly literature? (raises a new issue, addresses a controversy, studies a new population, etc.)
• How will your target population benefit, once you answer your research question?
• How will the community, social work practice, and the broader social world benefit, once you answer your research question?
• Using the questions above, check whether you think your project is feasible for you to complete, given the constrains that student projects face.
• Realistically, explore the potential impact of your project on the community and in the scientific literature. Make sure your question cannot be answered by simply reading more about your topic.

Matching your research question and study design

This chapter described how to create a good quantitative and qualitative research question. In Parts 3 and 4 of this textbook, we will detail some of the basic designs like surveys and interviews that social scientists use to answer their research questions. But which design should you choose?

As with most things, it all depends on your research question. If your research question involves, for example, testing a new intervention, you will likely want to use an experimental design. On the other hand, if you want to know the lived experience of people in a public housing building, you probably want to use an interview or focus group design.

We will learn more about each one of these designs in the remainder of this textbook. We will also learn about using data that already exists, studying an individual client inside clinical practice, and evaluating programs, which are other examples of designs. Below is a list of designs we will cover in this textbook:

• Surveys: online, phone, mail, in-person
• Experiments: classic, pre-experiments, quasi-experiments
• Interviews: in-person or via phone or videoconference
• Focus groups: in-person or via videoconference
• Content analysis of existing data
• Secondary data analysis of another researcher’s data
• Program evaluation

The design of your research study determines what you and your participants will do. In an experiment, for example, the researcher will introduce a stimulus or treatment to participants and measure their responses. In contrast, a content analysis may not have participants at all, and the researcher may simply read the marketing materials for a corporation or look at a politician’s speeches to conduct the data analysis for the study.

I imagine that a content analysis probably seems easier to accomplish than an experiment. However, as a researcher, you have to choose a research design that makes sense for your question and that is feasible to complete with the resources you have. All research projects require some resources to accomplish. Make sure your design is one you can carry out with the resources (time, money, staff, etc.) that you have.

There are so many different designs that exist in the social science literature that it would be impossible to include them all in this textbook. The purpose of the subsequent chapters is to help you understand the basic designs upon which these more advanced designs are built. As you learn more about research design, you will likely find yourself revising your research question to make sure it fits with the design. At the same time, your research question as it exists now should influence the design you end up choosing. There is no set order in which these should happen. Instead, your research project should be guided by whether you can feasibly carry it out and contribute new and important knowledge to the world.

• Research questions must be feasible and important.
• Research questions must match study design.
• Based on what you know about designs like surveys, experiments, and interviews, describe how you might use one of them to answer your research question.
• You may want to refer back to Chapter 2 which discusses how to get raw data about your topic and the common designs used in student research projects.
• Not familiar with SpongeBob SquarePants? You can learn more about him on Nickelodeon’s site dedicated to all things SpongeBob:  http://www.nick.com/spongebob-squarepants/ ↵
• Focus on the Family. (2005, January 26). Focus on SpongeBob.  Christianity Today . Retrieved from  http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2005/januaryweb-only/34.0c.html ↵
• BBC News. (2005, January 20). US right attacks SpongeBob video. Retrieved from:  http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4190699.stm ↵
• In fact, an MA thesis examines representations of gender and relationships in the cartoon: Carter, A. C. (2010).  Constructing gender and   relationships in “SpongeBob SquarePants”: Who lives in a pineapple under the sea . MA thesis, Department of Communication, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL. ↵

research questions that can be answered by systematically observing the real world

unsuitable research questions which are not answerable by systematic observation of the real world but instead rely on moral or philosophical opinions

the group of people whose needs your study addresses

attempts to explain or describe your phenomenon exhaustively, based on the subjective understandings of your participants

"Assuming that the null hypothesis is true and the study is repeated an infinite number times by drawing random samples from the same populations(s), less than 5% of these results will be more extreme than the current result" (Cassidy et al., 2019, p. 233).

whether you can practically and ethically complete the research project you propose

the impact your study will have on participants, communities, scientific knowledge, and social justice

Graduate research methods in social work Copyright © 2021 by Matthew DeCarlo, Cory Cummings, Kate Agnelli is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• Types of Research Designs
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
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• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
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• Executive Summary
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• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
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• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
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• Common Grammar Mistakes
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• Bibliography

Introduction

Before beginning your paper, you need to decide how you plan to design the study .

The research design refers to the overall strategy and analytical approach that you have chosen in order to integrate, in a coherent and logical way, the different components of the study, thus ensuring that the research problem will be thoroughly investigated. It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and interpretation of information and data. Note that the research problem determines the type of design you choose, not the other way around!

De Vaus, D. A. Research Design in Social Research . London: SAGE, 2001; Trochim, William M.K. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006.

General Structure and Writing Style

The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you to effectively address the research problem logically and as unambiguously as possible . In social sciences research, obtaining information relevant to the research problem generally entails specifying the type of evidence needed to test the underlying assumptions of a theory, to evaluate a program, or to accurately describe and assess meaning related to an observable phenomenon.

With this in mind, a common mistake made by researchers is that they begin their investigations before they have thought critically about what information is required to address the research problem. Without attending to these design issues beforehand, the overall research problem will not be adequately addressed and any conclusions drawn will run the risk of being weak and unconvincing. As a consequence, the overall validity of the study will be undermined.

The length and complexity of describing the research design in your paper can vary considerably, but any well-developed description will achieve the following :

• Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection, particularly in relation to any valid alternative designs that could have been used,
• Review and synthesize previously published literature associated with the research problem,
• Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses [i.e., research questions] central to the problem,
• Effectively describe the information and/or data which will be necessary for an adequate testing of the hypotheses and explain how such information and/or data will be obtained, and
• Describe the methods of analysis to be applied to the data in determining whether or not the hypotheses are true or false.

The research design is usually incorporated into the introduction of your paper . You can obtain an overall sense of what to do by reviewing studies that have utilized the same research design [e.g., using a case study approach]. This can help you develop an outline to follow for your own paper.

NOTE : Use the SAGE Research Methods Online and Cases and the SAGE Research Methods Videos databases to search for scholarly resources on how to apply specific research designs and methods . The Research Methods Online database contains links to more than 175,000 pages of SAGE publisher's book, journal, and reference content on quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research methodologies. Also included is a collection of case studies of social research projects that can be used to help you better understand abstract or complex methodological concepts. The Research Methods Videos database contains hours of tutorials, interviews, video case studies, and mini-documentaries covering the entire research process.

Creswell, John W. and J. David Creswell. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches . 5th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2018; De Vaus, D. A. Research Design in Social Research . London: SAGE, 2001; Gorard, Stephen. Research Design: Creating Robust Approaches for the Social Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013; Leedy, Paul D. and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod. Practical Research: Planning and Design . Tenth edition. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2013; Vogt, W. Paul, Dianna C. Gardner, and Lynne M. Haeffele. When to Use What Research Design . New York: Guilford, 2012.

Action Research Design

Definition and Purpose

The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic cycle whereby initially an exploratory stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is developed and plans are made for some form of interventionary strategy. Then the intervention is carried out [the "action" in action research] during which time, pertinent observations are collected in various forms. The new interventional strategies are carried out, and this cyclic process repeats, continuing until a sufficient understanding of [or a valid implementation solution for] the problem is achieved. The protocol is iterative or cyclical in nature and is intended to foster deeper understanding of a given situation, starting with conceptualizing and particularizing the problem and moving through several interventions and evaluations.

What do these studies tell you ?

• This is a collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to use in work or community situations.
• Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research outcomes rather than testing theories.
• When practitioners use action research, it has the potential to increase the amount they learn consciously from their experience; the action research cycle can be regarded as a learning cycle.
• Action research studies often have direct and obvious relevance to improving practice and advocating for change.
• There are no hidden controls or preemption of direction by the researcher.

What these studies don't tell you ?

• It is harder to do than conducting conventional research because the researcher takes on responsibilities of advocating for change as well as for researching the topic.
• Action research is much harder to write up because it is less likely that you can use a standard format to report your findings effectively [i.e., data is often in the form of stories or observation].
• Personal over-involvement of the researcher may bias research results.
• The cyclic nature of action research to achieve its twin outcomes of action [e.g. change] and research [e.g. understanding] is time-consuming and complex to conduct.
• Advocating for change usually requires buy-in from study participants.

Coghlan, David and Mary Brydon-Miller. The Sage Encyclopedia of Action Research . Thousand Oaks, CA:  Sage, 2014; Efron, Sara Efrat and Ruth Ravid. Action Research in Education: A Practical Guide . New York: Guilford, 2013; Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction . Chapter 18, Action Research. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007; Gorard, Stephen. Research Design: Creating Robust Approaches for the Social Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013; Kemmis, Stephen and Robin McTaggart. “Participatory Action Research.” In Handbook of Qualitative Research . Norman Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds. 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2000), pp. 567-605; McNiff, Jean. Writing and Doing Action Research . London: Sage, 2014; Reason, Peter and Hilary Bradbury. Handbook of Action Research: Participative Inquiry and Practice . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2001.

Case Study Design

A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a sweeping statistical survey or comprehensive comparative inquiry. It is often used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one or a few easily researchable examples. The case study research design is also useful for testing whether a specific theory and model actually applies to phenomena in the real world. It is a useful design when not much is known about an issue or phenomenon.

• Approach excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue through detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships.
• A researcher using a case study design can apply a variety of methodologies and rely on a variety of sources to investigate a research problem.
• Design can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous research.
• Social scientists, in particular, make wide use of this research design to examine contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of concepts and theories and the extension of methodologies.
• The design can provide detailed descriptions of specific and rare cases.
• A single or small number of cases offers little basis for establishing reliability or to generalize the findings to a wider population of people, places, or things.
• Intense exposure to the study of a case may bias a researcher's interpretation of the findings.
• Design does not facilitate assessment of cause and effect relationships.
• Vital information may be missing, making the case hard to interpret.
• The case may not be representative or typical of the larger problem being investigated.
• If the criteria for selecting a case is because it represents a very unusual or unique phenomenon or problem for study, then your interpretation of the findings can only apply to that particular case.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services . Chapter 4, Flexible Methods: Case Study Design. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Greenhalgh, Trisha, editor. Case Study Evaluation: Past, Present and Future Challenges . Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing, 2015; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Stake, Robert E. The Art of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1995; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Theory . Applied Social Research Methods Series, no. 5. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2003.

Causal Design

Causality studies may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms of conditional statements in the form, “If X, then Y.” This type of research is used to measure what impact a specific change will have on existing norms and assumptions. Most social scientists seek causal explanations that reflect tests of hypotheses. Causal effect (nomothetic perspective) occurs when variation in one phenomenon, an independent variable, leads to or results, on average, in variation in another phenomenon, the dependent variable.

Conditions necessary for determining causality:

• Empirical association -- a valid conclusion is based on finding an association between the independent variable and the dependent variable.
• Appropriate time order -- to conclude that causation was involved, one must see that cases were exposed to variation in the independent variable before variation in the dependent variable.
• Nonspuriousness -- a relationship between two variables that is not due to variation in a third variable.
• Causality research designs assist researchers in understanding why the world works the way it does through the process of proving a causal link between variables and by the process of eliminating other possibilities.
• Replication is possible.
• There is greater confidence the study has internal validity due to the systematic subject selection and equity of groups being compared.
• Not all relationships are causal! The possibility always exists that, by sheer coincidence, two unrelated events appear to be related [e.g., Punxatawney Phil could accurately predict the duration of Winter for five consecutive years but, the fact remains, he's just a big, furry rodent].
• Conclusions about causal relationships are difficult to determine due to a variety of extraneous and confounding variables that exist in a social environment. This means causality can only be inferred, never proven.
• If two variables are correlated, the cause must come before the effect. However, even though two variables might be causally related, it can sometimes be difficult to determine which variable comes first and, therefore, to establish which variable is the actual cause and which is the  actual effect.

Beach, Derek and Rasmus Brun Pedersen. Causal Case Study Methods: Foundations and Guidelines for Comparing, Matching, and Tracing . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2016; Bachman, Ronet. The Practice of Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice . Chapter 5, Causation and Research Designs. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 2007; Brewer, Ernest W. and Jennifer Kubn. “Causal-Comparative Design.” In Encyclopedia of Research Design . Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 125-132; Causal Research Design: Experimentation. Anonymous SlideShare Presentation; Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction . Chapter 11, Nonexperimental Research: Correlational Designs. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007; Trochim, William M.K. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006.

Cohort Design

Often used in the medical sciences, but also found in the applied social sciences, a cohort study generally refers to a study conducted over a period of time involving members of a population which the subject or representative member comes from, and who are united by some commonality or similarity. Using a quantitative framework, a cohort study makes note of statistical occurrence within a specialized subgroup, united by same or similar characteristics that are relevant to the research problem being investigated, rather than studying statistical occurrence within the general population. Using a qualitative framework, cohort studies generally gather data using methods of observation. Cohorts can be either "open" or "closed."

• Open Cohort Studies [dynamic populations, such as the population of Los Angeles] involve a population that is defined just by the state of being a part of the study in question (and being monitored for the outcome). Date of entry and exit from the study is individually defined, therefore, the size of the study population is not constant. In open cohort studies, researchers can only calculate rate based data, such as, incidence rates and variants thereof.
• Closed Cohort Studies [static populations, such as patients entered into a clinical trial] involve participants who enter into the study at one defining point in time and where it is presumed that no new participants can enter the cohort. Given this, the number of study participants remains constant (or can only decrease).
• The use of cohorts is often mandatory because a randomized control study may be unethical. For example, you cannot deliberately expose people to asbestos, you can only study its effects on those who have already been exposed. Research that measures risk factors often relies upon cohort designs.
• Because cohort studies measure potential causes before the outcome has occurred, they can demonstrate that these “causes” preceded the outcome, thereby avoiding the debate as to which is the cause and which is the effect.
• Cohort analysis is highly flexible and can provide insight into effects over time and related to a variety of different types of changes [e.g., social, cultural, political, economic, etc.].
• Either original data or secondary data can be used in this design.
• In cases where a comparative analysis of two cohorts is made [e.g., studying the effects of one group exposed to asbestos and one that has not], a researcher cannot control for all other factors that might differ between the two groups. These factors are known as confounding variables.
• Cohort studies can end up taking a long time to complete if the researcher must wait for the conditions of interest to develop within the group. This also increases the chance that key variables change during the course of the study, potentially impacting the validity of the findings.
• Due to the lack of randominization in the cohort design, its external validity is lower than that of study designs where the researcher randomly assigns participants.

Healy P, Devane D. “Methodological Considerations in Cohort Study Designs.” Nurse Researcher 18 (2011): 32-36; Glenn, Norval D, editor. Cohort Analysis . 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Levin, Kate Ann. Study Design IV: Cohort Studies. Evidence-Based Dentistry 7 (2003): 51–52; Payne, Geoff. “Cohort Study.” In The SAGE Dictionary of Social Research Methods . Victor Jupp, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), pp. 31-33; Study Design 101. Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library. George Washington University, November 2011; Cohort Study. Wikipedia.

Cross-Sectional Design

Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive features: no time dimension; a reliance on existing differences rather than change following intervention; and, groups are selected based on existing differences rather than random allocation. The cross-sectional design can only measure differences between or from among a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena rather than a process of change. As such, researchers using this design can only employ a relatively passive approach to making causal inferences based on findings.

• Cross-sectional studies provide a clear 'snapshot' of the outcome and the characteristics associated with it, at a specific point in time.
• Unlike an experimental design, where there is an active intervention by the researcher to produce and measure change or to create differences, cross-sectional designs focus on studying and drawing inferences from existing differences between people, subjects, or phenomena.
• Entails collecting data at and concerning one point in time. While longitudinal studies involve taking multiple measures over an extended period of time, cross-sectional research is focused on finding relationships between variables at one moment in time.
• Groups identified for study are purposely selected based upon existing differences in the sample rather than seeking random sampling.
• Cross-section studies are capable of using data from a large number of subjects and, unlike observational studies, is not geographically bound.
• Can estimate prevalence of an outcome of interest because the sample is usually taken from the whole population.
• Because cross-sectional designs generally use survey techniques to gather data, they are relatively inexpensive and take up little time to conduct.
• Finding people, subjects, or phenomena to study that are very similar except in one specific variable can be difficult.
• Results are static and time bound and, therefore, give no indication of a sequence of events or reveal historical or temporal contexts.
• Studies cannot be utilized to establish cause and effect relationships.
• This design only provides a snapshot of analysis so there is always the possibility that a study could have differing results if another time-frame had been chosen.
• There is no follow up to the findings.

Bethlehem, Jelke. "7: Cross-sectional Research." In Research Methodology in the Social, Behavioural and Life Sciences . Herman J Adèr and Gideon J Mellenbergh, editors. (London, England: Sage, 1999), pp. 110-43; Bourque, Linda B. “Cross-Sectional Design.” In  The SAGE Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods . Michael S. Lewis-Beck, Alan Bryman, and Tim Futing Liao. (Thousand Oaks, CA: 2004), pp. 230-231; Hall, John. “Cross-Sectional Survey Design.” In Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods . Paul J. Lavrakas, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 173-174; Helen Barratt, Maria Kirwan. Cross-Sectional Studies: Design Application, Strengths and Weaknesses of Cross-Sectional Studies. Healthknowledge, 2009. Cross-Sectional Study. Wikipedia.

Descriptive Design

Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where, and how associated with a particular research problem; a descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain answers to why. Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena and to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.

• The subject is being observed in a completely natural and unchanged natural environment. True experiments, whilst giving analyzable data, often adversely influence the normal behavior of the subject [a.k.a., the Heisenberg effect whereby measurements of certain systems cannot be made without affecting the systems].
• Descriptive research is often used as a pre-cursor to more quantitative research designs with the general overview giving some valuable pointers as to what variables are worth testing quantitatively.
• If the limitations are understood, they can be a useful tool in developing a more focused study.
• Descriptive studies can yield rich data that lead to important recommendations in practice.
• Appoach collects a large amount of data for detailed analysis.
• The results from a descriptive research cannot be used to discover a definitive answer or to disprove a hypothesis.
• Because descriptive designs often utilize observational methods [as opposed to quantitative methods], the results cannot be replicated.
• The descriptive function of research is heavily dependent on instrumentation for measurement and observation.

Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services . Chapter 5, Flexible Methods: Descriptive Research. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Given, Lisa M. "Descriptive Research." In Encyclopedia of Measurement and Statistics . Neil J. Salkind and Kristin Rasmussen, editors. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2007), pp. 251-254; McNabb, Connie. Descriptive Research Methodologies. Powerpoint Presentation; Shuttleworth, Martyn. Descriptive Research Design, September 26, 2008; Erickson, G. Scott. "Descriptive Research Design." In New Methods of Market Research and Analysis . (Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2017), pp. 51-77; Sahin, Sagufta, and Jayanta Mete. "A Brief Study on Descriptive Research: Its Nature and Application in Social Science." International Journal of Research and Analysis in Humanities 1 (2021): 11; K. Swatzell and P. Jennings. “Descriptive Research: The Nuts and Bolts.” Journal of the American Academy of Physician Assistants 20 (2007), pp. 55-56; Kane, E. Doing Your Own Research: Basic Descriptive Research in the Social Sciences and Humanities . London: Marion Boyars, 1985.

Experimental Design

A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur. Experimental research is often used where there is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect), and the magnitude of the correlation is great. The classic experimental design specifies an experimental group and a control group. The independent variable is administered to the experimental group and not to the control group, and both groups are measured on the same dependent variable. Subsequent experimental designs have used more groups and more measurements over longer periods. True experiments must have control, randomization, and manipulation.

• Experimental research allows the researcher to control the situation. In so doing, it allows researchers to answer the question, “What causes something to occur?”
• Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between variables and to distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects.
• Experimental research designs support the ability to limit alternative explanations and to infer direct causal relationships in the study.
• Approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies.
• The design is artificial, and results may not generalize well to the real world.
• The artificial settings of experiments may alter the behaviors or responses of participants.
• Experimental designs can be costly if special equipment or facilities are needed.
• Some research problems cannot be studied using an experiment because of ethical or technical reasons.
• Difficult to apply ethnographic and other qualitative methods to experimentally designed studies.

Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services . Chapter 7, Flexible Methods: Experimental Research. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Chapter 2: Research Design, Experimental Designs. School of Psychology, University of New England, 2000; Chow, Siu L. "Experimental Design." In Encyclopedia of Research Design . Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 448-453; "Experimental Design." In Social Research Methods . Nicholas Walliman, editor. (London, England: Sage, 2006), pp, 101-110; Experimental Research. Research Methods by Dummies. Department of Psychology. California State University, Fresno, 2006; Kirk, Roger E. Experimental Design: Procedures for the Behavioral Sciences . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013; Trochim, William M.K. Experimental Design. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Rasool, Shafqat. Experimental Research. Slideshare presentation.

Exploratory Design

An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are few or no earlier studies to refer to or rely upon to predict an outcome . The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation or undertaken when research problems are in a preliminary stage of investigation. Exploratory designs are often used to establish an understanding of how best to proceed in studying an issue or what methodology would effectively apply to gathering information about the issue.

The goals of exploratory research are intended to produce the following possible insights:

• Familiarity with basic details, settings, and concerns.
• Well grounded picture of the situation being developed.
• Generation of new ideas and assumptions.
• Development of tentative theories or hypotheses.
• Determination about whether a study is feasible in the future.
• Issues get refined for more systematic investigation and formulation of new research questions.
• Direction for future research and techniques get developed.
• Design is a useful approach for gaining background information on a particular topic.
• Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types (what, why, how).
• Provides an opportunity to define new terms and clarify existing concepts.
• Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses and develop more precise research problems.
• In the policy arena or applied to practice, exploratory studies help establish research priorities and where resources should be allocated.
• Exploratory research generally utilizes small sample sizes and, thus, findings are typically not generalizable to the population at large.
• The exploratory nature of the research inhibits an ability to make definitive conclusions about the findings. They provide insight but not definitive conclusions.
• The research process underpinning exploratory studies is flexible but often unstructured, leading to only tentative results that have limited value to decision-makers.
• Design lacks rigorous standards applied to methods of data gathering and analysis because one of the areas for exploration could be to determine what method or methodologies could best fit the research problem.

Cuthill, Michael. “Exploratory Research: Citizen Participation, Local Government, and Sustainable Development in Australia.” Sustainable Development 10 (2002): 79-89; Streb, Christoph K. "Exploratory Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Albert J. Mills, Gabrielle Durepos and Eiden Wiebe, editors. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 372-374; Taylor, P. J., G. Catalano, and D.R.F. Walker. “Exploratory Analysis of the World City Network.” Urban Studies 39 (December 2002): 2377-2394; Exploratory Research. Wikipedia.

Field Research Design

Sometimes referred to as ethnography or participant observation, designs around field research encompass a variety of interpretative procedures [e.g., observation and interviews] rooted in qualitative approaches to studying people individually or in groups while inhabiting their natural environment as opposed to using survey instruments or other forms of impersonal methods of data gathering. Information acquired from observational research takes the form of “ field notes ” that involves documenting what the researcher actually sees and hears while in the field. Findings do not consist of conclusive statements derived from numbers and statistics because field research involves analysis of words and observations of behavior. Conclusions, therefore, are developed from an interpretation of findings that reveal overriding themes, concepts, and ideas. More information can be found HERE .

• Field research is often necessary to fill gaps in understanding the research problem applied to local conditions or to specific groups of people that cannot be ascertained from existing data.
• The research helps contextualize already known information about a research problem, thereby facilitating ways to assess the origins, scope, and scale of a problem and to gage the causes, consequences, and means to resolve an issue based on deliberate interaction with people in their natural inhabited spaces.
• Enables the researcher to corroborate or confirm data by gathering additional information that supports or refutes findings reported in prior studies of the topic.
• Because the researcher in embedded in the field, they are better able to make observations or ask questions that reflect the specific cultural context of the setting being investigated.
• Observing the local reality offers the opportunity to gain new perspectives or obtain unique data that challenges existing theoretical propositions or long-standing assumptions found in the literature.

What these studies don't tell you

• A field research study requires extensive time and resources to carry out the multiple steps involved with preparing for the gathering of information, including for example, examining background information about the study site, obtaining permission to access the study site, and building trust and rapport with subjects.
• Requires a commitment to staying engaged in the field to ensure that you can adequately document events and behaviors as they unfold.
• The unpredictable nature of fieldwork means that researchers can never fully control the process of data gathering. They must maintain a flexible approach to studying the setting because events and circumstances can change quickly or unexpectedly.
• Findings can be difficult to interpret and verify without access to documents and other source materials that help to enhance the credibility of information obtained from the field  [i.e., the act of triangulating the data].
• Linking the research problem to the selection of study participants inhabiting their natural environment is critical. However, this specificity limits the ability to generalize findings to different situations or in other contexts or to infer courses of action applied to other settings or groups of people.
• The reporting of findings must take into account how the researcher themselves may have inadvertently affected respondents and their behaviors.

Historical Design

The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence from the past to establish facts that defend or refute a hypothesis. It uses secondary sources and a variety of primary documentary evidence, such as, diaries, official records, reports, archives, and non-textual information [maps, pictures, audio and visual recordings]. The limitation is that the sources must be both authentic and valid.

• The historical research design is unobtrusive; the act of research does not affect the results of the study.
• The historical approach is well suited for trend analysis.
• Historical records can add important contextual background required to more fully understand and interpret a research problem.
• There is often no possibility of researcher-subject interaction that could affect the findings.
• Historical sources can be used over and over to study different research problems or to replicate a previous study.
• The ability to fulfill the aims of your research are directly related to the amount and quality of documentation available to understand the research problem.
• Since historical research relies on data from the past, there is no way to manipulate it to control for contemporary contexts.
• Interpreting historical sources can be very time consuming.
• The sources of historical materials must be archived consistently to ensure access. This may especially challenging for digital or online-only sources.
• Original authors bring their own perspectives and biases to the interpretation of past events and these biases are more difficult to ascertain in historical resources.
• Due to the lack of control over external variables, historical research is very weak with regard to the demands of internal validity.
• It is rare that the entirety of historical documentation needed to fully address a research problem is available for interpretation, therefore, gaps need to be acknowledged.

Howell, Martha C. and Walter Prevenier. From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001; Lundy, Karen Saucier. "Historical Research." In The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods . Lisa M. Given, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 396-400; Marius, Richard. and Melvin E. Page. A Short Guide to Writing about History . 9th edition. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2015; Savitt, Ronald. “Historical Research in Marketing.” Journal of Marketing 44 (Autumn, 1980): 52-58;  Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction . Chapter 16, Historical Research. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007.

Longitudinal Design

A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes repeated observations. For example, with longitudinal surveys, the same group of people is interviewed at regular intervals, enabling researchers to track changes over time and to relate them to variables that might explain why the changes occur. Longitudinal research designs describe patterns of change and help establish the direction and magnitude of causal relationships. Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more distinct time periods. This allows the researcher to measure change in variables over time. It is a type of observational study sometimes referred to as a panel study.

• Longitudinal data facilitate the analysis of the duration of a particular phenomenon.
• Enables survey researchers to get close to the kinds of causal explanations usually attainable only with experiments.
• The design permits the measurement of differences or change in a variable from one period to another [i.e., the description of patterns of change over time].
• Longitudinal studies facilitate the prediction of future outcomes based upon earlier factors.
• The data collection method may change over time.
• Maintaining the integrity of the original sample can be difficult over an extended period of time.
• It can be difficult to show more than one variable at a time.
• This design often needs qualitative research data to explain fluctuations in the results.
• A longitudinal research design assumes present trends will continue unchanged.
• It can take a long period of time to gather results.
• There is a need to have a large sample size and accurate sampling to reach representativness.

Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services . Chapter 6, Flexible Methods: Relational and Longitudinal Research. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Forgues, Bernard, and Isabelle Vandangeon-Derumez. "Longitudinal Analyses." In Doing Management Research . Raymond-Alain Thiétart and Samantha Wauchope, editors. (London, England: Sage, 2001), pp. 332-351; Kalaian, Sema A. and Rafa M. Kasim. "Longitudinal Studies." In Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods . Paul J. Lavrakas, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 440-441; Menard, Scott, editor. Longitudinal Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002; Ployhart, Robert E. and Robert J. Vandenberg. "Longitudinal Research: The Theory, Design, and Analysis of Change.” Journal of Management 36 (January 2010): 94-120; Longitudinal Study. Wikipedia.

Meta-Analysis Design

Meta-analysis is an analytical methodology designed to systematically evaluate and summarize the results from a number of individual studies, thereby, increasing the overall sample size and the ability of the researcher to study effects of interest. The purpose is to not simply summarize existing knowledge, but to develop a new understanding of a research problem using synoptic reasoning. The main objectives of meta-analysis include analyzing differences in the results among studies and increasing the precision by which effects are estimated. A well-designed meta-analysis depends upon strict adherence to the criteria used for selecting studies and the availability of information in each study to properly analyze their findings. Lack of information can severely limit the type of analyzes and conclusions that can be reached. In addition, the more dissimilarity there is in the results among individual studies [heterogeneity], the more difficult it is to justify interpretations that govern a valid synopsis of results. A meta-analysis needs to fulfill the following requirements to ensure the validity of your findings:

• Clearly defined description of objectives, including precise definitions of the variables and outcomes that are being evaluated;
• A well-reasoned and well-documented justification for identification and selection of the studies;
• Assessment and explicit acknowledgment of any researcher bias in the identification and selection of those studies;
• Description and evaluation of the degree of heterogeneity among the sample size of studies reviewed; and,
• Justification of the techniques used to evaluate the studies.
• Can be an effective strategy for determining gaps in the literature.
• Provides a means of reviewing research published about a particular topic over an extended period of time and from a variety of sources.
• Is useful in clarifying what policy or programmatic actions can be justified on the basis of analyzing research results from multiple studies.
• Provides a method for overcoming small sample sizes in individual studies that previously may have had little relationship to each other.
• Can be used to generate new hypotheses or highlight research problems for future studies.
• Small violations in defining the criteria used for content analysis can lead to difficult to interpret and/or meaningless findings.
• A large sample size can yield reliable, but not necessarily valid, results.
• A lack of uniformity regarding, for example, the type of literature reviewed, how methods are applied, and how findings are measured within the sample of studies you are analyzing, can make the process of synthesis difficult to perform.
• Depending on the sample size, the process of reviewing and synthesizing multiple studies can be very time consuming.

Beck, Lewis W. "The Synoptic Method." The Journal of Philosophy 36 (1939): 337-345; Cooper, Harris, Larry V. Hedges, and Jeffrey C. Valentine, eds. The Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis . 2nd edition. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2009; Guzzo, Richard A., Susan E. Jackson and Raymond A. Katzell. “Meta-Analysis Analysis.” In Research in Organizational Behavior , Volume 9. (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1987), pp 407-442; Lipsey, Mark W. and David B. Wilson. Practical Meta-Analysis . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2001; Study Design 101. Meta-Analysis. The Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library, George Washington University; Timulak, Ladislav. “Qualitative Meta-Analysis.” In The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Data Analysis . Uwe Flick, editor. (Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2013), pp. 481-495; Walker, Esteban, Adrian V. Hernandez, and Micheal W. Kattan. "Meta-Analysis: It's Strengths and Limitations." Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine 75 (June 2008): 431-439.

Mixed-Method Design

• Narrative and non-textual information can add meaning to numeric data, while numeric data can add precision to narrative and non-textual information.
• Can utilize existing data while at the same time generating and testing a grounded theory approach to describe and explain the phenomenon under study.
• A broader, more complex research problem can be investigated because the researcher is not constrained by using only one method.
• The strengths of one method can be used to overcome the inherent weaknesses of another method.
• Can provide stronger, more robust evidence to support a conclusion or set of recommendations.
• May generate new knowledge new insights or uncover hidden insights, patterns, or relationships that a single methodological approach might not reveal.
• Produces more complete knowledge and understanding of the research problem that can be used to increase the generalizability of findings applied to theory or practice.
• A researcher must be proficient in understanding how to apply multiple methods to investigating a research problem as well as be proficient in optimizing how to design a study that coherently melds them together.
• Can increase the likelihood of conflicting results or ambiguous findings that inhibit drawing a valid conclusion or setting forth a recommended course of action [e.g., sample interview responses do not support existing statistical data].
• Because the research design can be very complex, reporting the findings requires a well-organized narrative, clear writing style, and precise word choice.
• Design invites collaboration among experts. However, merging different investigative approaches and writing styles requires more attention to the overall research process than studies conducted using only one methodological paradigm.
• Concurrent merging of quantitative and qualitative research requires greater attention to having adequate sample sizes, using comparable samples, and applying a consistent unit of analysis. For sequential designs where one phase of qualitative research builds on the quantitative phase or vice versa, decisions about what results from the first phase to use in the next phase, the choice of samples and estimating reasonable sample sizes for both phases, and the interpretation of results from both phases can be difficult.
• Due to multiple forms of data being collected and analyzed, this design requires extensive time and resources to carry out the multiple steps involved in data gathering and interpretation.

Burch, Patricia and Carolyn J. Heinrich. Mixed Methods for Policy Research and Program Evaluation . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2016; Creswell, John w. et al. Best Practices for Mixed Methods Research in the Health Sciences . Bethesda, MD: Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research, National Institutes of Health, 2010Creswell, John W. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014; Domínguez, Silvia, editor. Mixed Methods Social Networks Research . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014; Hesse-Biber, Sharlene Nagy. Mixed Methods Research: Merging Theory with Practice . New York: Guilford Press, 2010; Niglas, Katrin. “How the Novice Researcher Can Make Sense of Mixed Methods Designs.” International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches 3 (2009): 34-46; Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Nancy L. Leech. “Linking Research Questions to Mixed Methods Data Analysis Procedures.” The Qualitative Report 11 (September 2006): 474-498; Tashakorri, Abbas and John W. Creswell. “The New Era of Mixed Methods.” Journal of Mixed Methods Research 1 (January 2007): 3-7; Zhanga, Wanqing. “Mixed Methods Application in Health Intervention Research: A Multiple Case Study.” International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches 8 (2014): 24-35 .

Observational Design

This type of research design draws a conclusion by comparing subjects against a control group, in cases where the researcher has no control over the experiment. There are two general types of observational designs. In direct observations, people know that you are watching them. Unobtrusive measures involve any method for studying behavior where individuals do not know they are being observed. An observational study allows a useful insight into a phenomenon and avoids the ethical and practical difficulties of setting up a large and cumbersome research project.

• Observational studies are usually flexible and do not necessarily need to be structured around a hypothesis about what you expect to observe [data is emergent rather than pre-existing].
• The researcher is able to collect in-depth information about a particular behavior.
• Can reveal interrelationships among multifaceted dimensions of group interactions.
• You can generalize your results to real life situations.
• Observational research is useful for discovering what variables may be important before applying other methods like experiments.
• Observation research designs account for the complexity of group behaviors.
• Reliability of data is low because seeing behaviors occur over and over again may be a time consuming task and are difficult to replicate.
• In observational research, findings may only reflect a unique sample population and, thus, cannot be generalized to other groups.
• There can be problems with bias as the researcher may only "see what they want to see."
• There is no possibility to determine "cause and effect" relationships since nothing is manipulated.
• Sources or subjects may not all be equally credible.
• Any group that is knowingly studied is altered to some degree by the presence of the researcher, therefore, potentially skewing any data collected.

Atkinson, Paul and Martyn Hammersley. “Ethnography and Participant Observation.” In Handbook of Qualitative Research . Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994), pp. 248-261; Observational Research. Research Methods by Dummies. Department of Psychology. California State University, Fresno, 2006; Patton Michael Quinn. Qualitiative Research and Evaluation Methods . Chapter 6, Fieldwork Strategies and Observational Methods. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002; Payne, Geoff and Judy Payne. "Observation." In Key Concepts in Social Research . The SAGE Key Concepts series. (London, England: Sage, 2004), pp. 158-162; Rosenbaum, Paul R. Design of Observational Studies . New York: Springer, 2010;Williams, J. Patrick. "Nonparticipant Observation." In The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods . Lisa M. Given, editor.(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 562-563.

Philosophical Design

Understood more as an broad approach to examining a research problem than a methodological design, philosophical analysis and argumentation is intended to challenge deeply embedded, often intractable, assumptions underpinning an area of study. This approach uses the tools of argumentation derived from philosophical traditions, concepts, models, and theories to critically explore and challenge, for example, the relevance of logic and evidence in academic debates, to analyze arguments about fundamental issues, or to discuss the root of existing discourse about a research problem. These overarching tools of analysis can be framed in three ways:

• Ontology -- the study that describes the nature of reality; for example, what is real and what is not, what is fundamental and what is derivative?
• Epistemology -- the study that explores the nature of knowledge; for example, by what means does knowledge and understanding depend upon and how can we be certain of what we know?
• Axiology -- the study of values; for example, what values does an individual or group hold and why? How are values related to interest, desire, will, experience, and means-to-end? And, what is the difference between a matter of fact and a matter of value?
• Can provide a basis for applying ethical decision-making to practice.
• Functions as a means of gaining greater self-understanding and self-knowledge about the purposes of research.
• Brings clarity to general guiding practices and principles of an individual or group.
• Philosophy informs methodology.
• Refine concepts and theories that are invoked in relatively unreflective modes of thought and discourse.
• Beyond methodology, philosophy also informs critical thinking about epistemology and the structure of reality (metaphysics).
• Offers clarity and definition to the practical and theoretical uses of terms, concepts, and ideas.
• Limited application to specific research problems [answering the "So What?" question in social science research].
• Analysis can be abstract, argumentative, and limited in its practical application to real-life issues.
• While a philosophical analysis may render problematic that which was once simple or taken-for-granted, the writing can be dense and subject to unnecessary jargon, overstatement, and/or excessive quotation and documentation.
• There are limitations in the use of metaphor as a vehicle of philosophical analysis.
• There can be analytical difficulties in moving from philosophy to advocacy and between abstract thought and application to the phenomenal world.

Burton, Dawn. "Part I, Philosophy of the Social Sciences." In Research Training for Social Scientists . (London, England: Sage, 2000), pp. 1-5; Chapter 4, Research Methodology and Design. Unisa Institutional Repository (UnisaIR), University of South Africa; Jarvie, Ian C., and Jesús Zamora-Bonilla, editors. The SAGE Handbook of the Philosophy of Social Sciences . London: Sage, 2011; Labaree, Robert V. and Ross Scimeca. “The Philosophical Problem of Truth in Librarianship.” The Library Quarterly 78 (January 2008): 43-70; Maykut, Pamela S. Beginning Qualitative Research: A Philosophic and Practical Guide . Washington, DC: Falmer Press, 1994; McLaughlin, Hugh. "The Philosophy of Social Research." In Understanding Social Work Research . 2nd edition. (London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 2012), pp. 24-47; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University, 2013.

Sequential Design

• The researcher has a limitless option when it comes to sample size and the sampling schedule.
• Due to the repetitive nature of this research design, minor changes and adjustments can be done during the initial parts of the study to correct and hone the research method.
• This is a useful design for exploratory studies.
• There is very little effort on the part of the researcher when performing this technique. It is generally not expensive, time consuming, or workforce intensive.
• Because the study is conducted serially, the results of one sample are known before the next sample is taken and analyzed. This provides opportunities for continuous improvement of sampling and methods of analysis.
• The sampling method is not representative of the entire population. The only possibility of approaching representativeness is when the researcher chooses to use a very large sample size significant enough to represent a significant portion of the entire population. In this case, moving on to study a second or more specific sample can be difficult.
• The design cannot be used to create conclusions and interpretations that pertain to an entire population because the sampling technique is not randomized. Generalizability from findings is, therefore, limited.
• Difficult to account for and interpret variation from one sample to another over time, particularly when using qualitative methods of data collection.

Betensky, Rebecca. Harvard University, Course Lecture Note slides; Bovaird, James A. and Kevin A. Kupzyk. "Sequential Design." In Encyclopedia of Research Design . Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 1347-1352; Cresswell, John W. Et al. “Advanced Mixed-Methods Research Designs.” In Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioral Research . Abbas Tashakkori and Charles Teddle, eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2003), pp. 209-240; Henry, Gary T. "Sequential Sampling." In The SAGE Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods . Michael S. Lewis-Beck, Alan Bryman and Tim Futing Liao, editors. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2004), pp. 1027-1028; Nataliya V. Ivankova. “Using Mixed-Methods Sequential Explanatory Design: From Theory to Practice.” Field Methods 18 (February 2006): 3-20; Bovaird, James A. and Kevin A. Kupzyk. “Sequential Design.” In Encyclopedia of Research Design . Neil J. Salkind, ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010; Sequential Analysis. Wikipedia.

Systematic Review

• A systematic review synthesizes the findings of multiple studies related to each other by incorporating strategies of analysis and interpretation intended to reduce biases and random errors.
• The application of critical exploration, evaluation, and synthesis methods separates insignificant, unsound, or redundant research from the most salient and relevant studies worthy of reflection.
• They can be use to identify, justify, and refine hypotheses, recognize and avoid hidden problems in prior studies, and explain data inconsistencies and conflicts in data.
• Systematic reviews can be used to help policy makers formulate evidence-based guidelines and regulations.
• The use of strict, explicit, and pre-determined methods of synthesis, when applied appropriately, provide reliable estimates about the effects of interventions, evaluations, and effects related to the overarching research problem investigated by each study under review.
• Systematic reviews illuminate where knowledge or thorough understanding of a research problem is lacking and, therefore, can then be used to guide future research.
• The accepted inclusion of unpublished studies [i.e., grey literature] ensures the broadest possible way to analyze and interpret research on a topic.
• Results of the synthesis can be generalized and the findings extrapolated into the general population with more validity than most other types of studies .
• Systematic reviews do not create new knowledge per se; they are a method for synthesizing existing studies about a research problem in order to gain new insights and determine gaps in the literature.
• The way researchers have carried out their investigations [e.g., the period of time covered, number of participants, sources of data analyzed, etc.] can make it difficult to effectively synthesize studies.
• The inclusion of unpublished studies can introduce bias into the review because they may not have undergone a rigorous peer-review process prior to publication. Examples may include conference presentations or proceedings, publications from government agencies, white papers, working papers, and internal documents from organizations, and doctoral dissertations and Master's theses.

Denyer, David and David Tranfield. "Producing a Systematic Review." In The Sage Handbook of Organizational Research Methods .  David A. Buchanan and Alan Bryman, editors. ( Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2009), pp. 671-689; Foster, Margaret J. and Sarah T. Jewell, editors. Assembling the Pieces of a Systematic Review: A Guide for Librarians . Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2017; Gough, David, Sandy Oliver, James Thomas, editors. Introduction to Systematic Reviews . 2nd edition. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2017; Gopalakrishnan, S. and P. Ganeshkumar. “Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis: Understanding the Best Evidence in Primary Healthcare.” Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 2 (2013): 9-14; Gough, David, James Thomas, and Sandy Oliver. "Clarifying Differences between Review Designs and Methods." Systematic Reviews 1 (2012): 1-9; Khan, Khalid S., Regina Kunz, Jos Kleijnen, and Gerd Antes. “Five Steps to Conducting a Systematic Review.” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 96 (2003): 118-121; Mulrow, C. D. “Systematic Reviews: Rationale for Systematic Reviews.” BMJ 309:597 (September 1994); O'Dwyer, Linda C., and Q. Eileen Wafford. "Addressing Challenges with Systematic Review Teams through Effective Communication: A Case Report." Journal of the Medical Library Association 109 (October 2021): 643-647; Okoli, Chitu, and Kira Schabram. "A Guide to Conducting a Systematic Literature Review of Information Systems Research."  Sprouts: Working Papers on Information Systems 10 (2010); Siddaway, Andy P., Alex M. Wood, and Larry V. Hedges. "How to Do a Systematic Review: A Best Practice Guide for Conducting and Reporting Narrative Reviews, Meta-analyses, and Meta-syntheses." Annual Review of Psychology 70 (2019): 747-770; Torgerson, Carole J. “Publication Bias: The Achilles’ Heel of Systematic Reviews?” British Journal of Educational Studies 54 (March 2006): 89-102; Torgerson, Carole. Systematic Reviews . New York: Continuum, 2003.

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Think Like a Researcher: Instruction Resources: #6 Developing Successful Research Questions

• Guide Organization
• Overall Summary
• #1 Think Like a Researcher!
• #2 How to Read a Scholarly Article
• #3 Reading for Keywords (CREDO)
• #4 Using Google for Academic Research
• #4 Using Google for Academic Research (Alternate)
• #5 Integrating Sources
• Research Question Discussion
• #7 Avoiding Researcher Bias
• #8 Understanding the Information Cycle
• #9 Exploring Databases
• #10 Library Session
• #11 Post Library Session Activities
• Summary - Readings
• Summary - Research Journal Prompts
• Summary - Key Assignments
• Jigsaw Readings
• Permission Form

Course Learning Outcome:   Develop ability to synthesize and express complex ideas; demonstrate information literacy and be able to work with evidence

Goal:  Develop students’ ability to recognize and create successful research questions

Specifically, students will be able to

• identify the components of a successful research question.
• create a viable research question.

What Makes a Good Research Topic Handout

These handouts are intended to be used as a discussion generator that will help students develop a solid research topic or question. Many students start with topics that are poorly articulated, too broad, unarguable, or are socially insignificant. Each of these problems may result in a topic that is virtually un-researchable. Starting with a researchable topic is critical to writing an effective paper.

Research shows that students are much more invested in writing when they are able to choose their own topics. However, there is also research to support the notion that students are completely overwhelmed and frustrated when they are given complete freedom to write about whatever they choose. Providing some structure or topic themes that allow students to make bounded choices may be a way mitigate these competing realities.

These handouts can be modified or edited for your purposes.  One can be used as a handout for students while the other can serve as a sample answer key.  The document is best used as part of a process.  For instance, perhaps starting with discussing the issues and potential research questions, moving on to problems and social significance but returning to proposals/solutions at a later date.

• Research Questions - Handout Key (2 pgs) This document is a condensed version of "What Makes a Good Research Topic". It serves as a key.
• Research Questions - Handout for Students (2 pgs) This document could be used with a class to discuss sample research questions (are they suitable?) and to have them start thinking about problems, social significance, and solutions for additional sample research questions.
• Research Question Discussion This tab includes materials for introduction students to research question criteria for a problem/solution essay.

Additional Resources

These documents have similarities to those above.  They represent original documents and conversations about research questions from previous TRAIL trainings.

• What Makes a Good Research Topic? - Original Handout (4 pgs)
• What Makes a Good Research Topic? Revised Jan. 2016 (4 pgs)
• What Makes a Good Research Topic? Revised Jan 2016 with comments

Topic Selection (NCSU Libraries)

Howard, Rebecca Moore, Tricia Serviss, and Tanya K. Rodrigues. " Writing from sources, writing from sentences ." Writing & Pedagogy 2.2 (2010): 177-192.

Research Journal

Assign after students have participated in the Developing Successful Research Topics/Questions Lesson OR have drafted a Research Proposal.

Think about your potential research question.

• What is the problem that underlies your question?
• Is the problem of social significance? Explain.
• Is your proposed solution to the problem feasible? Explain.
• Do you think there is evidence to support your solution?

Keys for Writers - Additional Resource

Keys for Writers (Raimes and Miller-Cochran) includes a section to guide students in the formation of an arguable claim (thesis).  The authors advise students to avoid the following since they are not debatable. 

• "a neutral statement, which gives no hint of the writer's position"
• "an announcement of the paper's broad subject"
• "a fact, which is not arguable"
• "a truism (statement that is obviously true)"
• "a personal or religious conviction that cannot be logically debated"
• "an opinion based only on your feelings"
• "a sweeping generalization" (Section 4C, pg. 52)

The book also provides examples and key points (pg. 53) for a good working thesis.

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4.3 Quantitative research questions

Learning objectives.

• Describe how research questions for exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory quantitative questions differ and how to phrase them
• Identify the differences between and provide examples of strong and weak explanatory research questions

Quantitative descriptive questions

The type of research you are conducting will impact the research question that you ask. Probably the easiest questions to think of are quantitative descriptive questions. For example, “What is the average student debt load of MSW students?” is a descriptive question—and an important one. We aren’t trying to build a causal relationship here. We’re simply trying to describe how much debt MSW students carry. Quantitative descriptive questions like this one are helpful in social work practice as part of community scans, in which human service agencies survey the various needs of the community they serve. If the scan reveals that the community requires more services related to housing, child care, or day treatment for people with disabilities, a nonprofit office can use the community scan to create new programs that meet a defined community need.

Quantitative descriptive questions will often ask for percentage, count the number of instances of a phenomenon, or determine an average. Descriptive questions may only include one variable, such as ours about debt load, or they may include multiple variables. Because these are descriptive questions, we cannot investigate causal relationships between variables. To do that, we need to use a quantitative explanatory question.

Quantitative explanatory questions

Most studies you read in the academic literature will be quantitative and explanatory. Why is that? Explanatory research tries to build something called nomothetic causal explanations.Matthew DeCarlo says “com[ing]up with a broad, sweeping explanation that is universally true for all people” is the hallmark of nomothetic causal relationships (DeCarlo, 2018, chapter 7.2, para 5 ). They are generalizable across space and time, so they are applicable to a wide audience. The editorial board of a journal wants to make sure their content will be useful to as many people as possible, so it’s not surprising that quantitative research dominates the academic literature.

Structurally, quantitative explanatory questions must contain an independent variable and dependent variable. Questions should ask about the relation between these variables. A standard format for an explanatory quantitative research question is: “What is the relation between [independent variable] and [dependent variable] for [target population]?” You should play with the wording for your research question, revising it as you see fit. The goal is to make the research question reflect what you really want to know in your study.

Let’s take a look at a few more examples of possible research questions and consider the relative strengths and weaknesses of each. Table 4.1 does just that. While reading the table, keep in mind that it only includes some of the most relevant strengths and weaknesses of each question. Certainly each question may have additional strengths and weaknesses not noted in the table.

Making it more specific

A good research question should also be specific and clear about the concepts it addresses. A group of students investigating gender and household tasks knows what they mean by “household tasks.” You likely also have an impression of what “household tasks” means. But are your definition and the students’ definition the same? A participant in their study may think that managing finances and performing home maintenance are household tasks, but the researcher may be interested in other tasks like childcare or cleaning. The only way to ensure your study stays focused and clear is to be specific about what you mean by a concept. The student in our example could pick a specific household task that was interesting to them or that the literature indicated was important—for example, childcare. Or, the student could have a broader view of household tasks, one that encompasses childcare, food preparation, financial management, home repair, and care for relatives. Any option is probably okay, as long as the researchers are clear on what they mean by “household tasks.”

Table 4.2 contains some “watch words” that indicate you may need to be more specific about the concepts in your research question.

It can be challenging in social work research to be this specific, particularly when you are just starting out your investigation of the topic. If you’ve only read one or two articles on the topic, it can be hard to know what you are interested in studying. Broad questions like “What are the causes of chronic homelessness, and what can be done to prevent it?” are common at the beginning stages of a research project. However, social work research demands that you examine the literature on the topic and refine your question over time to be more specific and clear before you begin your study. Perhaps you want to study the effect of a specific anti-homelessness program that you found in the literature. Maybe there is a particular model to fighting homelessness, like Housing First or transitional housing that you want to investigate further. You may want to focus on a potential cause of homelessness such as LGBTQ discrimination that you find interesting or relevant to your practice. As you can see, the possibilities for making your question more specific are almost infinite.

Quantitative exploratory questions

In exploratory research, the researcher doesn’t quite know the lay of the land yet. If someone is proposing to conduct an exploratory quantitative project, the watch words highlighted in Table 4.2 are not problematic at all. In fact, questions such as “What factors influence the removal of children in child welfare cases?” are good because they will explore a variety of factors or causes. In this question, the independent variable is less clearly written, but the dependent variable, family preservation outcomes, is quite clearly written. The inverse can also be true. If we were to ask, “What outcomes are associated with family preservation services in child welfare?”, we would have a clear independent variable, family preservation services, but an unclear dependent variable, outcomes. Because we are only conducting exploratory research on a topic, we may not have an idea of what concepts may comprise our “outcomes” or “factors.” Only after interacting with our participants will we be able to understand which concepts are important.

Key Takeaways

• Quantitative descriptive questions are helpful for community scans but cannot investigate causal relationships between variables.
• Quantitative explanatory questions must include an independent and dependent variable.

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Guidebook for Social Work Literature Reviews and Research Questions Copyright © 2020 by Rebecca Mauldin and Matthew DeCarlo is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Social Studies Research Project Topics

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Social Studies is the study of human beings as they relate to each other and their environments. If you enjoy exploring people, their cultures, and behavior, you should enjoy social studies. There are many disciplines that fit under the umbrella of the social sciences, so you can narrow the field to one that most interests you as you select a research topic .

History Topics

You might think of history as a branch of study that falls outside the realm of social studies. Not so. In every era of human existence, people had to relate to each other. For example, after World War II , there was great pressure for women to leave the workforce—they had been the backbone of the defense industry, filling vital jobs while men were overseas fighting the Japanese and the Nazis—yet they have shunted aside when the men returned. This created a great shift in the social dynamic in the U.S.

Other historical themes offer rich areas for social studies research ranging from inventions that changed the nature of schoolwork to the impact U.S. presidents had when visiting a small town. Local architecture greatly influenced who people interacted with throughout history and even things as seemingly innocuous as the introduction of silverware impacted social norms and etiquette at the nightly dinner table.

• Diets of Civil War Soldiers and Nutrition
• WWII Women Who Worked and Returned to Homemaking
• Confederate Symbols and Race in My Town
• Inventions That Changed School Work
• Midwives and Birth Rates
• Local Architecture Patterns
• Vanity in the Nineteenth Century
• Vietnam War and Grandma
• Country Doctors' Records
• The Impact of a President's Visit
• When Silverware Came to Town
• Coal Camps in Local History
• The Household Impact of the Discovery of Germs

Economics Topics

Economics—"a social science concerned chiefly with description and analysis of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services," as Merriam-Webster notes—is, by definition, a social science. Job growth and loss—both nationally and locally—affect not just how people vote but how they relate to each other. Globalization is a hot topic that often brings people of opposing views into heated arguments and even physical confrontations. International treaties—particularly those focusing on trade—can inflame passions in the electorate overall, in small communities and even among individuals.

• Do Attractive People Make More Money?
• What Political Party Creates Job Growth?
• Is Globalization  Good or Bad?
• International Treaties - Good or Bad
• How Does the IMF Work?

Political Science Topics

Race and politics are obvious areas for sociological study, but so is the fairness of the Electoral College. Many groups nationwide are firm believers in conspiracy theories, which have spawned entire groups devoted to the study and discussion of these topics.

• Is the Media Really Biased?
• How Do Polls Work?
• How Does Fact Checking Work?
• Race and Politics
• Is the Electoral College Fair?
• Political Systems Compared
• What Is the New World Order?
• Conspiracy Theories

Sociology Topics

The umbrella topic of sociology can cover everything from marriage customs—including same-sex marriage—to the ethics involved in adopting children from Third World countries. The debate over private-versus-public schools—and the funding that goes with it—is a topic that stirs strong passions and discussions among advocates on each side. And, the ever-present specter of racism is a vexing problem that continues to plague our society.

• Federal v. State Power
• Food Regulation
• What Opportunities Are Available to Specific Minority Groups?
• Good and Bad Role Models
• Religion and Politics
• Building in Flood Zones
• Marriage Customs Examined
• Same-Sex Marriage
• Is It Ethical to Adopt Children from Third World Countries?
• Population Control Around the World
• Education: Private or Government Systems
• Will Racism Ever Die?
• The Roots of Regional Customs in America
• How the Internet Affects Our Perception of Truth

Psychology Topics

Psychology—the study of the mind and behavior—goes to the very heart of what makes human beings tick as well as how they relate to each other, a prime topic for sociological study and research. Everything from local traffic patterns, politics emanating from the pulpit and the impact of Walmart on local communities influences how people think, congregate and form friendships and groups—all issues that make the following list perfect for sociology research paper ideas.

• The Impact of River Traffic (on your hometown)
• Where Do Our Apples Come From?
• Could We Survive on Garden Foods Today?
• Using a Local Currency
• How Clothing Prices Affect Teenager Image
• Does Walmart Help or Hurt Local Economy?
• Voting Habits: Grandmothers and Mothers
• Are We Born Liberal or Conservative?
• Political Messages from My Preacher
• Television and Test Scores
• Technology and Fitness Among Kids
• TV Commercials and Self Image
• Wii Games and Family Time
• Superstitions and Family Traditions
• Birth Order and Test Scores
• A Secret Poll: Who Do You Hate?
• Do Unusual Names Affect Grades?
• Does Home Punishment Policy Affect School Performance?
• Local Vocabulary Patterns
• Why Do We Make Friends?
• Are Girls' Teams as Competitive as Boys' Teams?
• Snow Days: Cold States, Warm States, and Family Bonding
• Anatomy of a Small Town Parade
• Patterns of Lunchroom Seating
• Bullying Yesterday and Today
• Does Movie Violence Impact Behavior?
• Facebook and Family Communication
• What Would You Change About Your Body?
• Procrastination and Technology
• Why Kids Tell Lies
• Clothing and Attitudes: Do Shopkeepers Treat Me Differently If I Dress Differently?
• Does Citizen Status Affect Students' Self-Esteem ?
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• How Do Cults Work?
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• Introduction to Sociology
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• Undergraduate Courses That Are Recommended for Law School
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Social Psychology Research Topics

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

Choosing topics for social psychology research papers or projects for class can be challenging. It is a broad and fascinating field, which can make it challenging to figure out what you want to investigate in your research.

Social psychology explores how individual thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are affected by social influences. It explores how each person's behavior is affected by their social environment.

This article explores a few different social psychology topics and research questions you might want to study in greater depth. It covers how to start your search for a topic as well as specific ideas you might choose to explore.

How to Find a Social Psychology Research Topic

As you begin your search, think about the questions that you have. What topics interest you? Following your own interests and curiosities can often inspire great research questions.

Choose a Sub-Topic

Social psychologists are interested in all aspects of social behavior. Some of the main areas of interest within the field include social cognition, social influence, and social relationships investigating subtopics such as conformity, groupthink, attitude formation, obedience, prejudice, and so on.

• Social cognition : How do we process and use information about social experiences? What kinds of biases influence how we engage with other people?
• Social influence: What are the key social factors that influence our attitudes and behavior? What are group dynamics and how do we understand patterns of behavior in groups?
• Social relationships : What are the different types of social relationships? How do they develop and change over time?

To help ensure that you select a topic that is specific enough, it can be helpful to start by confining your search to one of these main areas.

Browse Through Past Research

After narrowing down your choices, consider what questions you might have. Are there questions that haven't been fully answered by previous studies? At this point, it can be helpful to spend some time browsing through journal articles or books to see some examples of past findings and identify gaps in the literature.

You can also find inspiration and learn more about a topic by searching for keywords related to your topic in psychological databases such as PsycINFO or browsing through some professional psychology journals.

Narrow Down Your Specific Topic

Once you have a general topic, you'll need to narrow down your research. The goal is to choose a research question that is specific, measurable, and testable. Let's say you want to study conformity; An example of a good research question might be, “Are people more likely to conform when they are in a small group or a large group?” In this case, the specific topic of your paper would be how group size influences social conformity .

Review the Literature on Your Chosen Topic

After choosing a specific social psychology topic to research, the next step is to do a literature review. A literature review involves reading through the existing research findings related to a specific topic.

You are likely to encounter a great deal of information on your topic, which can seem overwhelming at times. You may find it helpful to start by reading review articles or meta-analysis studies. These are summaries of previous research on your topic or studies that incorporate a large pool of past research on the topic.

Talk to Your Instructor

Even if you are really excited to dive right in and start working on your project, there are some important preliminary steps you need to take.

Before you decide to tackle a project for your social psychology class, you should always clear your idea with your instructor. This initial step can save you a lot of time and hassle later on.

Your instructor can offer clear feedback on things you should and should not do while conducting your research and might be able to offer some helpful tips. Also, if you plan to implement your own social experiment, your school might require you to present to and gain permission from an institutional review board.

Thinking about the questions you have about social psychology can be a great way to discover topics for your own research. Once you have a general idea, explore the literature and refine your research question to make sure it is specific enough.

Examples of Social Psychology Research Topics

The following are some specific examples of different subjects you might want to investigate further as part of a social psychology research paper, experiment, or project:

Implicit Attitudes

How do implicit attitudes influence how people respond to others? This can involve exploring how people's attitudes towards different groups of people (e.g., men, women, ethnic minorities) influence their interactions with those groups. For example, one study found that 75% of people perceive men to be more intelligent than women .

In your own project, you might explore how implicit attitudes impact perceptions of qualities such as kindness, intelligence, leadership skills, or attractiveness.

Prosocial Behavior

You might also choose to focus on prosocial behavior in your research. This can involve investigating the reasons why people help others. Some questions you could explore further include:

• What motivates people to help others?
• When are people most likely to help others?
• How does helping others cause people to feel?
• What are the benefits of helping other people?

How do people change their attitudes in response to persuasion? What are the different techniques that can be used to persuade someone? What factors make some people more susceptible to persuasion than others?

One way to investigate this could be through collecting a wide variety of print advertisements and analyzing how​ persuasion is used. What types of cognitive and affective techniques are utilized? Do certain types of advertisements tend to use specific kinds of persuasive techniques ?

Another area of social psychology that you might research is aggression and violence. This can involve exploring the factors that lead to aggression and violence and the consequences of these behaviors. Some questions you might explore further include:

• When is violence most likely to occur?
• What factors influence violent behavior?
• Do traumatic experiences in childhood lead to more aggressive behavior in adulthood?
• Does viewing violent media content contribute to increased aggressive behavior in real life?

Prejudice and discrimination are areas that present a range of research opportunities. This can involve studying the different forms that prejudice takes (e.g., sexism, racism, ageism ), as well as the psychological effects of prejudice and discrimination. You might also want to investigate topics related to how prejudices form or strategies that can be used to reduce such discrimination.

Nonverbal Behavior

How do people respond when nonverbal communication does not match up to verbal behavior (for example, saying you feel great when your facial expressions and tone of voice indicate otherwise). Which signal do people respond to most strongly?

How good are people at detecting lies ? Have participants tell a group of people about themselves, but make sure some of the things are true while others are not. Ask members of the group which statements they thought were true and which they thought were false.

Social Norms

How do people react when social norms are violated? This might involve acting in a way that is outside the norm in a particular situation or enlisting friends to act out the behaviors while you observe.

Some examples that you might try include wearing unusual clothing, applauding inappropriately at the end of a class lecture, cutting in line in front of other people, or some other mildly inappropriate behavior. Keep track of your own thoughts as you perform the experiment and observe how people around you respond.

Online Social Behavior

Does online social networking make people more or less likely to interact with people in face-to-face or other offline settings? To investigate this further, you could create a questionnaire to assess how often people participate in social networking versus how much time they spend interacting with their friends in real-world settings.

Social Perception

How does our appearance impact how people respond to us? Ask some friends to help you by having two people dress up in dramatically different ways, one in a professional manner and one in a less conventional manner. Have each person engage in a particular action, then observe how they are treated and how other people's responses differ.

Social psychologists have found that attractiveness can produce what is known as a halo effect . Essentially, we tend to assume that people who are physically attractive are also friendly, intelligent, pleasant, and likable.

To investigate this topic, you could set up an experiment where you have participants look at photographs of people of varying degrees of physical attractiveness, and then ask them to rate each person based on a variety of traits, including social competence, kindness, intellect, and overall likability.

Think about how this might affect a variety of social situations, including how employees are selected or how jurors in a criminal case might respond.

Social psychology is a broad field, so there are many different subtopics you might choose to explore in your research. Implicit attitudes, prosocial behavior, aggression, prejudice, and social perception are just a few areas you might want to consider.

A Word From Verywell

Social psychology topics can provide a great deal of inspiration for further research, whether you are writing a research paper or conducting your own experiment. In addition to some of the social psychology topics above, you can also draw inspiration from your own curiosity about social behavior or examine social issues that you see taking place in the world around you. 

American Psychological Association.  Frequently asked questions about institutional review boards .

Storage D, Charlesworth TES, Banaji M, Cimpian A.  Adults and children implicitly associate brilliance with men more than women .  J Exp Soc Psychol . 2012;90:104020. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104020

Talamas SN, Mavor KI, Perrett DI. Blinded by beauty: Attractiveness bias and accurate perceptions of academic performance . PLoS ONE . 2016;11(2):e0148284. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0148284

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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In a world that's always evolving, the social bonds that tie us together are constantly shifting. With these changes comes the abundance of social sciences research topics. From different societies, cultures and issues to specific social norms and customs, there is always something to study. Yet, many students find themselves staring at a blank page, not knowing where to start their exploration.

Enter this blog! We've painstakingly curated hundreds of unique social studies topics focusing on various societal aspects, cultural patterns, historical moments, and more.  Whether you're tackling an essay or need to conduct an academic research in social studies, you are sure to find an idea or two for inspiration. So, pull up a chair, get comfortable, and let's explore this list of amazing social studies research topics.

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In a nutshell, social studies is the study of people, societies and cultures. It is divided into multiple branches each offering a unique lens to view our world:

• Anthropology
• Psychology, etc.

Social science research topics explore how different groups interact with each other and how they shape their environment. And this blog offers just that. From the latest buzz on social media to the turning points of history, we've got you covered! Stay tuned, we are about to get started.

Finding the right social science research topic can feel like striking gold! But what makes social sciences research topics shine? Let's figure this out. Here’re some of the features you should account for:

• Relevance Think about current events, social trends, or persistent societal challenges. The more relevant your topic is, the more engaging your research will be.
• Searchability A captivating question is only as good as the information you can find to answer it. A researchable topic has enough trustworthy information available for you to delve into. Yet, it should be specific enough to keep your research focused.
• Authenticity While it's important to build upon existing research, a good social science topic brings something new to the table. It could be a fresh perspective, an overlooked aspect, or a novel way to apply an existing theory.
• Personal interest This feature is a bit subjective, but crucial nonetheless. If the social studies topic excites you, you will be willing to carry research out and come up with compelling insights.

Long story short, your research idea should be a blend of pertinence, originality, and personal interest. And that's exactly what you'll find in the arsenal of social studies project ideas our online essay writing service prepared for you in this blog.

When picking a topic in social studies, make sure you've got the scope and depth of the research question covered. To do so, follow these steps:

• Brainstorm ideas Look for any themes that inspire you. These could be anything from current social trends, historical events, or psychological phenomena.
• Do preliminary research You need to gather background information to narrow your focus. Read scholarly articles, books, or watch related content to collect data about your theme.
• Analyze sources As you read the material, spot any data gaps, inconsistencies, or even contradictions in existing research. These gaps can often provide a fresh perspective or a new angle for your research.
• Refine your topic Come up with a concise question to define the scope of your project.
• Develop your hypothesis Now comes the exciting part – writing a hypothesis ! Based on all the information you've gathered so far, consider what answer or outcome you might expect from completing your research.

Now, let's dive into our list of social studies research paper topics to get your exploration started!

Recognizing the importance of social studies topics, we've created this comprehensive list. Remember, these are starting points. Feel free to tweak and tailor these social studies essay topics and ideas to better suit your instructions!

• Impact of climate change on global economies.
• Repercussions of fake news on democracy.
• Ethical implications of AI in society.
• Global migration trends: Causes and consequences.
• How has the Internet reshaped political activism?
• Can universal basic income solve poverty?
• Rise of populist politics in the 21st century.
• Cultural assimilation vs cultural preservation: What's at stake?
• Influence of social media on body image.
• How does gentrification affect urban communities?
• Influence of gender roles on career choices.
• Decoding the psychology behind prejudice.
• Internet privacy: Right or privilege?
• How does multiculturalism shape national identity?
• Impact of globalization on indigenous cultures .

Below you can find unique social studies ideas and topics. Each one can be backed by credible data, ready to be explored. These research topic ideas are your stepping stones – feel free to adjust them according to your academic requirements.

• Analyzing cryptocurrency's future prospects and risks.
• Evaluating pandemic responses throughout history.
• Impact of mandatory voting on democratic participation.
• Effects of video games on youth behavior.
• Examining scientific and cultural interpretations of dreams.
• How mass media shapes public opinion.
• Role of women in World War II .
• Impact of climate change policies on national economies.
• Link between educational systems and economic development.
• Causes and impacts of overpopulation.
• Civil rights movements across the globe.
• Migration patterns and their influence on cultural identity.
• Psychological factors influencing consumer behavior.
• Effects of urbanization on biodiversity.
• Influence of technology on interpersonal communication.

If you're searching for something more novel to explore, here is a list of captivating social research topics. These research ideas provide an invigorating twist on familiar issues, and are sure to spark your curiosity!

• Role of technology in reshaping education.
• Influence of modern architecture on societal behavior.
• Impact of globalization on language diversity.
• Mental health awareness: Societal progress or stagnation?
• Disparity in global access to clean water.
• Has digitization democratized art?
• Urban planning and its role in community wellbeing.
• E-commerce boom : Economic benefit or environmental burden?
• Evolution of gender representation in media.
• Internet censorship : Protection or suppression?
• Space exploration: Scientific pursuit or geopolitical competition?
• Impact of online learning on student performance.
• How does cyberbullying affect teenage mental health?
• Influence of cultural heritage on fashion trends.
• Rise and fall of nuclear energy: Historical analysis.

Topics in social science don’t need to be mundane. When you're digging into subjects that are unconventional and often disregarded, research becomes absorbing. Consider these social sciences topics, each inviting you to peek behind curtains, question norms, and explore the lesser-traveled paths of knowledge.

• Cryptocurrency adoption and its economic implications.
• Food as a cultural identifier across nations.
• Role of podcasts in modern information dissemination.
• Impact of the fashion industry on climate change.
• Surveillance technology: Security boon or privacy bane?
• Influence of music on societal norms.
• Exploring the phenomenon of viral Internet trends.
• Rise of telemedicine in the post-pandemic world.
• Evolution and implications of drone technology.
• Voluntourism: altruism or new face of colonialism?
• Impact of biotechnology on agriculture sustainability.
• Historical progression of LGBTQ+ rights.
• Role of data analytics in shaping marketing strategies.
• Influence of reality TV on perception of fame.
• Examining the ethical boundaries of genetic engineering.

Conducting a study involving controversial social science topics for research can be quite thrilling. These subjects stir strong opinions, spark heated debates, and often don't have clear-cut answers. Check out these debatable topics for social studies that challenge norms and question established beliefs.

• Should gene editing be allowed for human embryos?
• Mandatory vaccination: Public health necessity or infringement of rights?
• Can artificial intelligence replace the human workforce?
• Euthanasia : A matter of compassion or violation of life?
• Is animal testing justified for human benefits?
• Gun control: Right to self-defense or public safety concern?
• Should religions have influence over educational content?
• Role of censorship in freedom of speech.
• Is capital punishment a deterrent for crime?
• Should governments control Internet access?
• Income inequality : Result of economic structure or individual effort?
• Is privacy compromised in the name of national security?
• Can countries justify wars in the name of democracy?
• Legalization of recreational drugs: Freedom of choice or public health disaster?
• Are single-sex schools beneficial for education?

Who says academic research has to be all serious and no fun? Adding a dash of humor can make your research more memorable. Below are funny yet insightful Social Science topics that will tickle your funny bone and stimulate your intellectual curiosity at the same time.

• Role of humor in diplomatic relations.
• The sociology behind superhero fandom.
• How do lottery wins affect individuals' social status?
• Analysis of workplace culture in sitcoms.
• Are our shopping habits influenced by weather patterns?
• The social implications of ' fashion faux pas '.
• Impact of reality TV on the perception of reality.
• Does superstition influence economic decision-making?
• Historical analysis of famous political cartoons.
• Impact of humor on political campaign success.
• Social effects of viral funny animal videos.
• Why do funny advertisements resonate more with consumers?
• Humor as a social coping mechanism in times of crisis.
• Do societal norms dictate what we find funny?
• The science behind ‘ earworms ’: Why do songs get stuck in our heads?

Are you looking for top-tier research topics for social science? We've got your back. These subjects are not just relevant to our times, but they are also rich in resources for deep exploration. Look through these standout social studies project topics that promise robust discussions.

• Role of NGOs in shaping public policy.
• Media's influence on body image across cultures.
• Impact of colonization on contemporary political structures.
• Social implications of multilingualism.
• Evolution of gender roles in society.
• The effect of urban design on community interaction.
• Is there a link between poverty and crime rates?
• Cultural factors influencing dietary habits.
• Decoding the sociocultural impact of folklore and myths.
• Historical analysis of migration patterns and their effects.
• Psychological implications of living in a digital world.
• Role of art in social and political movements .
• Correlation between education level and political participation.
• Influence of social media on interpersonal relationships.
• Studying the societal impacts of aging populations.

Whether you're a novice scholar or a seasoned academic, below you'll find a plethora of social study topics tailored to your level of study. We've carefully curated these subjects, from the simpler to the more complex, making your search easier. So, gear up and get ready to discover special topics in social studies for students. From middle and high school social studies topics to university research ideas, you will definitely find what you are browsing for.

Exploring social studies topics can be challenging for middle schoolers. In middle school, you are not expected to show solid analytical skills. Yet, you still need to come up with a great research topic. To make the process easier, we've compiled some middle school social studies topics. These ideas are perfect for inspiring your own unique project!

• How do holidays teach us about cultures?
• Why are team sports important in school?
• Why should every person vote when they are old enough?
• How has the Internet changed the way we talk to each other?
• Why are historical landmarks important to our town or city?
• What role do newspapers play in our daily life?
• How does buying locally grown food help our community?
• How does weather affect our daily activities?
• Do school uniforms unite us or make us all the same?
• How do cartoons influence kids?
• What does our local government do for us?
• How do public parks benefit our health?
• What does our school cafeteria food say about our eating habits?
• Are video games helpful or harmful for kids?
• How does recycling help our planet?

At high school, you are expected to display a higher level of critical thinking. That's why below we've gathered more challenging social studies topics for high school students. Take a look at these ideas – they should help you develop your own project!

• Role of teenagers in promoting environmental conservation.
• Understanding income inequality within your local community.
• Impact of volunteering on personal development.
• Fast fashion: An exploration of its societal implications.
• Role of music in shaping cultural identity.
• Influence of graphic novels on youth culture.
• How does architecture reflect societal changes?
• Examining the impact of " cancel culture ."
• Role of community libraries in the digital age.
• Impact of food deserts on health outcomes.
• Influence of language diversity in classrooms.
• Examining the trend of urban gardening.
• Social implications of virtual reality technology.
• Understanding the role of local farmers' markets.
• The cultural impact of street art in cities.

College scholars, now it’s your turn! You're at a stage where you're encouraged to engage with complex themes that test your capacity for in-depth research, critical analysis, and independent thought. You should aim to show your ability to critically examine different societal dynamics, interlinking various aspects of social sciences. Here are some social science topics for research papers suiting a college level.

• Impact of income disparity on societal stability.
• Analyzing the " gig economy " and worker rights.
• Understanding the sociology of leisure.
• Exploring the culture of political satire.
• How do environmental policies affect local industries?
• Rise of mindfulness: A societal response to stress?
• Impact of universal basic income on society.
• Does 'screen-time' change interpersonal communication?
• Social dynamics of homelessness.
• Role of museums in preserving cultural heritage.
• Examining cyber-bullying and mental health.
• Intersectionality and its role in social justice movements.
• Ethical implications of data collection and privacy.
• How has pandemic influenced societal norms and behaviors?
• Exploring cultural implications of space exploration.

University scholars, step up! Your task now is to grapple with themes that demand extensive research, intricate analysis, and mastery of your chosen field. Your studies should demonstrate not only your understanding of social phenomena, but also your ability to critique and contribute to existing scholarly debates. Here are novel research topics in social sciences to push your intellectual boundaries.

• Transformation of privacy in the digital age.
• Political implications of memes culture.
• Ecotourism's effect on local economies.
• Social consequences of binge-watching culture.
• Impact of DIY culture on traditional industries.
• Virtual reality as a socializing platform.
• Bioethics in the posthumanism era.
• Veganism as a social movement.
• Longevity research and societal structures.
• Urban farming and food security.
• Cryptocurrency adoption and economic structures.
• Telehealth services and healthcare accessibility.
• Virtual influencers and consumer culture.
• Digital nomadism and its economic implications.

Apart from the social science topics given above, you can further narrow down your choices by looking at specific social study subjects. Here you'll find a variety of social sciences topics for research in disciplines such as anthropology, economics, history, psychology and sociology. Dig deeper into your specialized field with these inspiring prompts!

Politics is all about the theory and practice of governance. It involves the analysis of political systems, behavior, and activity. This branch of social sciences covers a wide range of issues from global affairs to local policy-making. Our coursework writers brought together these social scientific research topics to fuel your critical thought and inspire your political research.

• Diplomatic strategies in contemporary conflicts.
• Grassroots movements and their success factors.
• Lobbying as a tool in modern democracies.
• Analyzing the gender gap in political representation.
• Evolution of political satire in the media.
• Cyber warfare and international relations.
• Rise of populist movements globally.
• Political symbolism in public spaces.
• Environmental policies across different regimes.
• Decoding the politics of language.
• Do referendums truly reflect public opinion?
• Political implications of data privacy breaches.
• The phenomenon of political dynasties.
• Shifts in political landscapes post-pandemics.
• Role of political cartoons in shaping opinions.

>> View more: Political Science Research Topics

Law studies the system of rules that regulate behavior and ensure order in society. It encompasses everything from constitutional rights to international treaties, from business contracts to criminal justice. Here are 15 research ideas to ignite your legal eagerness. Choose the most fitting law topic for social studies and see if you need any term paper help from professionals. 

• Cybercrime legislation and its loopholes.
• Legal perspectives on climate change.
• Reparation laws and historical injustices.
• Space exploration and legal implications.
• Comparative study of divorce laws worldwide.
• Restorative justice in modern legal systems.
• Intellectual property rights in digital era.
• Legal challenges of autonomous vehicles.
• Role of AI in legal decision-making.
• Prison reform laws across countries.
• Legal ramifications of data breaches.
• Regulation of genetic engineering.
• Wildlife laws and animal rights.
• Legal issues surrounding digital currencies.
• Defining human rights in virtual realities.

>> Read more: Legal Research Paper Topics

Economics is the science that studies how people make decisions when it comes to utilizing scarce resources. Its principles shed light on issues such as inequality, poverty, consumer behavior, and global trade. Here are some intriguing social studies research topics in economics :

• Economies of video game industries.
• Economics behind professional sports.
• Fashion industry and economic trends.
• Influence of music festivals on local economies.
• Role of microfinance in poverty reduction.
• Economics of endangered species protection.
• Carbon pricing and its effectiveness.
• Understanding the coffee trade market.
• Food waste and its economic implications.
• Bitcoin mining and its economic costs.
• Dark web economy.
• Economics of longevity and aging populations.
• Water scarcity and its economic implications.
• Impact of tourism on local economies.
• Economics of the global arms trade .

Communication is a complex study that seeks to understand how we interact with each other and the world. It looks at various aspects of interpersonal communication, from language and media to digital spaces. From the use of rhetoric to exploring communication patterns in groups, these topics for social studies will help you get started on your communication project.

• Evolution of memes as communication.
• Role of emojis in modern communication.
• Communication patterns in virtual reality.
• Miscommunication: Causes and consequences.
• Body language in different cultures.
• Communication strategies in successful startups.
• Importance of listening in effective communication.
• Deconstructing political rhetoric.
• Impact of censorship on information dissemination.
• Information overload in the digital age.
• Role of storytelling in marketing.
• Crisis communication in natural disasters.
• Communication barriers in multicultural societies.
• Impact of deep fakes on communication.
• Decoding non-verbal communication in politics.

>> Read more: Communication Research Topics

History is the social study of past events and their influence on the present and the future. From ancient civilizations to recent geopolitical shifts, history research topics give context to our collective experience. Discover these research topics in social studies focusing on historical aspects.

• Food culture in medieval Europe.
• Influence of pirate communities on maritime laws.
• Role of fashion in 1920s America.
• Art as propaganda during the Cold War.
• Coffee houses and the Enlightenment period.
• Influence of Roman architecture on modern cities.
• Graffiti and urban culture evolution.
• Impact of radio on World War II propaganda.
• Influence of jazz on the Civil Rights Movement.
• History of the global perception of tattoos.
• Role of women in Victorian society.
• Impact of the printing press on the Renaissance.
• Iconic design trends of the 20th century.
• History of the concept of privacy.
• World War I and the evolution of modern medicine.

Anthropology is a study of human societies and cultures across time and space. It investigates how people's behaviors, beliefs, and institutions are shaped, exploring everything from ancient civilizations to modern urban societies. The field of anthropology is like a melting pot of social studies, bearing witness to the diversity of human experience. Browse these research topics of social studies that reflect the richness of this discipline:

• Rituals and social cohesion in indigenous tribes.
• Cultural adaptation in immigrant communities.
• Tattoos as identity markers across cultures.
• Matrilineal societies and gender roles.
• Food taboos and their social implications.
• Body language and non-verbal communication in different cultures.
• Music as a cultural unifier in African societies.
• Role of folk tales in cultural preservation.
• Impact of urbanization on tribal communities.
• Cultural beliefs influencing health practices.
• Graffiti as an urban subculture.
• Spirituality and healing in Eastern cultures.
• Cultural appropriation vs cultural appreciation.
• Influence of pop culture on language evolution.
• The interplay between culture and fashion.

Culture is an interesting study area within social sciences, dealing with human behavior, beliefs, values, norms, and artifacts that constitute people's way of life. This branch examines how societies define their identities, express themselves, and interact with other cultures. Whether you're fascinated by cultural shifts or intercultural communication, there are plenty of topics of social science to explore. Check out these ideas for example:

• Nurturing cultural diversity in globalized cities.
• Virtual communities and digital cultures.
• Culinary traditions as cultural diplomacy.
• Impact of cinema on cultural stereotypes.
• Cyberculture and its role in shaping modern societies.
• Cross-cultural misunderstandings and their resolution.
• Artistic expressions of cultural resistance.
• Sports as a unifying cultural element.
• Cultures of silence : A look at unspoken norms.
• Exploration of meme culture.
• Body modifications and cultural connotations.
• Social dynamics in online gaming culture.
• Understanding fan culture and celebrity worship.
• Rituals of birth and death across cultures.
• Hip-hop culture and its global influence.

Religion is a complex element of human societies, examining the beliefs and practices of many groups. Analyzing religion from a social science perspective requires research into its history, function, and impact on culture. Here are some exciting social science research topics to explore in your project on religion:

• Role of religious charities in community development.
• Evolution of atheism in the 21st century.
• Secularization and modern society.
• Religion in virtual reality: An emerging trend?
• Spirituality in the workplace: A new norm?
• New age movements and modern spirituality.
• Comparative analysis of creation stories.
• Religion in science fiction literature.
• Faith healing practices across cultures.
• Environmentalism as a new form of spirituality?
• Role of religion in conflict resolution.
• Syncretic religions and cultural fusion.
• Influence of celebrity religious endorsements.
• Religious iconography in popular culture.
• Religion and mental health: An exploration.

Philosophy encourages critical thinking and provides answers to fundamental questions about life. Philosophical research can be a rewarding challenge for college and university scholars. Take a look at these thought-challengingsocial study topics and ideas for your project.

•  Artificial Intelligence and ethical considerations.
• Analyzing Stoicism in modern society.
• Existentialism in contemporary literature.
• Understanding determinism in a technological era.
• Bioethics : Morality in medical advancements.
• Veganism as a philosophical belief?
• Postmodern philosophy: A critical analysis.
• Nihilism and its portrayal in pop culture.
• Virtue ethics in business practices.
• Exploration of truth: A subjective perspective?
• Human rights: Universal or culturally relative?
• Philosophy behind climate change denial.
• Rationality versus emotion in decision-making.
• Feminist philosophy: Key tenets and evolution.
• Space exploration: Ethical dimensions and implications.

>> View more: Philosophy Research Paper Topics

Psychology investigates the complexities of human behavior, mind, and emotions, serving as a bridge between social studies and natural sciences. It's an expansive field, with myriad facets ranging from developmental psychology to neuropsychology. The topics in psychology can be incredibly diverse, mirroring the intricacy of the human mind. Here are original social science research questions that you can consider for your study in psychology:

• Mindfulness and stress reduction: A correlation?
• Adoption and its effects on child psychology.
• Developmental advantages of bilingual education.
• Dopamine fasting: An analysis of its psychological effects.
• Emotional intelligence in leadership roles.
• Color psychology in marketing and advertising.
• Impact of sleep quality on cognitive function.
• Virtual reality as a tool in phobia treatment.
• Autism spectrum disorders: Advancements in understanding.
• Psychological resilience: Nature or nurture?
• Psychological triggers of impulse buying behavior.
• Art therapy: Efficacy in mental health treatment.
• Psychological aspects of pain perception.
• Stereotype threat and its effects on performance.
• Psychology behind procrastination.

Sociology deals with human societies and interactions, focusing on patterns, trends, and social structures. It offers insights into group behavior, societal change, and the factors that influence them. Get ready for your next project in sociology with these carefully selected social studies topics. Remember, these are merely suggestions; you're encouraged to adapt them to your own interests.

• Deviance in corporate culture: An exploration.
• Intersectionality and social inequality.
• Role of social media in modern protests.
• Sociological perspectives on homeschooling.
• Gentrification: Communities in transition.
• Is fashion reflective of societal values?
• Intergenerational trauma and its effects on identity.
• Social media applications of the bystander effect.
• The sociology of conspiracy theories.
• ​​Adolescent development in multicultural contexts.
• Impact of migration on host communities.
• Analysis of societal reaction to pandemics.
• Hyper-consumerism and its effects on modern society.
• Racial disparities in educational outcomes.

>> More ideas: Sociology Research Topics

Social work examines the dynamics of social relationships and human behavior, utilizing research-based evidence to inform practice. It covers a wide range of topics related to social welfare, including social justice, public health, policy advocacy, service delivery systems, and more. Consider these research topics for social studies related to social work:

• Strategies to support homeless populations beyond shelters.
• Importance of empathy in societal support structures.
• Mental health literacy in social work.
• Vicarious trauma and its implications for professionals in helping roles.
• How society can better support the aging population.
• Addressing domestic violence through community initiatives.
• Poverty alleviation strategies in social work.
• Child labor - societal consequences and preventative measures.
• Tackling youth crime through proactive community programs.
• Evolution of refugee support in contemporary society.
• Challenges in serving indigenous populations.
• Racism and discrimination in social work practice.
• Approaches to combat human trafficking in local communities.
• Suicide prevention strategies in social work.
• Addressing unemployment through innovative community initiatives.

>> View more: Social Work Research Topics

Gender studies analyzes how our identities and societal roles are shaped by perceptions of gender. In contemporary society, various genders face different challenges due to their associated social norms and expectations. Here are some research topics for social studies related to gender:

• Intersectionality in feminist movements.
• Representation of women in global politics.
• Role of masculinity in modern society.
• LGBTQ+ representation in the media.
• Influence of culture on gender norms.
• Impact of transgender rights movements.
• Are gender norms changing in sports?
• Sexism in the workplace: Understanding its roots.
• Role of education in breaking gender stereotypes.
• Effects of gender bias in medical research.
• Influence of religion on gender perceptions.
• Non-binary identities: Cultural acceptance and legal issues.
• Do gender roles impact mental health?
• Body image: Societal expectations and personal struggle.
• How does technology affect gender equality?

Linguistics is the science of language and its many aspects. It covers topics such as how to learn a language, language change, and language variation across cultures. Here are some social science research topic ideas in linguistics that you might like:

• Impact of the digital age on language evolution.
• Influence of bilingualism on cognitive development.
• Role of dialects in shaping regional identities.
• Preservation of endangered languages: Why and how?
• Language acquisition: Nature versus nurture debate.
• Influence of language on perception of reality.
• Language in advertising: Power and persuasion.
• Politics of language: Policy and identity.
• Code-switching and cultural identity.
• Role of language in social stratification.
• Artificial Intelligence and language learning.
• How does language influence thought?
• Language discrimination and societal biases.
• Forensic linguistics: Role in justice system.
• Impact of immigration on language diversity.

So, you know how some topics for social studies just don't quite fit into neat academic boxes? Well, we have a bunch of those in social sciences. They crisscross different areas like society, culture, politics, you name it. We've got a bunch of these social studies project ideas coming up next. They're a bit of a mix, but that's what makes them so interesting. Let's jump right in and check them out.

War and conflict are inevitable parts of human history, with far-reaching ramifications. Social science research in this area can explore a range of topics from causes of war to peacekeeping strategies. Look at these  ideas that you could consider for your project:

• Impact of psychological warfare on societies.
• Cyber warfare: New battlegrounds.
• Influence of drone technology in conflicts.
• Propaganda as a tool of conflict.
• Civilian life in zones of conflict.
• Post-conflict reconstruction and societal healing.
• Child soldiers : A hidden tragedy?
• Pacifism movements in face of aggression.
• Role of international organizations in conflict resolution.
• Environmental cost of military confrontations.
• Role of women in resistance movements.
• Effect of conflicts on educational systems.
• Healthcare challenges in war-torn regions.
• Economic implications of arms trade.
• How do conflicts shape national identity?

Conflict resolution is a crucial skill in both personal and professional relationships. Social science research can explore strategies for mitigating conflicts and managing disagreements. We’ve prepared some social studies topics for research on conflict management.

• Influence of resource scarcity on global tensions.
• Diplomacy's role in international relations.
• Ethnic tensions and societal stability.
• Power dynamics in negotiation processes.
• Is effective leadership key to resolving disputes?
• Border disputes and their effect on local communities.
• Economic inequality as a source of unrest.
• How does religion contribute to global tensions?
• Cybersecurity threats and international relations.
• Migration patterns influenced by global tensions.
• Role of international law in territorial disputes.
• Impact of cultural differences on diplomatic relations.
• Influence of mass media on international disputes.
• How can education contribute to peacebuilding?
• Effect of political ideologies on international relations.

Justice is an essential part of society, guaranteeing fairness and order. Research in this field can examine questions such as how justice systems should operate and what the role of punishment should be. Consider these social sciences research paper topics concerning social justice:

• Investigating wrongful convictions: Causes and implications.
• Role of technology in ensuring fair trials.
• Environmental law and its enforcement.
• How do socioeconomic factors influence legal outcomes?
• Examining the concept of restorative punishment.
• Prison reform and rehabilitation processes.
• Public perceptions of law enforcement.
• Influence of culture on legal systems.
• Impacts of immigration laws on communities.
• Balancing national security and individual rights.
• Human rights in international law.
• Disparities in sentencing: A case study.
• Cybercrime and its implications for legal systems.
• Child protection laws and their effectiveness.
• Hate crime legislation: Comparative analysis.

>> More ideas: Criminal Justice Topics for Research Papers

Social studies fairs provide an ideal platform to explore and display interesting projects on social issues. Here are some project ideas for social studies that you could develop further:

• Music and mood: Create a survey to study the influence of different music genres on people's emotions and behavior, display results using charts or infographics.
• Global games: Construct a visual exhibit of traditional games from various cultures, showing rules, equipment, and cultural significance.
• Social media and self-image: Conduct a survey on social media's impact on body image among peers, visualize data with charts or a 3D model.
• Local climate change effects: Showcase changes in local weather patterns, plant or animal behavior with photographs, charts, and maps over time.
• School lunch around the world: Prepare a visual comparison of typical school lunches in different countries, focusing on nutrition, diversity, and food culture.
• Historical fashion show: Design and create outfits representing different periods in history, showing the evolution of fashion.
• Mapping local immigration: Use local census data to show patterns of immigration in your community over time, illustrate this on a large map.
• Food waste awareness: Monitor food waste in your school cafeteria for a week and present the results in an eye-catching way.
• Understanding local politics: Create a simplified flowchart of how local government works, based on interviews or research.
• Disaster preparedness: Create a hands-on display showing what to include in a disaster preparedness kit, and why.

Social studies are an essential part of education, allowing us to gain a better understanding of the world we live in. Whether you’re researching social sciences topics on politics, economics, history or anything else related to society, make sure to think outside the box. We hope this list gave you some inspiration for your next project! If you are experiencing any struggles with your research, don't hesitate to contact our service.

What Are Social Studies Topics?

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• Finding a Researchable Question
• Consult Your Library Experts
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Survey What is Already Known or Theorized

Track current trends, questions, and debates, prioritize your reading.

• Cross-Disciplinary Databases
• Data: Finding, Interpreting, and Visualizing It
• Tracking Stuff Down: Essential Services
• Methodology Sources
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• Presenting & Publishing Your Work

Handbooks and companions are typically edited volumes, with chapters written by authorities — or recognized experts. They synthesize current "consensus" thinking around a particular topic or present the most widely accepted perspectives and theories. They usually contain an extensive bibliography which you can mine as well.

Some major collections: 

• Cambridge Companions
• Cambridge Handbooks Online: Psychology and Linguistics
• Cambridge Histories Online
• The John Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism
• Oxford Handbooks Online
• Very Short Introductions

HOLLIS  is also a good place to search for these tools. Try combining a broad keyword search with this format type (e.g.,  genocide AND handbook  |  historiography AND companion ). Other terms to try (for rough equivalents of the handbook) are "guide" and "reader." 

JOURNAL TABLES OF CONTENTS AND LATEST ISSUES

Monitoring the latest issues of key journals in your field can help you catch wind of new ideas, schools of thought, and trending debates that may connect to your academic curiosity. The following tools aid your efforts to keep up to date:

• Browzine This app organizes scholarly journals by topic area and allows you to read them for free in a format optimized for your device.
•   Current Contents Connect A current awareness database that helps busy researchers keep up to date by providing easy online access to complete tables of contents, abstracts, and bibliographic information from the most recently published issues of leading scholarly journals. To connect, select  Current Contents Connect  from the "Search in" drop-down options in the Web of Science database, linked here.  PRO TIP:  Use Table of Contents alerting to be notified when new issues of relevant journals are available. To do so, check out these  instructions .

LITERATURE REVIEWS

Literature reviews are essays that help you understand and contextualize the principal contributions that have been made in your field. They track trends over time in the scholarly discussions of a topic and synthesize and connect related work. They cite the trailblazers and sometimes the outliers, and they even root out errors of fact or concept. Typically, they include a final section that identifies remaining questions or future directions. The following are recommended as starting points among the databases for finding literature reviews:

• Annual Reviews  offers authoritative syntheses of the primary research literature in 46 academic fields, including anthropology, economics, law, political science, and sociology
• Find literature reviews in various databases by using the filters — before or after your keyword search — to limit to literature reviews. You can do this in some of the standard social science research databases you'll be using:  APA PsycInfo ,  Social Science Premium Collection , and  Web of Science , among others.
• While faculty may have different opinions on whether dissertations should be  cited  in your research, they'll often agree that Dissertations can be gold mines for their  bibliographies.  Moreover, by convention, dissertations always have a  literature review section  (normally an entire chapter) in which writers lay the groundwork for their studies by identifying and synthesizing what's come before them. They're often worth a look as you gather a list authorities to track down and read.  And sometimes, they're great places to find primary sources, survey instruments, case studies, and more.
• This slideshow is  a quick primer on conducting research for and writing a literature review .

Often the issue in information-seeking isn't scarcity of material, but is overabundance. Annotated bibliographies that are created and curated by scholars aim to address the common problem of knowing what to read, whom to read, or which voices in the conversation to attend to more fully.

• Oxford Bibliographies Online   Combines the best features of the annotated bibliography with an authoritative subject encyclopedia. Entries identify key contributions to a topic, idea, person, or event and indicate the value of the work.
• << Previous: Research Handbooks & Guides
• Next: Cross-Disciplinary Databases >>

Except where otherwise noted, this work is subject to a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , which allows anyone to share and adapt our material as long as proper attribution is given. For details and exceptions, see the Harvard Library Copyright Policy ©2021 Presidents and Fellows of Harvard College.

147 Social Studies Topics for Your Research Project

Social studies is an integrated research field. It includes a range of topics on social science and humanities, such as history, culture, geography, sociology, education, etc. A social studies essay might be assigned to any middle school, high school, or college student. It might seem like a daunting task, but perhaps the most challenging part of the job is choosing the best topic from the many research topics in social studies. Sure, you might have a specific topic assigned to you.

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If you’re looking for social science research topics, you’re in the right place! Custom writing experts have prepared a fresh list of ideas! This article contains 147 social studies project topics on history, culture, politics, law, migration, and other fields.

New headings & sections:

• Social Study Areas => Social Science Topics & Research Areas
• Social Studies Topics on History => Social Studies Project Topics on History
• Other Social Studies Topics => Other Research Topics in Social Studies
• 🔝 Top 10 Topics

👨‍🎓 Social Study Areas

🎨 social studies topics on culture, 🏛️ social studies topics on politics & governance, 🏧 social studies topics on economics & consumption, 🏺 social studies topics on history, 💡 other social studies topics, 🔗 references, 🔝 top 10 social studies topics.

• Pros and cons of monarchy.
• Is voting a civic responsibility?
• Should democracy be everywhere?
• The causes of mass consumption.
• Globalization vs. Americanization.
• The elements of personal identity.
• What are the USA’s major resources?
• Do communication technologies impact politics?
• The importance of cultural diversity in the workplace
• How do religious institutions reinforce social stability?

Social studies can be represented by ten aspects described below:

• Culture. While working with social studies, you need to understand how culture shapes our society and affects our lives. It includes learning how people create, adapt to, and share their cultural diversity.
• People and the environment. This aspect helps students create their perception of the world and how human beings interact with their environment. It is achieved through learning about different locations, people, and resources that are there.
• Production and consumption. Here, it is all about studying how people manage the production and distribution of goods. Usually, this theme is represented by subjects connected with economics.
• Time. It is mostly related to history. Therefore, students get to know about the significant events and changes that influenced our present. In addition, they learn about the beliefs and values of our ancestors.
• Identity. This theme is vital because it allows learners to understand how personal identity develops. They find out how family, culture, and friends affect people’s actions and personal growth.
• Institutions and groups. There are multiple institutions created by people: families, colleges, governments, and religious organizations. This theme lets students understand how institutions are formed and maintained and what changes they bring.
• Authority and governments. One of the essential parts of social studies is the theme of authority. Thanks to it, students can understand how different forms of governance are created. It also includes analyzing the functions and purposes of political systems.
• Globalization. Learners are helped to discover the interconnections between societies and the issues they create on a global scale. Everything is interdependent nowadays, and the importance of global connections is rising.
• Civic ideas. Students need to understand civic ideas to be fully functioning independent members of society. This vital theme includes learning about citizen’s rights and responsibilities.
• Science and technology. This aspect is not only about the development of technology and scientific achievements. It is also about how society is connected to those processes. Moreover, students learn about their impacts on people.

If you are looking for social studies project topics on the culture, you might consider the following aspects.

Every social study project would focus on how cultural attributes, such as traditions, arts, literature, are created and shared. It is important to remember to highlight both differences and similarities while doing comparative research.

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One of the features of culture is that it’s dynamic and continuously changing, which means it is correlated with the personal development and beliefs of citizens. Moreover, you can look into the influence of culture on different political and religious institutions.

All in all, the list of topics in social studies below is all about the interconnection between culture and society. If you’re not a fan of the listed options, you can at least take the keywords and use a generator of random topics to write about . This will give you a lot more variants to choose from.

• The principles of the multicultural policy of Australia : benefits. Australia is one of the countries that support cultural diversity. The government even created an official policy based on four principles to ensure that everybody has equal rights to participate in the community.
• Indonesian communities and ancestor worships. Practices connected to ancestor worship are based on the belief that the spirits of the dead have the powers to affect the destinies of the living.
• The domestic etiquette of modern Americans . All cultures have different etiquette – a set of rules that governs social behavior. Those norms are changing along with the culture, but can also be different depending on the social situation.
• Gender issues and women in Medieval society. In the Middle Ages, women were not allowed to receive education, had limited social rights, and had to obey their fathers’ and husbands’ will.
• Gender roles : how are boys and girls raised in American families? Gender roles enforce some specific standards and expectations of how men and women should behave. Study the socially appropriate gender roles in modern families.
• Taboos and emotions in modern society. Taboo is something prohibited from doing under the fear of punishment. Even though taboos are originally related to the sacred and spiritual practices, today, people are banned from expressing some emotions.
• How have hippies created the US? This research would focus on the ways the hippie movement made a change in the history of the country. Their cultural practices have influenced many aspects of our lives.

• Family values and religion. The family has always been considered the base of a happy American life. However, to what extent has religion affected the most common family values?
• Why does political correctness matter so much today? Political correctness means the ban on using some phrases that may be inappropriate. As a cultural phenomenon, it was created by college students in America in the 1980s.
• Is our future in social responsibility ? Social responsibility is a policy that encourages people to act for the benefit of their community and society as a whole. Could this approach help us build a better future?

One of the most important themes of social studies is about politics. When conducting science research related to this topic, you should possess a considerable amount of knowledge and experience in the issues described below.

Understanding the existing systems of governance means also knowing how political views and institutions were created. In the constantly changing world, the functions of authorities are dynamic as well.

However, you should not forget to include the relationship with citizens in this equation. Every member of society has needs, rights, and responsibilities, issues with which should also be addressed.

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Here are some examples of social studies topics related to politics, which you may find useful:

• The American Whig party: a case study of the South. In the 19th century, the Whigs were one of two main political parties in the US. In this research, you could concentrate on analyzing the political tensions of this party in the South.
• Political parties and violence in the US. There are two major political parties nowadays. However, have you ever thought about why there are so much political violence and harsh competition between them?
• The change of the ideology of the Republican party after the Civil War. The Civil War has changed the perception of many people. It left a mark on the political views as well. Track the transformation of the Republican party’s ideology since then.
• Tory party and the British welfare under their rule. For the sake of some diversity, we have included a topic on the British political party as well. In this research, you would look into the social issues caused by the Tories.
• Is there a connection between anti-Americanism and anti-Semitic movement? Study the roots of anti-Americanism as a political view. Also, you can work on contrasting and comparing it to anti-Semitism.
• Student activism and the Black Power movement. This civil rights movement has been around for ages. For this research, you would need to study the Black Power’s topic and the student activism involved in it.
• The difficulties of the civil war in Sri Lanka. This island country has suffered the Sinhalese- Tamil conflict and the proceeding civil war. Your task would be to look into the complexities of this conflict.
• The power of Congress over presidential elections. It is one of the social science topics that requires gathering a lot of materials. You would have to analyze the Constitution and find the related cases in history.
• Voting technology: what can the law do against election fraud? Bribery and other corrupt practices in relation to the election process is not anything new. However, how can the law make a change?
• The most prominent political machines of the last decade. This paper would be interesting for students you prefer analyzing and comparing. You would need to gather information on the most prominent political machines in the US.
• A discussion of judicial independence
• Political culture in the U.S.
• A comparison of the models of democracy
• A comparison of electoral systems
• Authoritarianism vs. totalitarianism

Research topics in social studies on economics would always be related to the theme of production and consumption. You would have to understand how people manage to produce and sell goods and services worldwide.

There are multiple issues in the global economics that you, as a student, could address in your argumentative paper. It includes the unequal distribution of goods along with the growing demand.

You might as well find it interesting to research how the production of specific goods is organized and the role of technology in that process. It is also essential to look into how governments cope with market failures and how they improve the well-being of the economies.

• The flaws of the economic democracy system: a case study. Pick and analyze the issues that this socioeconomic system might have. It would be better if you add real-life cases to the analysis.
• Morality and global capitalism. Your task would be to analyze the five features of global capitalism and determine how it can be socially acceptable. Look through every moral issue that arises.
• The bankruptcy of the middle class in the US. This research focuses on the root causes, as well as consequences, of so many cases of bankruptcy among American middle-class families.
• Can we foresee the future of the European Monetary System? Ever since 1979, the Euro has been serving its purpose. However, this paper would highlight the economic factors that can lead to disruptions in this system.
• Wall Street : did we learn from the 2008 crash ? The year of 2008 punched many Americans, leaving their wealth reduced noticeably. But did we learn from past mistakes? Can we prevent the crisis from happening again?
• Understanding stock markets : profitable investments. To make a profitable investment, you need to know everything about the industry sector and stock market cycles. Compile the tips and tricks that can make it work.
• How has the Silk Road influenced the current global economy? Connecting East and West, those trade routes existed for centuries. For this cool research, you would need to analyze the current economic situation and find the features that exist thanks to the Silk Road.
• Coffee beans and fair trade . Selling coffee beans internationally, some communities and families depend on this business. However, how fair is this fair trade market? Who looks after social justice?
• Pros and cons of dollarization: a case study. Currency substitution or dollarization can’t solve the economic crisis. Study some cases of this process in different countries and analyze the benefits and problems of it.
• How to predict the exchange rate behavior? In this research, you would need to study the sources of changes in the exchange rates. You might as well look into the tools that might help predict the behavior of the rates.

• Provide real-life examples of how you or someone else plans their studies, controls pocket money, or organizes their working day.
• How organizations foster social and civic responsibility
• Crisis management post-9/11
• The growth of management in developing countries
• Conflict management in virtual and global teams
• An analysis of the benefits vs. cost of attaining a post-secondary education
• Wealth distribution and the availability of resources
• An examination of the trickle-down effect in today’s society
• Is the financial crisis of 2008 really over?
• How advertisements can create a sense of separation and association with the feminine identity
• The role of censorship in advertising
• The image of perfection in advertising
• Gender roles in advertising
• Rhetorical analysis of various marketing campaigns . How global corporations influence people’s decisions?
• Transnational organizations analytics. Determining the most appropriate and effective marketing strategies
• Advertisement analysis . The significance of the assessment in a rhetorical essay.
• Marketing reports . Explain the primary objectives of the document. When writing business or marketing essays, it is crucial to include analysis of particular examples.
• The importance of an analytical paragraph in a business essay. How does it help to define specific company’s strengths and weaknesses?
• Unethical advertising examples. What must be avoided when developing another strategy?
• Is it always worth it to spend immense amounts of money on risky advertising campaigns?
• Will the most common advertising methods work for every kind of a product?
• What issues must be considered when organizing an ad campaign?
• Positive and negative effects of advertising .

In the list of social science essay topics, there should always be at least a few questions dedicated to history. Unless we know our past, we can’t possibly understand human nature.

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For high school students, it is necessary to learn about the changes and different experiences in society. The way that values, traditions, and rules have been changing shapes our current development.

While looking for interesting social studies topics in this field, consider analyzing the root causes and consequences of different changes. Look into the ways how our social system has been developing, and you would find something exciting, for sure!

• What was the social meaning of corsets in the 20th century? Corsets are the part of the outfit that was designed to shape or modify the figure. By the 20th century, it has somewhat shaped the culture as well.
• Demystifying the stereotypes about 19th-century women in the US . There was war, and there were changes. How did the life a woman look like back then? Find the most common misunderstandings about it and conduct a historical analysis.
• African American : the historical study of social factors affecting crime. For this research, you could look into the cultural and social aspects that have influenced the response of African Americans to crimes and injustice.
• The changes in the lives of average American citizens in the 1930s. Urbanization and technological development shook the world in those years. Find out how Americans were adjusting to their new lives.
• How the environment shapes the perspective: the baby boomers ? In the example of the baby boomers’ generation, study the effects of the social and cultural aspects on identity and personal values.
• The process of development of Italian fashion and the US. You would be studying the historical facts in support of the idea that the US played an essential role in the Italian fashion industry development.
• Generation X and global leaders. This topic focuses on the most prominent world leaders in different areas. Your task would be to find the connection between the personal specifics of generation X and global leaders.
• Women in the Victorian Age and domestic rules. Conduct research on the ideology of Victorian women. What social challenges connected to industrialization were they forced to face?
• Servants in the American houses in the middle of the 20th century. In the 1920s, women started quitting their housewives’ chores and hiring servants to do them instead. You would look into the social sources of such a change in the domestic life of that time.
• What is the connection between social change and the American schooling system? Look into the development of the educational institutions in the US over a chosen period. Find out what social factors have affected the process.
• Civil disorders
• Political terrorism
• Non-political terrorism
• Limited political terrorism
• Expand on the problem of democracy and domestic terrorism
• A study of terrorist groups
• State-sponsored terrorism
• The tactics of terrorism
• The history of terrorism
• The causes of terrorism
• Responses to terrorism and counter-terrorism global policy
• For more topics ideas, check out Research Guide for Students .
• How enlistment in the U.S. Army works
• The top five army bases
• Customs and courtesies in the military
• The history of Memorial Day
• The threat of homelessness for veterans
• Turkic migration
• Mongol invasions
• Great migration of the 1630s
• Great migration of African Americans
• Government regulations
• Socially irresponsible corporations
• Antitrust provision
• International business law and legal regulations for international corporations and companies
• Business law in the Islamic world and how it differs from that of other countries

Criminology

• Crime prevention
• Juvenile delinquency
• Victimology
• Deviant behavior

When you write an essay on justice, you have a great opportunity to present your opinion on the subject. Here are some potential topics:

• Justice: A Myth or Reality?
• Tell about today’s idea of justice. What do people do to establish justice in the world?
• Give your reasons why absolute justice is impossible.
• How justice is portrayed in Crime and Punishment by Dostoyevsky
• Discuss the Heaven Justice

Gender Studies

• Women and the Taliban
• Chinese women as seen through the Chinese culture
• Women and Confucian cultures in Korea
• Witch hunts in the Western world
• The influence of feminism on men
• The challenge of feminist biblical interpretation
• Gender identity and the particulars of word-of-mouth communication
• How leadership styles differ based on gender
• Women empowerment
• Why do women think that their rights are neglected in free countries?
• Gender inequality : are men more likely to receive well-paid jobs than women with precisely same characteristics?
• Are men considered to be better employees than women ?
• Can feminists persuade the government to make changes in the law beneficial for them?
• Gender discrimination in everyday life
• The purpose of feminist demonstrations
• Are people concerned about the problem of gender inequality in their everyday lives?
• Where are the human rights of women neglected and why?
• Causes of gender inequality
• Is the factor of overall equality necessary for the development of the world or not?
• What are the most popular examples of equality among citizens of one country?

• Gender stratification definition. Where can it be observed in the modern society?
• What can be changed because of mass feminism?
• Gender stereotypes . Is everything that we hear about discrimination right?
• What is gender stratification ?
• Are females discriminated in the modern society, or this issue is fabricated?
• Gender roles in the workplace
• Factors contributing to gender inequality
• Disadvantages of gender equality
• Gender equality theory
• Gender imbalance definition. What is the origin of the term and where it is used?
• Gender superiority. Is it true that males were always dominant figures in the history?
• History of gender discrimination . Was this societal rule present in the prehistoric times, and when it was introduced?
• Gender disparity definition. What is the origin of the term and where it is used today?

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• Our Mission

Preparing Social Studies Students to Think Critically in the Modern World

Vetting primary resources isn’t easy—but doing it well is crucial for fostering engagement and deeper learning in a rapidly changing world.

In an era when students must sort through increasingly complex social and political issues, absorbing news and information from an evolving digital landscape, social studies should be meaningful and engaging—a means for preparing students for the modern world, writes Paul Franz for EdSurge . Yet much of our social studies curricula emphasizes content knowledge over the development of foundational, critical thinking skills such as understanding the context in which primary sources were created, and determining the credibility of resources.

“The consequence of this approach, coupled with a preference by many schools for multiple-choice assessments, turns out students who are disillusioned with social studies—and creates an environment where “accumulating knowledge and memorizing information is emphasized because that’s what counts on standardized tests,” writes Franz.

In his book Why Learn History (When It’s Already on Your Phone) , author Sam Wineburg, a professor at Stanford’s Graduate School of Education, examines how historians approach resources and argues that this is how teachers should be rigorously vetting—and teaching students to vet—social studies materials for the classroom.

Wineburg first describes how an AP US History student analyzes a New York Times article from 1892 about the creation of Discovery Day, later renamed Columbus Day. The student criticizes the article for celebrating Columbus as a noble hero when, in fact, he “captured and tortured Indians.” However, when real-life historians examine the same article, Wineburg notes that their  approach is “wildly different.”

“When historians encounter this resource, their first move is to source it and put it in context, not to engage with the content,” writes Franz. “This article, to them, isn’t really about Columbus at all. It’s about President Harrison, who was responsible for the proclamation, and the immigration politics of the 1890s.”

The skills demonstrated by the historians are the same skills that should form the core of effective social studies education, according to Franz:

• Assessing the point of view of an author and source
• Placing arguments in context
• Validating the veracity of a claim

It is critical that teachers model this process for students: “Vetting social studies resources is important not just because we want to ensure students are learning from accurate, verifiable materials. It’s important also because the ability to ask questions about sources, bias, and context are at the heart of social studies education and are essential skills for thriving in the modern world.”

Much like historians, professional fact-checkers verify digital resources by using lateral reading. As opposed to vertical reading, where a reader might stay within a single website to evaluate a factual claim, fact-checkers scan a resource briefly, then open up new browser tabs to read more widely about the original site and verify its credibility via outside sources. This process mirrors how historians vet primary sources.

Teachers may also, of course, choose to rely on vetted social studies resources and lessons published by reputable sources—Franz recommends Newsela, Newseum, The National Archives, and the Stanford History Education Group.

Encouraging students to seek out knowledge and ideas, and then to deeply explore the reliability of their sources by considering their context, perspective, and accuracy should be the core skill of any rigorous social studies curriculum.

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How teens and parents approach screen time, most teens at least sometimes feel happy and peaceful when they don’t have their phone, but 44% say this makes them anxious. half of parents say they have looked through their teen’s phone.

Pew Research Center conducted this study to better understand teens’ and parents’ experiences with screen time. 

The Center conducted an online survey of 1,453 U.S. teens and parents from Sept. 26 to Oct. 23, 2023, through Ipsos. Ipsos invited one parent from each of a representative set of households with parents of teens in the desired age range from its KnowledgePanel . The KnowledgePanel is a probability-based web panel recruited primarily through national, random sampling of residential addresses. Parents were asked to think about one teen in their household (if there were multiple teens ages 13 to 17 in the household, one was randomly chosen). At the conclusion of the parent’s section, the parent was asked to have this chosen teen come to the computer and complete the survey in private.

The survey is weighted to be representative of two different populations: 1) parents with teens ages 13 to 17 and 2) teens ages 13 to 17 who live with parents. For each of these populations, they survey is weighted to be representative by age, gender, race and ethnicity, household income and other categories.

This research was reviewed and approved by an external institutional review board (IRB), Advarra, an independent committee of experts specializing in helping to protect the rights of research participants.

Here are the questions among parents and among teens used for this report, along with responses, and its methodology ­­­.

Today’s teenagers are more digitally connected than ever. Most have access to smartphones and use social media , and nearly half say they are online almost constantly. But how are young people navigating this “always on” environment?  

To better understand their experiences, we surveyed both teens and parents on a range of screen time-related topics. Our questions explored the emotions teens tie to their devices, the impact of smartphones on youth, and the challenges parents face when raising children in the digital age.

Key findings from the survey:

• Phone-less: 72% of U.S. teens say they often or sometimes feel peaceful when they don’t have their smartphone; 44% say it makes them feel anxious.
• Good for hobbies, less so for socialization: 69% of teens say smartphones make it easier for youth to pursue hobbies and interests; fewer (30%) say it helps people their age learn good social skills.
• Parental snooping: Half of parents say they have looked through their teen’s phone.
• Smartphone standoffs: About four-in-ten parents and teens report regularly arguing with one another about time spent on their phone.
• Distracted parenting: Nearly half of teens (46%) say their parent is at least sometimes distracted by their phone when they’re trying to talk to them.

This Pew Research Center survey of 1,453 U.S. teens ages 13 to 17 and their parents was conducted Sept. 26-Oct. 23, 2023. 1

Jump to read about views among teens on: Screen time | Feelings when disconnected from phones | Thoughts on smartphones’ impact

Jump to read about views among parents on: Parenting in the smartphone age | Their own screen time struggles

Teens’ views on screen time and efforts to cut back

Fully 95% of teens have access to a smartphone, and about six-in-ten say they use TikTok, Snapchat or Instagram . But do teens think they spend too much time in front of screens?

More teens say they spend too much time on their phone or social media than say they don’t spend enough time on them. We found that 38% of teens say they spend too much time on their smartphone. About a quarter say the same regarding their social media use. 2

But the largest shares say the amount of time they spend on their phone (51%) or on social media (64%) is about right. Relatively few teens say they don’t spend enough time with these technologies.

Views on this differ by gender. Teen girls are more likely than boys to say they spend too much time on their smartphone (44% vs. 33%) or social media (32% vs. 22%).

Teens’ efforts to curb their screen time

A minority of teens have taken steps to reduce their screen time. Roughly four-in-ten teens (39%) say they have cut back on their time on social media. A similar share says the same about their phone (36%).

Still, most teens have not limited their smartphone (63%) or social media (60%) use.

How teens’ behaviors vary by gender

About four-in-ten or more girls say they have cut back on their smartphone or social media use. For boys, those figures drop to roughly one-third.

How teens’ behaviors vary based on their screen time

Teens who report spending too much time on social media and smartphones are especially likely to report cutting back on each. For instance, roughly six-in-ten teens who say they are on social media too much say they have cut back (57%). This is far higher than the 32% among those who say they are on social media too little or the right amount.

How teens feel when they don’t have their phone

Teens encounter a range of emotions when they don’t have their phones, but we asked them about five specific ones. Roughly three-quarters of teens say it often or sometimes makes them feel happy (74%) or peaceful (72%) when they don’t have their smartphone.

Smaller but notable shares of teens equate not having their phone with more negative emotions. Teens say not having their phone at least sometimes makes them feel anxious (44%), upset (40%) and lonely (39%).

It is worth noting that only a minority of teens – ranging from 7% to 32% – say they often feel these emotions when they’re phone-less.

Teens’ feelings on this differ by some demographic factors:

• Age and gender: Older girls ages 15 to 17 (55%) are more likely than younger girls (41%) and teen boys who are younger (41%) and older (40%) to say they feel anxious at least sometimes when they don’t have their smartphone.
• Gender: 45% of teen girls say not having their phone makes them feel lonely regularly, compared with 34% of teen boys.

Do teens think smartphones are negatively impacting young people?

As smartphones have become a universal part of teen life, many have asked what impact, if any, phones are having on today’s youth.

Teens shared their perspectives on smartphones’ impact on people their age and whether these devices have made certain aspects of growing up more or less challenging.

Most teens think the benefits of smartphones outweigh the harms for people their age. Seven-in-ten teens say smartphones provide more benefits than harms for people their age, while a smaller share (30%) take the opposing view, saying there are more harms than benefits.

Teens’ views, by gender and age

Younger girls ages 13 and 14 (39%) are more likely than older teen girls (29%) and teen boys who are younger (29%) and older (25%) to say that the harms of people their age using smartphones outweigh the benefits.

The survey also shows that teens see these devices’ impacts on specific aspects of life differently.

More teens believe smartphones make it easier, rather than harder, to be creative, pursue hobbies and do well in school. Majorities of teens say smartphones make it a little or a lot easier for people their age to pursue hobbies and interests (69%) and be creative (65%). Close to half (45%) say these devices have made it easier for youth to do well in school.

Views are more mixed when it comes to developing healthy friendships. Roughly four-in-ten teens say smartphones make it easier for teens to develop healthy friendships, while 31% each say they make it harder or neither easier nor harder.

But they think smartphones have a more negative than positive impact on teens’ social skills. A larger percentage of teens say smartphones make learning good social skills harder (42%) rather than easier (30%). About three-in-ten say it neither helps nor hurts.

How parents navigate raising teens in the smartphone age

With the rise of smartphones, today’s parents must tackle many questions that previous generations did not. How closely should you monitor their phone use? How much screen time is too much? And how often do phones lead to disagreements?

We developed a set of parallel questions to understand the perspectives of both parents and teens. Here’s what we found:

It’s common for parents to look through their teen’s phone – and many of their teens know it. Half of parents of teens say they look through their teen’s phone. When we asked teens if they thought their parents ever look through their phones, 43% believed this had happened.

Whether parents report looking through their child’s smartphone depends on their kid’s age. While 64% of parents of 13- to 14-year-olds say they look through their teen’s smartphone, this share drops to 41% among parents of 15- to 17-year-olds.

Teens’ accounts of this also vary depending on their age: 56% of 13- to 14-year-olds say their parent checks their smartphone, compared with 35% of teens ages 15 to 17.

How often do parents and teens argue about phone time?

Parents and teens are equally likely to say they argue about phone use. Roughly four-in-ten parents and teens (38% each) say they at least sometimes argue with each other about how much time their teen spends on the phone. This includes 10% in each group who say this happens often .

Still, others say they never have these types of disagreements. One-quarter of parents say they never argue with their teen about this, while 31% of teens say the same.

Teens’ and parents’ views, by race and ethnicity

Hispanic Americans stand out for reporting having these disagreements often. While 16% of Hispanic teens say they often argue with their parent about how much time they’re spending on their phone, that share drops to 9% for White teens and 6% for Black teens. 3

A similar pattern is present among parents. Hispanic parents (19%) are more likely than White (6%) or Black (7%) parents to say they often argue with their teen about this.

Teens’ views, by frequency of internet use

The amount of time teens report being online is also a factor. About half (47%) of teens who report being online almost constantly say they at least sometimes argue with their parent about the amount of time they spend on their phone, compared with those who are online less often (30%). 

How much do parents prioritize tracking their teen’s phone use?

Most parents prioritize managing the amount of time their teen spends on the phone. Roughly three-quarters of parents (76%) say managing how much time their teen spends on the phone is an important or a top priority.  Still, 19% of parents don’t consider this a priority.

Parents’ views, by race and ethnicity

Majorities of parents across racial and ethnic groups think of this as a priority. But some groups stand out for how much they prioritize this. For example, Hispanic (25%) or Black (24%) parents are more likely to say managing how much time their teen is on the phone is a top priority. That share drops to 10% among White parents.

Parents’ views, by household income

We also see differences between the lowest and highest income households: 22% of parents whose annual household income is less than $30,000 consider managing the amount of time their teen is on the phone a top priority, compared with 14% of those whose household income is $75,000 or more a year. Those whose household income is $30,000 to $74,999 a year do not meaningfully differ from either group.

Do parents set time limits on their teen’s phone use?

There’s a nearly even split between parents who restrict their teen’s time on their phone and those who don’t. About half of parents (47%) say they limit the amount of time their teen can be on their phone, while a similar share (48%) don’t do this.

Parents’ views, by teen’s age

Parents of younger teens are far more likely to regulate their child’s screen time. While 62% of parents of 13- to 14-year-olds say they limit how much time their teen can be on their phone, that share drops to 37% among those with a 15- to 17-year-old.

How difficult is it for parents to keep up with their teen’s phone use?

Managing screen time can feel like an uphill battle for some parents. About four-in-ten say it’s hard to manage how much time their teen spends on their phone. A smaller share (26%) says this is easy to do. 

Another 26% of parents fall in the middle – saying it’s neither easy nor hard.

Higher-income parents are more likely to find it difficult to manage their teen’s phone time. Roughly half (47%) of parents living in households earning $75,000 or more a year say managing the amount of time their teen is on their phone is hard. These shares are smaller among parents whose annual household income falls below $30,000 (38%) or is between $30,000 and $74,999 (32%).

Parents’ own struggles with device distractions, screen time

Teens aren’t the only ones who can be glued to their phones. Parents, too, can find themselves in an endless cycle of checking emails , text messages and social media.

With that in mind, we asked parents to think about their own screen time – both the time they spend on their phone, and if it ever gets in the way of connecting with their teen.

Do parents think they spend too much time on their phone?

Like teens, parents are far more likely to say they spend too much rather than not enough time on their phone. About half of parents (47%) say they spend too much time on their smartphone. Just 5% think they spend too little time on it. And 45% believe they spend the right amount of time on their phone.

Parents’ views differ by:

• Household Income: 50% of parents with annual household incomes of $75,000 or more say they spend too much time on their phone. This share drops to 41% among those living in households earning $30,000 to $74,999 a year and 38% among those earning under $30,000.
• Race and ethnicity: 57% of White parents believe they spend too much time on their phone, compared with 38% of Black parents and 34% of Hispanic parents.

How often are parents distracted by their phone when talking with their teen?

When it comes to distracted parenting, parents paint a rosier picture than teens. Nearly half of teens (46%) say their parent is at least sometimes distracted by their phone when they’re trying to talk to them, including 8% who say this happens often.

But when parents were asked to assess their own behavior, fewer – 31% – say this happens regularly.

• Throughout this report, “teens” refers to those ages 13 to 17 and “parents” refers to those with a child ages 13 to 17. ↩
• A  2018 Center survey  also asked U.S teens some of the same questions about experiences and views related to smartphone and social media. Direct comparisons cannot be made across the two surveys due to mode, sampling and recruitment differences. Please read the Methodology section  to learn more about how the current survey was conducted. ↩
• There were not enough Asian respondents in the sample to be broken out into a separate analysis. As always, their responses are incorporated into the general population figures throughout the report. ↩

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About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .