thesis on food security

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Exploration of Food Security Challenges towards More Sustainable Food Production: A Systematic Literature Review of the Major Drivers and Policies

Sabreen wahbeh.

1 Faculty of Business, University of Wollongong in Dubai, Dubai 20183, United Arab Emirates

Foivos Anastasiadis

2 Department of Agribusiness and Supply Chain Management, Agricultural University of Athens, 11855 Athens, Greece

Balan Sundarakani

Ioannis manikas, associated data.

Not applicable.

Food security is a central priority for international policy as one of the world’s most significantly urgent targets to achieve. It is considered one of the most pressing issues in many countries, the degree of food security representing the level of self-sufficiency and well-being of citizens. In particular, in the current COVID-19 pandemic era, it has more than ever become a mission-critical goal. In this research, we report on the food security drivers and the current state of recommended policies addressing chronic food insecurity aimed at ensuring the sustainability of future food production. Mapping the determinants of food security contributes to a better understanding of the issue and aids in the development of appropriate food security policies and strategies to enhance the sustainability of food production in all facets; namely environmental, social, and economic. Adopting the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) data screening and selection guidelines and standards, we carried out a comprehensive, reliable, systematic, and rigorous review of research from the last ten years in order to identify the most frequently mentioned drivers and policies of food security in the literature available in two databases: Scopus and Web of Science (WOS). The number of extracted articles was 141 papers in total. An analysis revealed 34 drivers of food security and 17 most recommended policies for the mitigation of food insecurity. The existence of food loss and waste (FLW) policies was the primary driver of food security, followed by food security policies (FSP) in their different forms. However, FSP were the most recommended policies, followed by FLW policies. The identified food security drivers and recommended policies should be used by policy-makers to improve food security, thus contributing to sustainable food production. Our research findings, reflected in the latest version of the Global Food Security Index (GFSI), resulted in more tangible policy implications, suggesting the addition of two dimensions regarding food security. We also identified elements not listed under the GFSI that could be considered in its future revision, including environmental policies/indicators, consumer representation, and traceability throughout the entire supply chain. Overall, it can be concluded that food security is a complicated and multi-faceted issue that cannot be restricted to a single variable, necessitating the deeper integration of various multi-disciplinary interventions.

1. Introduction

Food security (FS) is “a situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” [ 1 ] p.3. It is a significant priority for international policy [ 2 ], and has been perceived as being among the key challenges worldwide [ 3 ] as it represents a country’s degree of self-sufficiency and the well-being of its citizens [ 4 ]. Securing a nation’s self-sufficiency has become a top priority in the context of the current COVID-19 global epidemic era, even more so than earlier [ 5 ]. Economic expansion, rising incomes, urbanization, and growing population are driving up the demand for food, as people adopt more diverse and resource-intensive dietary habits [ 2 , 6 ]. The world’s current population is steadily increasing, placing significant pressure on the available natural resources to feed the growing population [ 7 , 8 , 9 ]; however, this dramatic growth in the global population is anticipated mainly in developing countries, which already suffer from devastating hunger and food insecurity [ 7 ]. One of the biggest obstacles to ensuring global food security is the need to roughly double food production within the coming few decades, particularly in the context of the developing world’s rapidly increasing demand [ 10 , 11 ]. The natural resources such as land, water, energy, and other resources used in food production are all subject to increasing competition [ 12 , 13 ]. Climate change poses difficulties for agricultural production [ 14 ], mainly in developing nations, while some existing farming practices harm the environment and contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) [ 15 , 16 ]. There is a real danger that less developed countries may be forced to reverse direction. The FAO’s statistics on world hunger in 2009 showed a dramatic rise to 1.023 billion people, demonstrating precisely such a situation. When commodity prices fell the following year, this number dropped to 925 million, which was still more prominent than in 2007 (i.e., before the price spike) [ 17 ]. According to recent data published by the Global Hunger Index, the number of malnourished people grew from 785 million in 2015 to 822 million in 2018. Moreover, 43 out of 117 countries reported extreme hunger [ 18 ]. Approximately 20% of developing countries lack the resources and physical access necessary to provide their citizens with the most basic food. Children in developing countries face vitamin and nutritional deficiencies and being underweight, which puts them at risk for various sicknesses due to food insecurity [ 12 ]. National and global imbalances brought on by food insecurity are expected to worsen human suffering and make it harder for people to survive [ 12 ]. Despite the efforts of multiple global organizations such as the FAO and the UN, the problem of food insecurity is worsening [ 19 ], which means that more effective and sustainable solutions must be provided to ensure the alleviation of food insecurity and the sustainability of food production. Hence, policy-makers must understand that in a world that is becoming more globalized, food insecurity in one region could have significant political, economic, and environmental impacts elsewhere [ 2 ].

Throughout the twentieth century, policy-makers used the concept of food security as a key notion in formulating food-related policies [ 17 ]. Lang and Barling [ 17 ] have proposed two main schools of thought on food security: the first focused on increased production as the primary solution to under-consumption and hunger, while the second is a newer one that is more socially and environmentally conscious and accepts the need to address a wide range of issues, not just production. The former is primarily concerned with agriculture, while the latter is concerned with food systems. One approach to solve the food security challenge is to intensify agricultural production in ways that impose much less environmental stress and do not jeopardize our long-term ability to continue producing food [ 2 ]. The above sustainable intensification strategy comprises a policy agenda for several governments worldwide, but has also drawn criticism for being overly production-focused or incoherent [ 2 ]. The central mission of the twenty-first century is to establish a sustainable food system, which calls for a more concrete policy framework than that which is currently in place [ 17 ]. This mission has been disrupted by competing solutions for policy focus and policies that have, so far, failed to incorporate the complex array of evidence from social, environmental, and economic components into such an integrated and comprehensive policy response [ 17 ]. Millions of people are being pushed into a cycle of food insecurity and poverty due to climate change; however, we can combat both food insecurity and climate change by implementing climate-friendly agricultural production methods [ 12 ]. Tsolakis and Srai [ 20 ] have stated that any comprehensive food security policy should entail multi-dimensional policies considering aspects such as resilience, trade, self-sufficiency, food waste, and sustainability. As it is traditionally understood, food security concerns individuals, while ecological and environmental concepts operate locally and at supra-national, regional, and international levels [ 1 ]. According to Guiné, Pato [ 21 ], the four pillars of food security—availability, access, utilization, and stability—should be reconsidered to include additional factors such as climate change. Clapp, Moseley [ 22 ] has also stressed that it is time to officially update the existing food security definition to involve two further dimensions—sustainability and agency—containing broader dynamics that have an impact on hunger and malnutrition [ 23 ]. Sustainability relates to the long-term ability of food systems to ensure food and nutrition security in a way that does not jeopardize the economic, social, and environmental foundations that generate food and nutrition security for upcoming generations [ 22 , 23 ]. Agency represents the ability of people or groups to decide what they consume, what they produce, and how they produce, process, and distribute their food within food systems, as well as their capacity to participate in processes that shape the food system’s policies and governance [ 22 , 23 ]. Instead of dismissing food security as being insufficient, Clapp, Moseley [ 22 ] has contended that the inclusion of two extra dimensions—agency and sustainability—into food security policy and assessment frameworks will help to guarantee that every human has access to food, not just now but also in the future. Sustainability can be viewed as a pre-requisite for long-term food security [ 1 ]. Environmental aspects—particularly climate and the availability of natural resources—are pre-requisite for food availability and biodiversity protection [ 24 ]. The availability of food for everybody depends on economic and social sustainability. Food utilization, too, is influenced by social sustainability. The three components of sustainability—social, economic, and environmental—ensure the continuity of the three food security dimensions and the food system stability on which they rely. As confirmation of the vital relationship between food security and sustainability, “The International Food Policy Research Institute” has launched a 2020 Vision of Food Security to achieve food security, stating that “a world where every person has economic and physical access to sufficient food to sustain a healthy and productive life, where malnutrition is absent, and where food originates from efficient, effective, and low-cost food and agricultural systems that are compatible with sustainable use and management of natural resources” [ 12 ] (p357). Many policies, priorities, technologies, and long-term solutions must be developed and implemented worldwide to achieve the 2020 food security vision [ 10 , 11 , 12 ]. However, there is a scarcity of systematic studies analyzing the food security drivers and the recommended policies to improve food security.

Following a review of the academic literature, we discovered a scarcity of research that systemically summarizes the major drivers of food security, outlines the recommended policies to improve food security, ensures the sustainability of future food production, and provides policy recommendations to enhance food security based on a country’s context. In response to this gap in the literature, we carried out a comprehensive, reliable, systematic, and rigorous review of previous research from the last ten years in order to identify the most frequently mentioned drivers/policies in the scanned literature. The rationale behind this study is to identify and list food security drivers and the current state of recommended policies that address chronic food insecurity to ensure the sustainability of future food production, utilizing a systematic literature review (SLR) methodology. Moreover, we hope to identify drivers/policies in order to aid policy-makers in selecting the most appropriate policies based on each nation’s context (e.g., agricultural production, natural resource availability, climate, political stability, and so on). Most importantly, policy-makers can use the identified drivers of food security and the recommended policies in the literature to customize appropriate policies that ensure the sustainability of future food production and, hence, ensure food sustainability for future generations. Based on the evidence reported in the literature, the identified food security drivers and recommended policies will aid the policy- and decision-makers of various countries in sustainably improving the food security situation. The need to identify the main drivers of food security arises from the notable increase in households and individuals suffering from food shortages and insecurity globally [ 25 ]. Finally, the findings of this research will be used to inform the GFSI developers in order to include more comprehensive indicators expected to contribute to the sustainability of future food production.

2. Materials and Methods

This research aims to report on food security drivers and the current state of recommended policies that address chronic food insecurity in order to ensure the sustainability of future food production through the use of a systematic literature review (SLR) methodology. We highlight existing food security drivers and outline recommended policies to alleviate food insecurity following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) data screening and selection guidelines [ 26 ]. The extraction process was meticulously documented in order to ensure the transparency and replicability of this systematic literature review [ 27 ]. A panel of researchers was formed, following the systematic review guidelines [ 26 ], to define the research field and questions, select keywords and the intended databases, and develop the sets of inclusion and exclusion criteria.

The research began by formulating the research questions to guide this systematic review based on identified gaps in the literature, guiding us in an attempt to answer the following research questions:

• Q1. What are the main drivers of food security?
• Q2. What are the main recommended policies to alleviate food insecurity?

By answering these questions, this paper provides a reference that policy-makers and practitioners can use to identify the main drivers of food security and the recommended policies in the literature in order to customize and choose appropriate policies that ensure the sustainability of future food production. The identified food security drivers and recommended policies are expected to aid policy- and decision-makers in improving the state of FS. This study also provides a roadmap for future research based on the evidence reported in the literature.

A specific research criterion was used to ensure that the research sources selected were sufficient and comprehensive enough to capture all of the significant and salient points to adequately answer the research questions [ 26 ]. To this end, we provide a critical review of the existing literature that has been published in two databases—Scopus and Web of Science (WOS)—between 2010 and 15 March 2021, to answer the abovementioned research questions. The time limit was set to cover the period following the global financial crisis of 2008/2009 and its effect on rising food prices, increased unemployment rates, and increasing food insecurity worldwide [ 28 , 29 , 30 ]. This period allows for consideration of policies designed to ensure global food security following the food shortage crisis. The use of Scopus and Web of Science (WOS) databases helped us to include most potential published works in a broad scope of journals, thereby limiting the risks of bias and possible exclusions associated with the use of fewer journals.

We employed a set of identified keywords, which are summarized in detail in Table 1 . A critical analysis was conducted regarding the most relevant concepts that are available in the literature and which affect each of the four dimensions of FS: Food availability, food access, food utilization, and food stability. For instance, the research string “Agrifood supply chain” OR “Agri food supply chain” OR “Agri-food supply chain” was added as a secondary search string, because food availability is highly dependent on the food supply chain and how well its activities are managed. The food supply chain is exposed to many factors that can negatively impact the country’s food security level, such as severe weather conditions [ 31 , 32 ]. Therefore, it is critical to consider some characteristics of the food supply chain, such as biophysical and organoleptic features, shelf life, transport conditions, production time, and storage, to efficiently and effectively manage it [ 33 ]. Effective supply chain management is seen as a significant contributor to gaining and enhancing industrial competitive advantage and efficiency at the company level, possibly impacting food security positively [ 34 ]. “MENA Region” OR “Middle East and North Africa” OR “Middle East” OR “North Africa” research string was added due to the severity of food insecurity there and to ensure the inclusion of papers that address the problem in these countries and propose strategies to overcome food insecurity. According to the GFSI data [ 25 ], MENA region countries are experiencing a decline in food security; moreover, the number of households and individuals suffering from food shortages and insecurity is dramatically increasing.

Primary and secondary search strings used in this research.

The research string “Sustainable supply chain” OR “Resilient supply chain” was added due to much research that stressed the impact of designing a proper supply chain structure due to its significant impact on the future improvement of its performance [ 33 ]. The central mission of the twenty-first century is to establish a sustainable food system, which calls for a more concrete policy framework than what is currently in place [ 17 ]. Sustainability can be viewed as a prerequisite for long-term food security [ 1 ]. The environment, particularly climate and the availability of natural resources, is a prerequisite for food availability and biodiversity protection [ 24 ]. The availability of food for everybody depends on economic and social sustainability. Food utilization, too, is influenced by social sustainability. The three components of sustainability—social, economic, and environmental—assure the continuity of the three food security dimensions and the food system stability on which they rely. Moreover, food security is increasingly considered a prerequisite for long-term sustainability [ 1 ]. Adopting a “sustainable production and consumption approach throughout the global food supply chain” is a solution that will help reduce the amount of food waste along the food supply chain [ 35 , 36 ]. Cooper and Ellram [ 37 ] argued that building a resilient supply chain has many advantages such as decreasing inventory time, which will lead to cost and time savings, increasing the availability of goods, reducing the order cycle time, improving customer service and satisfaction, and gaining a competitive advantage. Stone and Rahimifard [ 38 ] stressed the importance of having a resilient agricultural food supply chain to achieve food security due to the incremental increase in volatility across the supply chain.

The research string “Food Safety” OR “Food diversity” OR “Food quality” OR “Food standards” OR “Micronutrient availability” was added due to one of the food security dimensions: utilization, which is concerned with all aspects of food safety, and nutrition quality [ 39 ]. According to FAO (2019), the utilization dimension should assess food diversity, food safety, food standards, and micronutrient availability. It is inadequate to provide enough food to someone unable to benefit from it because they are constantly sick due to a lack of sanitary conditions. It indicates that in the country, individuals are taking advantage of the food they receive or have access to, with extra emphasis on the dietary quality that contains nutritious ingredients such as vitamins (vitamin-A) and minerals (Iron, Zinc, Iodine) [ 40 ]. According to the World Health Organization, people diagnosed with malnutrition usually suffer from micronutrient deficiencies, protein deficiency, obesity, or undernutrition. The lack of micro-ingredients can increase the risk of developing severe chronic and infectious diseases for people in general and children in particular (toddlers 9–24 months). These diseases have an irreversible negative impact on people’s health, which enhances the persistence of poverty and food insecurity. It is critical to invest in the health and nutrition elements on a global scale by ensuring safe drinking water, immunization, enhancing sewage discharge, improving public health services, and reducing poverty levels [ 41 ].

The research string “Agricultural infrastructure” OR “Agricultural production volatility” OR “Vulnerability assessment” was chosen because much research has emphasized the importance of investing in a strong agricultural infrastructure to improve food security levels, especially in light of current challenges such as climate change, increased urbanization, water scarcity, and the shift away from using cropland for non-agricultural activities [ 7 , 8 , 41 ]. Food security is vulnerable to severe weather conditions, whereas harsh weather conditions may adversely impact the food supply chain in weak areas [ 31 , 32 ]. Therefore, it is critical to assess the vulnerability level of each country to protect the food supply chain. The use of the “Food loss” OR “Food waste” OR “Food waste and loss” research string was due to the general agreement among researchers on the importance of reducing food waste to improve food security [ 35 , 42 , 43 ]. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (2013), around one-third of the food produced globally (1.3 billion tons) is wasted or lost. Most wasted food is either fresh and perishable or leftovers from eating and cooking [ 36 , 42 ]. Basher, Raboy [ 43 ] argued that eliminating just one-fourth of the food waste would be enough to feed all the currently undernourished people. One of the Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations, “SDG 12.3 Food Waste Index” stresses that decreasing the amount of food loss and waste will help reduce hunger levels, promote sustainable production and consumption, and enhance food security [ 44 ].

The use of “Policy description” OR “Policy assessment” OR “Policy recommendation” OR “Policymaking” OR “Policy-making” OR “Policy making” research string was due to the impact of adequate and proper policy formulation on food security ( Table 1 ). Establishing effective and efficient food policies that ensure that each individual has an optimal level of food security is critical in every country because it directly enhances the country’s competitive advantage and efficiency [ 34 , 45 ]. Timmer [ 46 ] emphasized that designing the proper set of policies to end hunger based on each country’s context is challenging and requires collaborative participation from multiple stakeholders. Murti Mulyo Aji [ 34 ] stressed the role of the government’s policies in developing a collaborative supply chain that creates value throughout the supply chain by improving information, logistics, and relationship management. Effective and efficient supply chain management significantly impacts managing long-term partnerships and corporations among a wide range of firms that vary in size and sectors (public or private). This collaboration will enhance prediction of changes in customer demands in domestic and international markets. If previous policies were insufficient to ensure that country’s true competitive advantage, it could cause market distortion [ 34 , 47 ]. Countries are encouraged to gradually reduce the adoption of inequitable trade policies to focus on enhancing their true competitive advantage, demonstrating fair competition, and increasing economic efficiency, particularly in the spirit of trade liberalization [ 34 ].

The selection of research sources was accomplished in March 2021, and the search for keywords was enabled for titles, abstracts, and full texts in both electronic search engines (i.e., Scopus and WOS). Several keywords were identified to retrieve the available literature, and search strings consisted of primary and secondary keywords. The primary search string used was as follows: “food security” OR “food insecurity” OR “food availability” OR “food affordability” OR “food access” OR “food utilization” OR “food stability”. The reason behind including these multiple strings was to cover the maximum number of articles that handle the topic of food security or any of its four dimensions.

Specific exclusion and inclusion criteria were applied in order to develop high-quality evidence [ 26 ]. A reasonable number of articles were limited for deep analysis by following the specific exclusion and inclusion criteria to control the quality of the review in the food security field, as detailed in Table 2 above. Only peer-reviewed journal articles were included within the time frame (2010–15 March 2021) and only those written in English. Furthermore, due to this study’s nature and to ensure consistency with the topic area, the most common and effective approach for examining drivers and recommended policies were limited to the business, management, accounting, and agricultural fields [ 48 ]. We have used the “business, management and accounting” research field in the Scopus database to ensure that all the included articles were business-related. Then, we restricted the research field to” Economics, business, and agriculture Economics” in the WoS database to ensure the inclusion of agriculture-related papers and maximize the inclusion of a diverse range of articles. Another round of retrieval was applied using a set of secondary keywords in order to narrow down the search to specific areas of food security. For this purpose, the primary keywords were escorted each time with “AND” and other secondary keywords, as listed in Table 2 .

Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

The initial search using the primary keywords (“food security” OR “food insecurity” OR “food availability” OR “food affordability” OR “food access” OR “food utilization” OR “food stability”) revealed a total of 113,709 documents (Scopus, n = 63,860; WOS, n = 49,849). Strict selection criteria were applied to the first search pool in order to maintain transparency and guarantee the selection of relevant material that answers the research questions. To ensure academic rigor, the search was restricted to including only peer-reviewed publications [ 49 ] (Scopus, n = 47,673; WOS, n = 40,305). The research was then restricted by publication date to between 2010 and 15 March 2021 (Scopus, n = 34,789; WOS, n = 31,278). Only journal articles published in English were selected (Scopus, n = 33,292; WOS, n = 30,313). Then, advanced research was conducted by combining the primary keywords with one of the secondary keywords. The results and the number of articles identified in each search step are detailed in Figure 1 . After removing duplicate articles from each database, a total of 281 journal articles (Scopus, n = 140; WOS, n = 141) were revealed. After combining both databases, 248 journal articles were obtained. These collected 248 journal articles were scanned by reading their abstracts in order to check their applicability to answering the research questions. At this point, 107 articles were excluded as they were considered irrelevant and outside the scope of the research. Finally, the total number of extracted articles was 141, as can be seen in Figure 1 . Data extraction and analysis were performed by a single reviewer (SW), and all extracted data and revealed results were double-checked by three researchers (FA, IM, and BS) to enhance the research and reduce bias in study selection. A complete description of the validity threats (Construct, Internal, External, and Conclusion Validity) following the validation process of Zhou, Jin [ 50 ] is provided in detail in Table 3 .

Research protocol following the PRISMA guidelines.

A reporting of validity threats in this systematic literature review.

Among the selected 141 articles, 28 (19.86%) were published in the Journal of Cleaner Production , 20 (14.18%) were published in Food Policy , and 5 (3.55%) were published in Quality-Access to Success . The rest of the journal names are visualized in Figure 2 .

The most popular journals publishing the 141 included articles. Others denotes journals that were cited once or twice.

After the 141 articles have been extracted, they were analyzed and summarized individually by listing all the discussed food security drivers, as well as the recommended policies for the improvement of food security and sustainable food production. Then, we synthesized the extracted information from all sources in order to identify the gaps, list the similarities between all the resources, and extract significant insights regarding the main drivers of food security and the recommended policies [ 26 ].

3.1. The Major Drivers of Food Security

Analysis of the retrieved literature revealed 34 different drivers of food security, as visualized in Figure 3 . Detailed information, along with a full citation list for all the drivers, is provided in Appendix A .

Summary of the major drivers of food security.

Most papers discussed food loss and waste (FLW) and emphasized its impact on food security [ 6 , 19 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 ]. Around one-third of the food produced globally (1.3 million tons) is wasted or lost [ 96 ]. Basher, Raboy [ 43 ] has argued that, if we could save just one-fourth of the wasted food, it would be enough to feed all the world’s undernourished people, contributing positively to FS. The previous finding supports our research findings that FLW is the primary driver of FS. To reduce FLW, Halloran, Clement [ 6 ] has argued that effective communication, more efficient food packaging, and a better consumer understanding of food packaging could lead to solutions. To decrease food loss, Garcia-Herrero, Hoehn [ 62 ] has suggested improving food labelling, enhancing consumer planning, and developing technological advances in packaging and shelf life for perishable products. Morone, Falcone [ 83 ] has suggested the repetition of large-scale research to help define a set of policies encouraging the transition to a new model for consumption that promotes sustainably procured food and dramatically reduces the amount of waste (more details are provided in Section 3.2 ).

Additionally, several authors have considered food security policy (FSP) as a driver of food security in its different forms [ 56 , 63 , 65 , 69 , 70 , 74 , 79 , 85 , 94 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 , 110 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 ]. The primary goal of establishing food security policies that consider the factors influencing individuals and groups is to reduce poverty and eliminate hunger. One example is safety-net programs or public food assistance programs (FAPs). The main goal of providing safety-net programs is to increase food consumption among poor people and improve food security [ 102 ].

Many papers have discussed the importance of technological advancement as an enabler of food security [ 56 , 57 , 58 , 63 , 69 , 71 , 74 , 77 , 85 , 90 , 94 , 95 , 109 , 116 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 123 , 124 , 125 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 134 , 135 , 136 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 140 , 141 ]. The use of technology to promote behavioral changes has increasingly become a vital instrument to reduce food waste and indirectly improve food security [ 130 ]. Mobile applications offer households helpful guidance on increasing shelf life and experimenting with dishes using leftovers [ 58 ]. Shukla, Singh [ 130 ] has elaborated that, at present, farmers have access to mobile applications that provide them with reasonably and timely priced information.

Some authors have discussed sustainable agricultural development and practices as enablers of food security [ 56 , 57 , 59 , 64 , 71 , 73 , 94 , 97 , 105 , 109 , 111 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 124 , 130 , 132 , 134 , 136 , 137 , 139 , 142 , 143 , 144 , 145 , 146 , 147 ]. Some authors have discussed local production enhancement as a driver of food security to enhance the self-reliance of countries [ 57 , 69 , 85 , 87 , 89 , 94 , 98 , 103 , 105 , 109 , 112 , 117 , 120 , 134 , 137 , 144 , 148 , 149 ]. For example, Ahmed, Begum [ 98 ] has emphasized how, following the GCC ban, Qatar took several successful steps to foster local production, support domestic businesses, and promote the consumption of locally produced food by its citizens. Some authors have argued that building the capacities of small farmers is essential to achieving FS. Education policies are critical for educating farmers, building their capacities, and increasing their human capital; moreover, educational programs should also include food preparation and health education programs in order to ensure the safety of consumed food [ 101 ].

The government’s role in managing a country’s agriculture can also be seen as a driver of food security [ 67 , 75 , 84 , 86 , 100 , 109 , 116 , 117 , 119 , 121 , 137 , 138 , 147 , 150 , 151 , 152 ], as it is responsible for various aspects such as designing, testing, and implementing the right policies to ensure the welfare of its citizens, while providing the necessary assistance to small-scale farmers and ensuring their safety and security in all aspects of life. Governments in developing nations must focus on R&D, agriculture infrastructure (e.g., technologies for irrigation and soil preservation), expansion services, early warning systems, or subsidized farm income in order to alter the production function of the population [ 101 ].

Many authors have discussed the importance of food safety policies as an enabler of food security [ 61 , 64 , 69 , 103 , 105 , 111 , 112 , 129 , 149 , 153 , 154 , 155 , 156 , 157 , 158 , 159 ]. Food safety policies include food and water safety at several points throughout the supply chain where food-borne diseases might develop [ 69 ]. Environmental policies are also seen as a fundamental enabler of food security [ 59 , 73 , 121 , 124 , 130 , 135 , 139 , 147 , 159 , 160 , 161 , 162 , 163 ]. Regardless of the various approaches discussed by the authors, they all agreed that environmental protection would help to ensure food availability for current and future generations. According to some authors, trade policies [ 69 , 94 , 95 , 103 , 111 , 112 , 114 , 123 , 129 , 141 , 146 , 161 , 164 ] and import policies [ 69 , 95 , 100 , 103 , 120 , 124 , 126 , 129 , 146 ] are enablers of food security. Regulating international trade can help to ensure food security. Lowering trade barriers, for example, has been proposed as a way to mitigate the adverse effects of market regulation caused by climate change [ 141 ].

Many authors have recognized policies that promote consumer education on sustainable consumption and increase consumer awareness and knowledge of the environmental impact of their purchases as a driver of food security [ 52 , 60 , 67 , 69 , 86 , 133 , 144 , 151 , 163 , 165 , 166 , 167 ]. Others have stressed proper communication among all stakeholders as a driver of food security [ 6 , 56 , 68 , 69 , 84 , 92 , 129 , 130 , 156 , 157 , 168 ]. Some authors have considered risk management as an enabler of food security [ 94 , 117 , 118 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 145 , 154 , 155 , 157 ]. For example, the aims of building a disaster risk reduction framework in the Pacific include boosting resilience, protecting investments (e.g., in infrastructure, operations, and FS), and decreasing poverty and hunger [ 169 ].

Some authors have proposed the effective gleaning process as a driver of food security [ 70 , 72 , 74 , 80 , 84 , 92 , 142 , 170 ]. Gleaning is the collection of the remaining crops in agricultural fields after their commercial harvest, or just in crop fields where their harvest is not cost-effective. Some old cultures have fostered gleaning as an early form of social assistance [ 80 ]. Some authors have considered the management of government food reserves to be a food security driver [ 64 , 104 , 112 , 117 , 118 , 124 , 136 ]. Despite the high cost of storing food, any country must maintain adequate food reserves to serve the country in case of a crisis scenario [ 171 ]. Some authors have considered integrative policies (i.e., food–water–energy, food–energy, or water–food) as a driver of food security due to their impact on environmental improvement through natural resource handling efficiency [ 56 , 73 , 133 , 139 , 172 , 173 ]. Some authors have considered establishing dietary standard policies as an enabler of food security [ 69 , 151 , 163 , 174 ]. The government should impose policies on healthy food consumption to prevent obesity, such as prohibiting trans-fats. Moreover, they should restrict trans-fat usage in food outlets, establish institutional food standards, implement menu labelling regulations for chain restaurants, and ensure that disadvantaged people have better access to healthy meals [ 151 ].

Authors have highlighted various additional arguments or policies that are considered drivers for FS such as establishing public programs to influence diets in a healthy manner, reducing yield volatility [ 85 , 94 , 105 , 119 , 124 , 126 , 175 ], the country’s natural resources [ 85 , 105 , 119 , 124 , 137 , 145 , 162 , 163 , 176 ], geopolitical and political stability [ 69 , 98 , 104 , 117 , 123 , 124 , 142 ], agricultural infrastructure [ 64 , 114 , 116 , 118 , 142 , 146 , 175 ], food distribution infrastructure [ 71 , 75 , 76 , 112 , 177 , 178 ], economic integration [ 109 , 112 , 123 , 179 , 180 ], collaboration among all supply chain stakeholders [ 75 , 130 , 134 , 157 ], proper measurement of food security dimensions [ 123 , 181 , 182 , 183 ], urban agriculture policies [ 56 , 147 , 148 ], adjustments in dietary structure [ 59 , 86 , 163 ], establishing employment programs for poor household representatives [ 110 , 152 ], customer engagement in designing public policies [ 158 ], and trust in public institutions [ 166 ].

3.2. The Recommended Policies to Alleviate the Food Insecurity

Analysis of the 141 retrieved papers revealed 17 major recommended policies, as visualized in Figure 4 . We also determined sub-policies under each category which were grouped based on common characteristics, relevance, and how they were categorized in the papers. The complete list of sub-policy categories and related references is provided in Appendix B .

The main 17 recommended policies and statistics.

Most authors recommended establishing FSP, in general, as a primary solution for food insecurity in developing and developed countries [ 56 , 57 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 69 , 81 , 85 , 87 , 89 , 91 , 94 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 , 110 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 , 126 , 127 , 130 , 131 , 133 , 134 , 137 , 142 , 144 , 145 , 148 , 149 , 151 , 152 , 175 , 177 , 180 , 182 , 184 , 185 ]. Many authors have suggested food consumption policies that offer safety-net programs or public food assistance programs (FAPs) such as food price subsidies, cash-based programs, structural pricing adjustments, or micro-credits as enablers of FS. The main goal of providing safety-net programs is to increase food consumption among poor people and improve food security [ 102 ]. Given the solid bidirectional causal link between poverty and malnutrition, FAPs have been recognized as critical components of the overall poverty reduction strategy. Food aid policies and initiatives can fill the gaps left by the for-profit food system and the informal (non-profit) social safety nets, ensuring food security for disadvantaged individuals, families, and communities [ 108 ]. Several authors have recommended establishing policies to enhance the performance and asset bases of small-scale farmers, such as loans, subsidies, access to information, and knowledge-sharing, to address food insecurity. Governments should adopt direct interventions such as structural price adjustments and targeted food subsidies to enhance the food access of farmers by lowering market prices and stabilizing consumption during high food price inflation [ 116 ]. Others have recommended establishing government input subsidy programs (input subsidy policies) that provide farmers with subsidies for investment into high-yielding technology (e.g., automation, fertilizers, high-yield seed). They all claimed this as an effective policy instrument for agricultural development, but each focused on a different mechanism. Shukla, Singh [ 130 ], for example, has discussed public distribution programs; Sinyolo [ 131 ] has emphasized policies aimed at increasing the amount of land planted with enhanced maize varieties among smallholder farmers; Wiebelt, Breisinger [ 124 ] has suggested investments in water-saving technologies, while Tokhayeva, Almukhambetova [ 137 ] have proposed the development of an agricultural innovation system. Others have recommended rural development policies to reduce yield volatility and improve the agricultural infrastructure (e.g., irrigation and water-saving technologies). Governments in developing nations must focus on R&D, agricultural infrastructure (technologies for irrigation and soil preservation), expansion services, and early warning systems [ 101 ]. Technological advancement, in general, is seen as a vital element in reducing yield volatility [ 85 ]. Capacity-building policies (e.g., educational, training, and technical support) have received considerable attention in the literature as a fundamental component of urban farming initiatives, and as attempts to promote self-reliance and networking. Capacity building in many areas connected to urban agriculture is essential for equipping residents with knowledge and expertise [ 148 ]. To enhance FS, some researchers have suggested policies supporting locally produced food, diversified agricultural production policies, policies that impact farm-level commodity pricing, food stock policies, establishing policies to increase the income of farmers, buffer stock policies, and resource allocation policies (for a complete list of references, see Appendix B ).

Many authors have proposed different policy recommendations to reduce food waste and, thus, food insecurity [ 6 , 19 , 51 , 52 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 103 , 130 , 138 , 144 , 150 , 160 , 167 , 168 , 170 , 177 ]. Many have agreed on the importance of policies that promote information and education campaigns that spread awareness at household and public levels by improving meal planning and management in consumers. However, each author suggested a different approach. For example, Schanes, Dobernig [ 58 ] have discussed face-to-face door-stepping campaigns (online and in traditional newspaper leaflets), word-of-mouth, and television shows or movies. However, Septianto, Kemper [ 66 ] have highlighted the importance of social marketing campaign design and framing (having vs. not having) in conveying the intended message to consumers. Tucho and Okoth [ 73 ] have asserted the advantages of producing bio-wastes and bio-fertilizers from food waste and human excreta (in a food–energy–sanitation nexus approach), and also advocated for educating families on how to do so at the household level. Xu, Zhang [ 86 ] has argued that governments should help society to develop a logical perspective on food consumption and aggressively promote the habit of eating simple meals, particularly in social catering. Von Kameke and Fischer [ 52 ] and Zorpas, Lasaridi [ 60 ] have emphasized the importance of teaching customers about efficient meal planning to reduce food waste. Von Kameke and Fischer [ 52 ] have proposed using the Nudging tool rather than campaigning. Xu, Zhang [ 86 ] have suggested initiating suitable policy instruments to nudge individuals to adopt sustainable consumption habits, with important implications for decreasing food waste and increasing food security in China. Smart (innovative) food packaging and labelling policies have received significant attention in the literature, as they are critical in reducing food waste and, thus, improving FS. The nature, size, and labelling of the packaging impact the lifetime of the food. Smart packaging innovations and new technologies are steadily penetrating markets, thus increasing the shelf-life of foods through enhanced protection, communication, convenience, and control [ 58 ].

Food banks, food sharing, and food rescue policies have also received significant attention in the global literature, as they help reduce food waste and improve FS. Food banking is a critical long-term rescue policy for re-distributing surplus food to those in need and reducing poverty and food insecurity [ 80 , 92 ]. Several authors have recommended positive sanctions such as financial rewards, tax credits, federal and state funding, vouchers, or reduced taxes to decrease food waste and improve FS. Positive sanctions consist mainly of financial incentives to encourage restaurants and grocery retailers to donate their leftover food [ 60 ]. Addressing liability concerns might be one incentive, as the research participants have highlighted this as a universal barrier and that this issue, in particular, must be handled [ 51 ]. Negative sanction policies have received considerable attention in the literature as a tool for reducing food waste and improving FS. These include fines and fees imposed on companies and individuals accountable for food waste [ 58 ]. Taxes and fines are a potential way to manage and motivate restaurants and retailers to donate their leftover food to charities and community centers [ 65 ].

The establishment of policies that regulate the sharing of information and knowledge among supply chain stakeholders has received some attention in the literature in terms of reducing food waste and improving food security. Comprehensive food waste legislation has been discussed as a potential enabler of food security. A possible regulatory tool would be to revise and remove unnecessary food safety requirements that result in excessive food waste levels [ 58 ]. According to Halloran, Clement [ 6 ], food waste increased due to European food safety regulations and standardization. Food waste recycling policies have been used as a method to reduce food waste. Food waste can be utilized for value generation at any point of the food supply chain process through efficient techniques, then reincorporated into the cycle [ 77 ]. Food waste has a long history as a source of ecologically friendly animal feed [ 61 ].

A few authors have highlighted the impact of technological advancement (e.g., mobile applications) as a strategy to reduce food waste. Some authors have proposed implementing gleaning operation policies that provide tax incentives and government assistance to gleaners in order to decrease food waste. Some authors have proposed implementing peak storage reduction policies, such as stock-holding incentives. Nudging tools (which nudge people toward forming sustainable consumption behaviors) have been mentioned by a few authors.

Food safety policies received significant attention in the retrieved literature [ 61 , 64 , 69 , 70 , 103 , 105 , 111 , 112 , 120 , 125 , 129 , 130 , 137 , 138 , 149 , 153 , 154 , 155 , 156 , 157 , 158 , 159 ]; however, they have been discussed in various different forms. Few authors have discussed food quality and food hygiene compliance certifications. Compliance with sanitary standards is required to maintain the best practices for preventing food-borne diseases and food security threats [ 155 ]. Other authors have discussed the importance of food safety standards. Meanwhile, few authors have emphasized the importance of food safety throughout the supply chain, but each proposed a different strategy to achieve it. For example, some authors have suggested using an effective IT system [ 130 ], RFID [ 138 ], or developing food safety training policies [ 155 ].

Many authors have advocated for the implementation of trade policies to address food insecurity in developing and developed countries [ 94 , 95 , 101 , 103 , 111 , 112 , 119 , 123 , 129 , 136 , 141 , 146 , 148 , 149 , 152 , 157 , 161 , 164 , 178 , 180 ], but in different contexts. For example, some have suggested establishing infrastructure development policies that target agricultural logistic infrastructure, or improving the speed and quality of shipping logistics. In contrast, some authors have agreed on the importance of state trading and private trade-supporting policies. Others have suggested the removal of tariff and non-tariff barriers, while a few authors recommended reliable marine connection and transportation logistics policies.

Environmental policies are a fundamental enabler of food security [ 59 , 73 , 94 , 120 , 121 , 124 , 130 , 135 , 139 , 141 , 145 , 147 , 159 , 160 , 161 , 162 , 163 , 166 ]. However, authors have focused on many different aspects of these policies. Some authors, for example, have emphasized the importance of establishing policies to mitigate the effects of climate change. Others were too specific, suggesting greenhouse gas reduction policies, and proposed penalizing non-compliance. Due to the strong links between climate change, poverty, and food insecurity, some authors have proposed establishing coordinating policies among the three. Other authors have stressed the consideration of policies that encourage the optimization of fertilizer use.

Many authors have considered food import policies as a solution to food insecurity [ 94 , 95 , 100 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 109 , 112 , 116 , 117 , 119 , 120 , 124 , 126 , 134 , 146 ]; however, most authors provided different opinions regarding the most effective policy to implement. For example, some authors have stressed the importance of policies that provide direct government financial assistance to local agriculture, or the importance of policies that sustain local agricultural product prices compared to imported products. Some have recommended providing temporary tax benefits for agricultural investment, while others recommended import ban (substitution) policies. A few authors have recommended direct budget subsidies, subsidized loan interest rates, and strategies for the diversification of imported food origin.

Many authors have discussed the importance of establishing a common agricultural policy (CAP) to address sustainable agriculture [ 56 , 57 , 64 , 89 , 109 , 111 , 118 , 119 , 132 , 142 , 143 , 149 , 161 , 172 , 184 , 186 ]. Others have stressed the importance of food surplus policies in enhancing a country’s food security status [ 51 , 58 , 70 , 72 , 75 , 76 , 79 , 82 , 84 , 90 , 91 ]. Some authors have suggested strategies to regulate a company’s liability regarding the donation of surplus food. A few authors have proposed food policies that subsidize the purchase of surplus food—also known as “ugly food”—by controlling for prices and surplus item characteristics. Some authors have suggested establishing food loss policies. However, few authors have specified the need for policies promoting food loss quantification.

Many authors have discussed the policies that promote traceability across the whole supply chain as an enabler for food security [ 56 , 69 , 103 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 137 , 138 , 168 , 178 ]. However, the different authors discussed different technologies such as investment into information technology such as RFID, effective IT systems, ICT systems, and blockchain technology. Government policies should promote investments into traceability systems that focus on rapid withdrawal in unsafe food scenarios such as product recall regulations, fines imposed on hazardous product distributors, and food-borne food risk monitoring [ 129 ]. Many authors have discussed various risk management strategies to improve a country’s food security [ 94 , 117 , 118 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 145 , 154 , 155 , 157 ]. However, each considered a different approach to overcome the risk. Specifically, they have discussed food scandal policies, the COVID-19 pandemic, programmed risk identification, proactive policy measures to handle flood crises, early warning systems for natural disasters, or risk management throughout the food supply chain. Some authors have highlighted water quality policies such as efficient water-use policies, improving water resources policies, using water-efficient crops, investments into water-saving technologies, and food and water safety throughout the supply chain.

Some authors have discussed the management of government food reserves as an enabler of food security [ 64 , 104 , 112 , 117 , 118 , 124 , 136 ], and others have discussed integrative and coherent policies between food, water, and energy (as a nexus) [ 56 , 73 , 133 , 139 , 172 , 173 ]. Meanwhile, other authors have discussed policies that promote consumer education on sustainable consumption, improving consumer status awareness and knowledge regarding the ecological impact of their purchases [ 60 , 69 , 133 , 144 , 163 , 165 ]. Few authors have addressed the importance of dietary standard policies [ 69 , 151 , 163 , 174 ], urban agriculture policies [ 56 , 147 , 148 ], and food-aid policies [ 118 , 150 ].

Some policies were suggested in one paper only such as devising the right population policy in China [ 85 ], flexible retail modernization policies [ 158 ], policies that facilitate short-term migration [ 187 ], policies to stimulate equitable economic growth through manufacturing and services [ 95 ], and sound research governance policies [ 140 ].

4. Discussion

In this section, we discuss the polices and drivers in the greater areas, then compare them based on specific contexts. This approach serves to provide better understanding, thus informing decision-makers about the importance of choosing the right policies through considering many food security dimensions. By looking deeply at the extracted food security drivers and policies and the way in which they can be applied to each country’s context, we take an example from the MENA region. The MENA region includes a diverse range of nations, including low-income and less-developed (e.g., Sudan, Syria, and Yemen), low–middle-income (e.g., Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Morocco, and Tunisia), upper middle-income (e.g., Jordan, Lebanon, and Libya), and high-income (e.g., the UAE, Qatar, Oman, Bahrain, Israel, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia) countries [ 126 ]. As food availability is a serious problem in the MENA region low-income countries (Syria and Yemen), due to war and violent conflicts [ 188 ], policies aimed at increasing food availability continue to pique the interest of policy-makers. In these countries, where citizens are incapable of fulfilling their basic food needs [ 189 ], the existence of food security policies in different forms is crucial for achieving food security [ 53 , 97 , 98 , 124 , 184 ], more than FLW policies. Policy-makers should focus on ensuring the availability of either locally produced or imported food, which requires appropriate trade policies to deal with food shortages and improve the availability dimension in these countries. Trade policies should focus on creating infrastructure development policies that target agricultural logistic infrastructure, improve the speed and quality of shipping logistics, and establish reliable marine connections and transportation logistics policies that remove tariff and non-tariff barriers.

Policy-makers should establish import policies that sustain local agricultural product prices compared to imported products, provide direct government financial assistance to local agriculture, and provide temporary tax benefits for agricultural investment.

Additionally, the governments should improve food access in the MENA region low-income countries by reducing or stabilizing consumer and producer food prices. To enhance food access, FSPs (e.g., education policies in general and capacity-building policies) may help to improve individual human capital. Governments also must provide supplemental feeding programs, typically targeting vulnerable groups in need of special diets, such as pregnant women and children [ 101 ].

Moreover, the government should improve credit access through the following means: policies that enhance the performance and asset base of small-scale farmers; the existence of policies that impact farm-level commodity pricing, thus retaining farmers and increasing local production; the existence of government input subsidy programs for individuals, and the existence of policies supporting locally produced food. These are all possible policies to improve the MENA region FS. Governments and global health organizations should promote food utilization in MENA low-income countries through the development of policies that monitor overall food quality, such as access to clean water and micronutrient fortification, or through individual educational programs on safe food preparation [ 155 ]. Finally, enhancing food quality can optimize the individual nutrient absorption [ 101 ].

In contrast, discussions of food security in the MENA region high-income countries have indicated that food availability, access, and utilization are generally higher and not a problem. However, food stability is low, which requires the attention of policy-makers to improve FS. Food stability impacts the other food security pillars (access, availability, and utilization). Moreover, it requires the economic, political, and social sustainability of food systems, which are vulnerable to environmental conditions, land distribution, available resources, conflicts, and political situations [ 190 ]. Food stability necessitates increased efforts and expenditures to achieve food security in the sustainable development goals, especially in light of increased academic and governmental interest in incorporating sustainability values into policies.

As food waste is prevalent in these countries, FLW policies are more critical than FSP, which is in alignment with our findings regarding food security drivers. FLW makes it difficult for the poor in developing countries to access food by significantly depleting natural resources such as land, water, and fossil fuels while raising the greenhouse gas emissions related to food production [ 115 ]. Addressing food loss and waste in these countries can hugely influence the reduction of wasted food and indirectly enhance food security. The number of food-insecure individuals may be reduced in developing regions by up to 63 million by reducing food loss, which will directly reduce the over-consumption of cultivated areas, water, and greenhouse gas emissions related to food production [ 115 ]. According to Abiad and Meho [ 189 ], food waste produced at the household level differs across MENA-region countries. For example, it ranges from 68 to 150 kg/individual/year in Oman, 62–76 kg/individual/year in Iraq, 194–230 kg/individual/year in Palestine, and 177–400 kg/individual/year in the UAE. It is critical to take more aggressive but scientifically sound initiatives to minimize FLW, which will require the participation of everyone involved in the food supply chain such as policy-makers, food producers and suppliers, and the final consumers [ 191 , 192 ]. Food waste reflects an inefficient usage of valuable agricultural input resources and contributes to unnecessary environmental depletion [ 191 , 193 ]. Furthermore, food loss is widely recognized as a major obstacle to environmental sustainability and food security in developing nations [ 194 ]. Preventing FLW can result in a much more environmentally sustainable agricultural production and consumption process by increasing the efficiency and productivity of resources, especially water, cropland, and nutrients [ 115 , 191 , 192 , 195 ]. Preventing FLW is crucial in areas where water scarcity is a prevalent concern, as irrigated agriculture makes up a sizeable portion of total food production, and yield potential may not be fully achieved under nutrient or water shortages [ 191 , 196 , 197 ]. According to the study of Chen, Chaudhary [ 197 ], food waste per capita in high-income countries is enough to feed one individual a healthy balanced diet for 18 days. Chen, Chaudhary [ 197 ] also found that high-income countries have embedded environmental effects that are ten times greater than those of low-income countries, and they tend to waste six times more food by weight than low-income countries. Consequently, implementing proper FLW policies in high-income countries can help to alleviate the food insecurity problem while maintaining the economic, social, and environmental sustainability of future food production.

Implementing effective food storage techniques and capacities is considered a key component of a comprehensive national food security plan to promote both food utilization and food stability; furthermore, proper food storage at the household level maintains food products for a more prolonged period [ 198 ]. Encouragement of economic integration between MENA region countries is very applicable considering the heterogeneity of these countries. For example, countries with limited arable land and high income, such as the UAE and Saudi Arabia, can invest in countries with a lower middle income, such as Egypt, and use its land to benefit both countries. On the other hand, Boratynska and Huseynov [ 101 ] have proposed food technology innovation as a sustainable driver of food security and a promising solution to the problem of food insecurity in developing countries. Due to the higher food production demand to support the expanding urban population while having limited water and land availability, higher investments in technology and innovation are needed to ensure that food systems are more resilient [ 190 ]. Boratynska and Huseynov [ 101 ] have argued that, in general, using innovative technologies to produce healthy food products is frequently a concern. However, improving the probability that innovative food technology will enable the production of a diverse range of food products with enhanced texture and flavor while also providing a variety of health advantages to the final consumer is essential. Jalava, Guillaume [ 193 ] have argued that, along with reducing FLW, shifting people’s diets from animal- to plant-based foods can help to slow environmental degradation.

The MENA region example described above can be adapted to different regions based on their food security situation, and relevant policies can be devised to improve food security more sustainably.

5. Conclusions

Food security is a complicated and multi-faceted issue that cannot be restricted to a single variable, necessitating the deeper integration of many disciplinary viewpoints. It is essential to admit the complexity of designing the right policy to improve food security that matches each country’s context [ 46 ] while considering the three pillars of sustainability. Furthermore, it is of utmost importance to implement climate-friendly agricultural production methods to combat food insecurity and climate change [ 12 ]. Mapping the determinants of food security contributes to better understanding of the issue and aids in developing appropriate food security policies to enhance environmental, social, and economic sustainability.

This research contributes to the body of knowledge by summarizing the main recommended policies and drivers of food security detailed in 141 research articles, following a systematic literature review methodology. We identified 34 food security drivers and outlined 17 recommended policies to improve food security and contribute to sustainable food production. Regarding the drivers, one of the foremost priorities to drive food security is reducing FLW globally, followed by food security policies, technological advancement, sustainable agricultural development, and so on (see Appendix A ). Regarding the recommended policies, most studies have detailed the contents and impacts of food security policies, food waste policies, food safety policies, trade policies, environmental policies, import policies, the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), food surplus policies, and so on (see Appendix B ).

5.1. Policy Implications

We assessed the obtained results in comparison to the latest version of the GFSI. Using the GFSI (2021) indicators as a proxy resulted in the identification of gaps and specific policy implications of the results. The idea was to identify which of the policies and drivers have been already implemented and which have not (or, at least, have not been very successfully implemented). We used the GFSI as it is a very well-established benchmarking tool used globally by 113 countries to measure the food security level. We examined the indicators mentioned under each of the four dimensions of food security, and listed associations with the identified policies and drivers found in the literature. Accordingly, we suggest the addition of two dimensions to the current index:

• Sustainability

The first dimension relates to measuring the sustainability dimensions that each participating country adopts in its food production process. We noticed that many authors stressed the importance of the existence of clear environmental policies that drive long-term food security. However, the current GFSI lacks indicators measuring this dimension. The reviewed literature suggested environmental indicators considering optimized fertilizer use, carbon taxes, aquaculture environment, bio-energy, green and blue infrastructure, gas emissions reduction policies, policies to reduce the impacts of climate change, and heavy metal soil contamination monitoring.

• Consumer representation

The second dimension is related to consumer voice representation within the GFSI. The reviewed literature suggested implementing policy measures that promote consumer education on sustainable consumption and improve the consumer status, consciousness, and knowledge regarding the ecological impact of their purchases. Any sustainability initiative should be supported and implemented by the final consumer.

Additional gaps in the policies and drivers of food security were identified and allocated under the relevant indicators in the GFSI based on the four dimensions of food security. Under the affordability dimension, we found a lack of policies in the reviewed literature addressing the Inequality-adjusted income index. Regarding the Change in average food costs indicator, we observed that the policies that exist in the literature concern the farmer level only (e.g., policies that impact farm-level commodity pricing and policies supporting locally produced food), and not all of the citizens at the national level. Additionally, policies that promote traceability across the whole supply chain were missing. There were no policies in the reviewed literature under the food quality and safety dimension representing the following: the dietary diversity indicator; micronutrient availability (e.g., dietary availability of vitamin A, iron, and zinc); regulation of the protein quality indicator; the food safety indicator (specifically the two sub-indicators of food safety mechanisms and access to drinking water), and illustration of the national nutrition plan or strategy indicator. Therefore, future research should pay more attention to and emphasize the importance of such policies, particularly in developed countries seeking to improve their food security status and score high on the GFSI.

Moreover, the reviewed literature suggested “developing food safety training policies” to improve food safety and FS; however, no indicators or sub-indicators within the GFSI represent such training policies. The GFSI developers should pay more attention to safety training practices and include them in the index’s future development. Under the availability dimension, the reviewed literature suggested establishing a food loss policy that promotes the quantification of food loss under the food loss indicator. This indicator should be enhanced through well-articulated policies that address the problem of food loss and attempt to mitigate its impact. However, while there were various policies concerning food waste or surplus, there were no indicators within the GFSI that represented food loss. As food loss and waste was identified as the primary driver of food security in this study, we recommend expanding the GFSI to include food loss quantification and reduction policies under the availability dimension. Finally, under the political commitment to adaptation dimension, some policies were identified in the reviewed literature in two sub-indicators: early warning measures/climate-smart agriculture (e.g., proactive policy measures to handle flood crises, programmed risk identification, and early warning systems for natural disasters) and disaster risk management (e.g., food scandals, COVID-19, and risk management throughout the food supply chain). However, under the other two relevant sub-indicators—commitment to managing exposure and national agricultural adaptation policy—there were no identified policies.

5.2. Contributions of the Study

The key contributions of this study to the existing literature are threefold. First, we identified the (34) main food security drivers and the (17) most-recommended policies to improve food security and enhance the future food production sustainability. Several studies have partially covered this area, but none have employed a systematic literature review of 141 papers covering such an scope in this topic. The gravity of food security worldwide is well established; hence the contribution of this work. Second, we provide a reflection of policies/drivers on the latest version of the GFSI, resulting in more tangible policy implications (see Section 5.1 ). Third, through a systematic literature review, we identified elements not listed under the GFSI that could be considered in its future revision. Examples include environmental policies/indicators such as optimized fertilizer use, carbon taxes, aquaculture environment, bio-energy, green and blue infrastructure, gas emission reduction, policies to reduce the impact of climate change, and heavy metal soil contamination monitoring; consumer representation, as the reviewed literature suggested policy measures that promote consumer education on sustainable consumption, as well as improving consumer status, consciousness, and knowledge regarding the ecological impact of their purchases; and traceability throughout the entire supply chain.

5.3. Study Limitations and Future Research

In this study, we identified the major drivers and the recommended policies to improve food security and enhance the future food production sustainability based on the reviewed literature. However, we recommend conducting a Delphi research study in consultation with policy-makers and industry experts. A Delphi study can be used to validate the findings of this systematic literature review based on a specific country’s context. This research was conducted using only 141 articles from two databases; therefore, we suggest replicating this research using different databases, which will allow for the inclusion of more related papers. Moreover, this research included only peer-reviewed articles, which may be considered, based on the guidelines of Keele [ 185 ], as a source of publication bias. Future research may consider including gray literature and conference proceedings. This research did not include the three sustainability pillars within its research string; therefore, we recommend considering the inclusion of the three pillars in future research. Future research should also investigate the use of alternative protein food technology innovation, such as plant-based protein, cultured meat, and insect-based protein, as a sustainable solution to the food security problem. Additionally, understanding the factors influencing acceptance of various technologies by the final consumer is particularly important given some regional characteristics such as harsh arid environments and the scarcity of arable land, freshwater, and natural resources.

Appendix A. Summary Table of Major Drivers of Food Security

Appendix b. summary table of most-recommended policies, funding statement.

This research was funded by the UAE Ministry of Education, Resilient Agrifood Dynamism through evidence-based policies-READY project, grant number 1733833.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.W., F.A., B.S. and I.M.; methodology, S.W., F.A., B.S. and I.M.; validation, S.W., F.A., B.S. and I.M.; formal analysis, S.W.; investigation, S.W., F.A., B.S. and I.M.; resources, I.M. and B.S.; data curation, S.W.; writing—original draft preparation, S.W.; writing—review and editing, F.A.; visualization, S.W.; supervision, F.A., B.S. and I.M.; project administration, B.S. and I.M.; funding acquisition, B.S. and I.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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• Published: 18 March 2022

Attributing changes in food insecurity to a changing climate

• Shouro Dasgupta 1 , 2 , 3 &
• Elizabeth J. Z. Robinson 3  

Scientific Reports volume  12 , Article number:  4709 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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• Climate-change impacts
• Environmental economics

It is generally accepted that climate change is having a negative impact on food security. However, most of the literature variously focuses on the complex and many mechanisms linking climate stressors; the links with food production or productivity rather than food security; and future rather than current effects. In contrast, we investigate the extent to which current changes in food insecurity can be plausibly attributed to climate change. We combine food insecurity data for 83 countries from the FAO food insecurity experience scale (FIES) with reanalysed climate data from ERA5-Land, and use a panel data regression with time-varying coefficients. This framework allows us to estimate whether the relationship between food insecurity and temperature anomaly is changing over time. We also control for Human Development Index, and drought measured by six-month Standardized Precipitation Index. Our empirical findings suggest that for every 1  \(^{\circ }\hbox {C}\) of temperature anomaly, severe global food insecurity has increased by 1.4% (95% CI 1.3–1.47) in 2014 but by 1.64% (95% CI 1.6–1.65) in 2019. This impact is higher in the case of moderate to severe food insecurity, with a 1  \(^{\circ }\hbox {C}\) increase in temperature anomaly resulting in a 1.58% (95% CI 1.48–1.68) increase in 2014 but a 2.14% (95% CI 2.08–2.20) increase in 2019. Thus, the results show that the temperature anomaly has not only increased the probability of food insecurity, but the magnitude of this impact has increased over time. Our counterfactual analysis suggests that climate change has been responsible for reversing some of the improvements in food security that would otherwise have been realised, with the highest impact in Africa. Our analysis both provides more evidence of the costs of climate change, and as such the benefits of mitigation, and also highlights the importance of targeted and efficient policies to reduce food insecurity. These policies are likely to need to take into account local contexts, and might include efforts to increase crop yields, targeted safety nets, and behavioural programs to promote household resilience.

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Introduction

Food security, defined as existing when “all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”, depends on both food availability and food affordability 1 . Improvements in food insecurity at the global scale have long been closely linked to poverty reduction, as reflected in the World Bank’s poverty reduction strategy 2 . Yet recently at the global level a decoupling can be observed as the number of people in poverty continues on a downwards trend, while the proportion and absolute number of people experiencing food insecurity has started to increase over time 3 , 4 . Several explanations for this increase have been posited, including economic slowdowns; conflict; extreme weather events and climate variability; and, most recently, the COVID-19 pandemic 4 , 5 , 6 .

The mechanisms through which food security can be affected by climate change are many and often complex, and include the stability of and access to food supplies; impacts on prices, markets, and infrastructure across the the food chain; reduced incomes; and increases in the incidence of infectious and diarrhoeal diseases 7 , 8 , 9 . Yet while the potential links between food security and climate change have long been addressed in the academic literature 10 , 11 , a closer look reveals three important features. First, most articles purporting to identify links between climate change and food security focus on the narrower relationship between climate shocks and climate variability on agricultural output and food production 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 . For example, a reduction in consumable food calories has been attributed to changes in temperature and precipitation 16 . Other more complex mechanisms linking climate and food production are also being identified: for example, locust outbreaks, that can be devastating for crop production, have been found to be linked to long-term droughts, warm winters, and high spring and summer precipitation 17 . Links between pollinators and food security have also been identified 18 . Second, much of the literature is qualitative, focusing on pathways between climate change, food production, and food security. Third, most quantitative papers focus on future, rather than current impacts. For example, many papers use crop models, computable general equilibrium (CGE) models, and/or integrated assessment models (IAM) combined with with general circulation models (GCMs) to project the impact of future climate change on the population at risk of hunger 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 . However, there is a gap in the literature with respect to the identification of a plausible causal relationship between climatic stressors and food security indicators.

We present a novel and rigorous approach to determining the impact of climate change, as manifested in heat stress, defined as the temperature anomaly relative to a historic baseline, on food security. To do this, we had to overcome a number of substantive methodological challenges with regards to both data analysis and data. First, the relationship between climate and food security evolves and changes over time, and so a time constant regression framework, as is commonly used in the existing literature on climate and socioeconomic outcomes, is insufficient. We therefore use a time-varying regression, which can be tricky to operationalise and computationally intensive. Second, until recently, standardised data on food insecurity for a sufficient number of countries has been hard to access. In this paper, we sourced and merged data from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) for 83 countries. Third, we had to define an appropriate measure of climate change. We chose to focus on temperature anomaly, defined as the annual deviation from a long-term rolling mean. Based on this approach, and controlling for other key factors that have been demonstrated to affect food insecurity, including extreme events, specifically droughts; and “development”, as proxied by sub-national HDI (the UNDP Human Development Index, disaggregated to the sub-national level); we are able to quantify the extent to which food security has already been negatively affected by climate change.

In this paper we make a step change contribution to the literature, providing for the first time a comprehensive quantitative assessment of the extent to which changes in food insecurity, an important driver of health, can be attributed to climate change. This is important for several reasons. First, our research provides additional evidence as to the broad health benefits of climate change mitigation, and as such increased support for global efforts to reduce carbon emissions. Climate change is increasingly being described as a health emergency 25 , 26 , and our paper demonstrates clearly that food security, including access to healthy and nutritious food, is harmed by increasing temperatures and increasing drought, and thus conversely, climate change mitigation will have a positive impact on food security. Second, a lack of empirical data has been highlighted as a key constraint, particularly for vulnerable countries, when it comes to designing policies and practices to address loss and damage, a focal area highlighted at the Glasgow COP26 27 . In this paper we are able to quantify for the first time the extent to which regions have differentially experienced loss and damage with respect to food security. Third, our research is important for discussions of climate justice. We find that African countries, which are least responsible for emissions, are experiencing the most negative impacts of climate change on food security. Fourth, the evidence generated in this paper can be used by policy makers to identify climate-food insecurity hotspots, to enable the design of more effective tailored policies that take into local contexts.

In the next section, we detail our methodological approach, in the context of the current attribution literature. We then present our empirical findings, highlighting the annual temperature anomaly and time-varying regression results, and analysis of the counterfactual of a no climate change scenario. In our final Section (4) we conclude, discussing the implications of our findings for future research and for practical food policy making.

Methods and data

Attributing loss and damage to climate change, that is, being able to state the extent to which human induced climate change increases the probability of an event or outcome, is a relatively new and evolving literature. Allen 28 was one of the first articles to explore the extent to which it is possible to attribute outcomes to climate change through its impact on weather. Since then, the number of attribution studies that quantify links between climate change and health has grown, driven in the main by climatologists, who use established formal detection and attribution methods to determine the extent to which climate change is affecting health 29 . These “D and A” methods are based on statistical and process-based approaches to determining a causal link between a hazard linked to climate, and a negative health outcome. For example 30 , focus on the links between heat extremes and mortality. They take temperature data for Stockholm, Sweden, defining extreme heat and cold event thresholds, and calculate the number of such extreme events in 1900-1929 and 1980-2009. Then, combining the long-term temperature data set with recent health data, the authors are able to attribute recent deaths from extremes of temperature to observed climate change, controlling for various confounders such as age and urbanisation. More recently, Vicedo and colleagues 31 use mortality and weather data from 732 locations in 43 countries during 1991–2018 to attribute 37% of warm-season heat-related deaths to anthropogenic climate change. Mitchell and colleagues 32 focus on the heatwave of 2003 and estimate that anthropogenic climate change increased the risk of heat-related mortality in Central Paris by 70% and by 20% in London.

Complementing this literature, but taking an approach grounded in applied econometrics, we combine newly available panel data on food insecurity, collected on a regular basis by FAO in collaboration with Gallop World Poll in a large number of countries at the individual level, with temperature anomalies data. Controlling for confounding factors, we are able to identify a plausible causal link between food insecurity and our changing climate.

Empirical framework

To track the impact of climate change and inequality on incidence of food insecurity, we use a panel data regression with coefficients that vary over time. To operationalise the concept of climate change, we focus on temperature anomaly, defined as the annual temperature difference, in \(^{\circ }\,\hbox {C}\) , from a mean temperature of a 30-year period between 1981-2010. We consider two dependent variables: first, the probability of moderate to severe food insecurity; and second, the probability of severe food insecurity. We examine the impact of temperature anomaly on food insecurity, controlling for sub-national HDI and drought. We use six-month Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) as a measure of drought, this is a common indicator of agricultural drought and as such appropriate for our analysis. To account for unobserved heterogeneity, our specification also includes both location and time (year) fixed-effects.

Most of the empirical literature focuses on constant-parameter coefficients that do not change over time. A standard fixed-effects (FE) specification can be written as:

where \(\beta\) is a time-constant coefficient that measures the marginal impact above cross-sectional units’ long-run average rate. A fixed-effects specification allows the individual and/or time specific effects to be correlated with explanatory variables. An assumption with such panel FE specifications is that the effects of observed explanatory variables, \(\underline{x}\) , are identical across cross-sectional units ( i ), and over time ( t ). However, this assumption of a time-constant effect of temperature anomaly may be too restrictive if the impact of climatic stressors on socioeconomic outcomes evolves over time, implying that more flexible approaches may therefore be needed. In such cases, regression specifications allowing for a time-varying association between the dependent variable and the covariates of interest are most likely more appropriate.

We posit that in the case of temperature anomaly and food insecurity, \(\beta\) is likely to vary over time. That is, the temperature anomaly will have a differential impact on food insecurity in different years. We therefore estimate a plausible causal relationship between temperature anomaly and food insecurity using panel data models with coefficients that vary over time. More generally, time-varying specifications are useful to characterise non-constant relationships between predictors and responses in regression models 33 . These specifications allow estimation of coefficients that are common to all cross-sectional units and time; parameters that vary over cross-sectional units; and coefficients that change over time. Following 34 , the general form of a regression with a time-varying parameter can be written as follows:

Here we are relaxing the assumption of a constant relationship across time between a set of control variables and a dependent variable. In effect, this allows us to estimate the extent to which, if at all, the relationship between food insecurity and temperature variability has evolved over time, by incorporating the dynamic pattern of this relationship. These specifications are computationally intensive and non-convergence issues are rather common. An econometric specification with time-varying coefficients and fixed-effects can be written as:

where \(y_{it}\) (the response variable) is the incidence of moderate to severe and severe food insecurity as measured by FIES; \(\beta _{k}\) are coefficients that are constant over time and space; \(\alpha _{ki}\) are coefficients that vary over cross-sectional units; \(\lambda _{kt}\) are coefficients that vary over time; \(x_{kit}\) are explanatory variable(s) (in our case temperature anomaly); while \(\mu _{it}\) is the error term. Since the coefficient \(\beta\) depends on time t , the modeling bias and the curse of dimensionality can be reduced to some extent 35 , 36 . In our case, this is interesting as we are able to study the extent to which the temperature anomaly affects food insecurity over time. Our regression specification can be written as follows:

Equation ( 4 ) is a panel data regression model with time-varying coefficients and both location and time fixed-effects, where \(FIES_{it}\) is the probability of moderate to severe food insecurity, or probability of severe food insecurity; \(\varvec{V}_{it}\) is the temperature anomaly; and \(\varvec{X_{it}}\) is a vector of relevant variables affecting food insecurity including sub-national HDI and extreme events (droughts); while \(\mu _{it}\) is a random error term. All variables are recorded for different locations with index i \(=\) 1, ... , N and over a number of years t \(=\) 1, ... , T. The time-varying coefficients allow us to examine whether the relationship between temperature anomaly and food insecurity has evolved over time.

We use prevalence of food insecurity data, based on the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES) 37 , 38 , which provides internationally-comparable estimates of the proportion of the population facing difficulties in accessing food. The FIES-based indicators are compiled using the FIES survey module, containing eight questions, which are then used to compute the probabilities of moderate or severe food insecurity and severe food insecurity. FAO collects nationally representative samples of the adult population, once every year beginning in 2014, to develop methods to estimate cross-country comparable prevalence rates of moderate and severe food insecurity. FAO estimates a Rasch model-based scale for each country and data are assessed for consistency to ensure cross-country comparability. The following questions are asked in a FIES module to compute the probabilities of food insecurity.

Question: During the last 12 months, was there a time when, because of lack of money or other resources:

You were worried you would not have enough food to eat?

You were unable to eat healthy and nutritious food?

You ate only a few kinds of foods?

You had to skip a meal?

You ate less than you thought you should?

Your household ran out of food?

You were hungry but did not eat?

You went without eating for a whole day?

The responses to these questions are classified into: (1) moderate to severe food insecurity, which is associated with reduced quality and/or quantity of food consumption including eating fewer meals (question 4), eating smaller portions (question 5), and running out food (question 6); and (2) severe food insecurity, which is associated with a high probability of reduced food intake such as going hungry without eating (question 7), and not eating for an entire day (question 8). The raw data consists of 411,403 individual data points which are aggregated using the survey weights provided in the datasets. Naturally all household survey data may have biases, due to data collection collection relying on individual recall, and FIES is no exception to this.

For climate data, we use reanalysed data from ERA5-Land, the fifth generation European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) atmospheric reanalysis of the global climate. Reanalysed climate data combines global climate models (numerical representation of the recent climate) with observational and satellite observations. Reanalysed data has the advantage of producing long time series and spanning the entire planet 39 . Data from ERA5-Land is available at a spatial resolution of \(0.1^{\circ } \times 0.1^{\circ }\) and hourly temporal-resolution 40 . We extracted the climatic data for each region using georeferences before computing the mean annual temperature, 30-year (1981-2010) mean temperature, and finally the anomaly as a difference between the annual mean and the 30-year mean temperature for each region. We aggregate the number of times the six-month SPI is below the threshold of -1.5 in a given month to compute our drought indicator. Because we aggregate data to the annual level, temporal heterogeneities cannot be controlled for.

We also use the sub-national Human Development Index (SHDI) database 41 , which contains data from 163 countries, aggregating education, health, and standard of living dimensions. The SHDI, which comprises economic and social indicators, also allows us to incorporate within-country variation and inequality in wellbeing and its associated impact on food insecurity.

Data statement

All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. We use secondary data for our analysis. The surveys were conducted by the Gallup World Poll, who obtained informed consent from all the respondents. The datasets used were anonymised by removing all identifying information on households and individuals before being made available for research purposes.

Descriptive statistics

We aggregated the food insecurity data into 17 sub-regions following the United Nations Geoscheme. The probability of moderate to severe food insecurity across the globe increased from 19.3% in 2014 to 30.7% in 2019 (Fig.  1 ). Nearly 11% of the population across 83 countries suffered from severe food insecurity in 2019, a significant increase from 6.2% in 2014 (Fig.  2 ). There are clear across and within-regional differences. For example, incidences of food insecurity are relatively higher in the Africa region, with Liberia, Guinea, and Mozambique reporting the highest levels of food insecurity. Honduras in the Americas, and Afghanistan and The Philippines in the Asia region, have also reported relatively high levels of food insecurity. While food insecurity is generally low in Europe, countries such as Albania, Moldova, and Ukraine have recently reported increasing levels of food insecurity. In terms of gendered impacts, 54% of the countries included in this analysis reported higher probability of food insecurity among women compared to men.

Probability of moderate to severe food insecurity (%) across regions. The global average during 2014–2019 was 22.7%.

Probability of severe food insecurity (%) across regions. The global average during 2014–2019 was 7.9%.

Globally, temperature anomaly has been increasing, and the countries in our sample have experienced a similar trend (Fig.  3 ). The mean temperature anomaly in our sample data is 0.56 \(^{\circ }\,\hbox {C}\) . Our data also suggest that regions with the highest increases in temperature also tend to suffer from relatively high incidences of severe food insecurity.

Monthly global temperature anomalies ( \(^{\circ }\hbox {C}\) ).

Empirical findings

Our time-varying regression, that allows us to estimate the impact of temperature anomaly on food insecurity for the six consecutive years for which FIES data are available, suggests that for every 1 \(^{\circ }\,\hbox {C}\) of temperature anomaly, severe global food insecurity increased by 1.4% (95% CI: 1.3-1.47) in 2014 but by 1.64% (95% CI: 1.6-1.65) in 2019, suggesting an increasing trajectory (Table 1 and Fig.  4 , second-panel). The impact of temperature anomaly on moderate to severe global food insecurity is higher, with the results suggesting that a 1 \(^{\circ }\,\hbox {C}\) increase in temperature anomaly increased moderate to severe food insecurity by 1.58% (95% CI: 1.48-1.68) in 2014 but had a significantly higher impact of 2.14% (95% CI: 2.08-2.20) in 2019 (Table 1 and Fig.  4 , third-panel). We formally tested this difference using a multi-variate regression which provided statistical evidence that the impact of temperature anomaly on moderate to severe and severe food insecurity is heterogeneous. One of the advantages of using a time-varying coefficients regression is that we are able to identify the impact of temperature anomaly on food insecurity for every time-period in our dataset. Our approach reveals that temperature anomaly not only increases the probability of food insecurity but the magnitude of this impact is increasing over time. We tested this hypothesis using Wald tests, which suggest that the each of the coefficients in year \(\textit{t}\) were grater than that in year \({t_{t-1}}\) . These results are worrying, as they suggest that the temperature anomaly may continue to increase due to future climate change, likely further intensifying the stress on food security.

Annual temperature anomaly and time-varying regression results.

In our regression, the other variables that we control for, human development index, and drought, also show significant impacts on food insecurity (Table 1 ). Perhaps not surprisingly, regions with relatively higher HDI are associated with lower probability of food insecurity: each improvement of HDI of 0.1 (on a scale of 0 to 1) is associated with a 2.3% lower probability of severe food insecurity and 2.7% lower probability of moderate to severe food insecurity. Given that the increase in HDI for the median country over the 30-year sample period is only 0.11, our findings suggest that improvements in within-country wellbeing/reduction in inequality are likely to play an important role in reducing the incidence of food insecurity. Furthermore, our findings show that increasing frequency of droughts (SPI-6) increases the probability of both moderate to severe and severe food insecurity.

Robustness tests

Our results from the main specifications are consistent with a series of robustness tests. In the first robustness specification (Table 2 ), we extend our main specification with time-varying bins of monthly temperature anomalies. Using the 0.2–0.4 \(^{\circ }\,\hbox {C}\) as the reference bin, our results suggest that relatively low monthly temperature anomalies (< 0.2 \(^{\circ }\,\hbox {C}\) ) reduce incidences of food insecurity (for both indicators). However, the coefficients for this anomaly bin changes rather slowly over time. Compared to the reference bin, temperature anomalies in the higher bins result in an increase in incidences of food insecurity. The coefficients of all the higher temperature bins (additional months with relatively higher temperature anomalies) also increase over time, providing further evidence that the magnitude of increasing temperature anomaly on food insecurity has increased over time.

We also run a binned regression using an OLS specification with fixed effects (Table 3 ). These results further show that, compared to the 0.2–0.4 \(^{\circ }\,\hbox {C}\) temperature anomaly bin, if there are more months with relatively higher temperature anomalies there is a greater incidence of food insecurity, while if there are more months with relatively lower temperature anomalies (<0.2 \(^{\circ }\,\hbox {C}\) ) compared to the reference bin results, the incidence of food insecurity is lower.

Counterfactual analysis

We conduct a counterfactual analysis to explore the extent to which historical climate change may have negated potential improvements in food security. To do this we compute the cumulative impacts of temperature anomaly above the historical norms over the period 1981–2010. We use data from the Detection and Attribution Model Intercomparison Project (DAMIP) 42 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6), merged with SSP2-RCP4.5 (considered a “middle of the road” scenario) runs of twelve GCMs from CMIP6. The counterfactual impact of climate change on food insecurity is derived by comparing the outputs from Equation 4 of region i over these two scenarios. We consider the effects of sub-national region-specific average annual temperature increases over the 2014–2019 period compared to the baseline scenario (1981–2010) under which temperature in each region increases according to its historical trend.

Our counterfactual analysis for moderate to severe food insecurity (Table 4 ; columns 2–3) shows that incidence of food insecurity would have been 47.65% in Africa (2.25 percentage-points lower) if the temperature followed the historical trajectory. The lowest change would have been in Europe, where food insecurity would have been 11.73% without climate change compared to 13.19% with climate change (1.46 percentage-points lower). For the case of severe food insecurity (Table 4 ; columns 4–5), the cumulative effects of climate change are smaller but still non-negligible. In Africa, severe food insecurity would have been 21.8% if the temperature followed the historical trajectory (0.88 percentage-points lower) while the lowest estimated change would have again been in Europe, 1.86% compared to 2.05% (0.19 percentage-points). These differences in impacts are driven by the differentiated impacts of temperature anomaly on the two indicators of food insecurity (Fig.  4 ).

The links between climate change and food security are complex and many, and are well documented in the literature. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change states with “high confidence” that climate change is already affecting food insecurity across the globe 43 . Yet there are still insufficient attempts to quantify this relationship and explore the extent to which it is possible to attribute changes in food security to climate change. Rather, most of the literature addressing climate change impacts focuses on crop yields, production, and productivity, and future impacts of climate change, with much less attention given to the negative impact on food security that is already occurring 44 . Our paper makes three important and distinct contributions to these gaps in the literature.

First, we provide the first global and comprehensive quantitative assessment of the extent to which climate change is already having a measurable impact on food security, and our findings are sobering. We track the link between temperature anomaly, drought, and food insecurity, using a relatively new dataset collected by FAO since 2014, that focuses on people’s lived experiences of food insecurity, such as whether they had to skip meals, worried about not having enough to eat, or were not able to eat healthy and nutritious meals. We provide quantitative evidence that climate change, proxied by temperature anomaly and drought, is already having a negative impact on food security across the four regions of Africa, Americas, Asia, and Europe. Our findings are consistent with the literature that focuses on the links between climate change and food production 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 . Importantly, we additionally find that the impact of the temperature anomaly on food insecurity is increasing over time, as average temperatures increase. Though this pattern is particularly pronounced for moderate to severe food insecurity, a similar pattern can be found for severe food insecurity. Because we focus on food security rather than food production, our findings have particular relevance for economic development and poverty reduction more broadly.

While it does not come as a surprise that warming worsens food security in most countries (as has been shown to be the case for Ethiopia 11 ), given the lack of quantitative evidence in the existing literature it is difficult to compare the effect size. However, by undertaking a counterfactual analysis, we are able to quantify the extent to which climate change is reversing the gains in food security that would otherwise have been realised, most likely through policies addressing poverty reduction and economic growth. We find that for all four regions, climate change appears to have had a non-trivial impact on food insecurity. Though the changes may appear relatively small, these changes have occurred over a short period of time, and the negative impacts on food security are likely to increase yet further as temperatures continue to rise. Our findings contribute to the growing focus on loss and damage, and the extent to which climate stressors are affecting Sustainable Development Goals, including food security 45 . Our findings may also provide a partial explanation as to why, despite falling global poverty rates, both the percentage and the absolute number of undernourished people have started to increase 4 .

Third, though food insecurity in each of the four regions appears to have increased due to climate change, these impacts are heterogeneous. In particular, our counterfactual analysis suggests that Africa, already the most food insecure region, has been hardest hit with regards to the impact of climate change on food insecurity. Our analysis suggests that, between 2014 and 2019, severe food insecurity is 0.88 percentage-points higher, and moderate to severe food security 2.24 percentage-points higher, due to climate change. These results do not surprise us, African countries have long been identified as being particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change on food security 46 , 47 , 48 .

Our paper makes clear that climate change is reversing efforts, particularly in lower-income countries, to reduce poverty and increase prosperity, providing yet more evidence for the urgent need for global reductions in carbon emissions. Yet the reality, that climate change is already worsening both moderate and severe food security, across all regions, also highlights the need for greater attention to adaptation, building resilience, and addressing loss and damage.

For policy makers, it is important to understand not just whether climate change is affecting food security, but how, so that policies can be targeted effectively. For example, in some regions the focus might be on smallholder agricultural productivity, including investments in soil quality; in others safety nets such as food or cash transfers; or improvements in the food supply chain and regional storage 11 . Such policies and approaches are likely to be location specific, informed by detailed country-specific studies, involving local researchers, policy makers, and civil society.

Data availability

The data used in this paper are publicly available at https://microdata.fao.org/index.php/catalog .

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S.D. and E.J.Z.R. designed the Study. S.D. designed the analytical strategy and S.D. and E.J.Z.R. interpreted the findings. E.J.Z.R. conducted the literature review and E.J.Z.R. and S.D. prepared the Introduction. S.D. prepared the Methods sections. E.J.Z.R. drafted the Discussion.

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Dasgupta, S., Robinson, E.J.Z. Attributing changes in food insecurity to a changing climate. Sci Rep 12 , 4709 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-08696-x

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• Agrarian transition and food security in the Village of Nahle, Northern Bekaa / Fatima Yahfoufi Thesis. M.S. American University of Beirut. Food Security Program, 2023.
• Exploring the potential role of urban agriculture as a community engagement strategy in universities during a food security crisis: the American university of Beirut as a case study / by Melody Tamer Thesis. M.S. American University of Beirut. Food Security Program, 2022.
• The contribution of urban agriculture to food security in post-conflict Syria / by Ali Hashem Alhasan. Thesis. M.S. American University of Beirut. Food Security Program, 2021.
• Agrarian transition and food security in the village of Nabha, Central Bekaa / by Nour El Houda Amhez. Thesis. M.S. American University of Beirut. Food Security Program, 2019. ST:6925.
• Agrarian transition and food security in the village of Khreibet El Jundi, Akkar, Lebanon / by Nour El-Jundi. Thesis. M.S. American University of Beirut. Food Security Program, 2019. ST:6976.
• Assessing ecologically sound practices influencing climate change adaptation strategies and food security : a case of smallholder farmers in central Bekaa, Lebanon / by Aliaa Ahmad Al Dirani. Thesis. M.S. American University of Beirut. Food Security Program, 2019. ST:6975.
• The effectiveness of food aid on food availability and food stability among small scale pastoralist communities in Tana River County, Kenya / by Kelvin Kiragu Kimani. Thesis. M.S. American University of Beirut. Food Security Program , 2019. ST:7037.
• The role of household-level dairy preservation ("mouneh" production) in the food, protein, and nutrition security, and in the food sovereignty of Jordanian households / by Hannah Nicholson. Thesis. M.S. American University of Beirut. Food Security Program, 2019. ST:7038.
• واقع الأمن الغذائي في الأردن = Food Security Status in Jordan by جوابرة ، رنيم زياد أحمد Publication Date: 2015
• الأبعاد السياسية و الاقتصادية للأمن المائي العربي و أثره على الأمن الغذائي ( 2000 - 2013 م ) = Political and Economic Dimensions of the Arab Water Security and its Impact on Food Security 2000 - 2013 by الدغمي ، صايل رميح طنا Publication Date: 2014
• التبعية الغذائية العربية و الأمن القومي العربي : الأسباب و الآثار = Food Dependency and Arab National Security : Causes and Effects by الشوك ، رباب علي جميل أمين Publication Date: 2011

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Gabbert, Silke, and Hans-Peter Weikard. "Food deficits, food security and food aid : concepts and measurement." Universität Potsdam, 1998. http://opus.kobv.de/ubp/volltexte/2006/858/.

Duncan, Jessica. "The reformed Committee on World Food Security and the global governance of food security." Thesis, City University London, 2014. http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/3511/.

Mannette, Jessica. "Food Security in Urban New Zealand: Food Waste, Food Utopias, and Food Values." Thesis, Université d'Ottawa / University of Ottawa, 2020. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/40383.

Parnell, Winsome R., and n/a. "Food security in New Zealand." University of Otago. Department of Human Nutrition, 2005. http://adt.otago.ac.nz./public/adt-NZDU20070426.162526.

Butrico, Gina Marie. "Food Security and Identity: Iceland." Kent State University / OhioLINK, 2013. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=kent1374943947.

MANE, ERDGIN. "Microeconometric analysis of food security." Doctoral thesis, Università degli Studi di Roma "Tor Vergata", 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2108/207736.

Raedeke, Maurine A. "Food security, nutrition and health of food pantry participants." Diss., Columbia, Mo. : University of Missouri-Columbia, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/10355/4839.

Korale, Gedara Pradeepa. "Food Market Integration and Food Security in Sri Lanka." Thesis, Griffith University, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/10072/366843.

Esamwata, Joab O. "Exporting food, importing food aid? : Kenya and food security in the world food system." Thesis, Kansas State University, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/2097/18698.

Drewett, Jessica. "Student food security: the (dis)connection between student food experiences, sustainability and green spaces from the lens of food security." Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/29622.

Cochrane, Logan. "Strengthening food security in rural Ethiopia." Thesis, University of British Columbia, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/61073.

Long, Lauren Christine. "Food security and family well-being." Thesis, Montana State University, 2007. http://etd.lib.montana.edu/etd/2007/long/LongL0507.pdf.

Kersten, Larissa C. S. K. "Food security and Preferential Trade Agreements." Thesis, University of Essex, 2018. http://repository.essex.ac.uk/22837/.

Al-Azri, Masoud. "Modelling crop diseases for food security." Thesis, University of Nottingham, 2017. http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/44777/.

McQueary, Brandy Jeanette. "Cincinnati Food Security: A Community Assessment." Cincinnati, Ohio : University of Cincinnati, 2008. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc//view?acc_num=ucin1211996556.

Taylor, Nicole. "The Public Market System of New Orleans: Food Deserts, Food Security, and Food Politics." ScholarWorks@UNO, 2005. http://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/250.

Smith, Kara C. 1974. "The Lane County Food Policy Council and Re-framing Food Security." Thesis, University of Oregon, 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/1794/7889.

Adjapong, Frederick Kwaku. "Linking Food Security Governance and Changing Food Security Priorities: A Case Study of the Northern Region of Ghana." Ohio University / OhioLINK, 2021. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ohiou162885878645884.

González, Calabuig Andreu. "Electronic Tongues for food and security applications." Doctoral thesis, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/10803/643301.

Jeanty, Pierre Wilner. "Two essays on environmental and food security." Columbus, Ohio : Ohio State University, 2006. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc%5Fnum=osu1164833528.

Lambden, Allison Jill. "Food security of Canadian Arctic indigenous women." Thesis, McGill University, 2006. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=99342.

Bajželj, Bojana. "Land use, food security and climate change." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2015. https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.709356.

Malan, LP, and Rooyen EJ van. "Community partnerships- enhancing municipal food security policy." Journal of Public Administration, 2010. http://encore.tut.ac.za/iii/cpro/DigitalItemViewPage.external?sp=1001174.

Williams, Dana M. "Food security and access in Akron, Ohio." Akron, OH : University of Akron, 2002. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc%5Fnum=akron1107371980.

Solaroli, Laura <1983&gt. "Assessing Food Security in Selected Mediterranean Countries." Doctoral thesis, Alma Mater Studiorum - Università di Bologna, 2014. http://amsdottorato.unibo.it/6659/1/TESI_PhD_Laura_Solaroli_1.pdf.

Solaroli, Laura <1983&gt. "Assessing Food Security in Selected Mediterranean Countries." Doctoral thesis, Alma Mater Studiorum - Università di Bologna, 2014. http://amsdottorato.unibo.it/6659/.

Chen, Jinzhou <1995&gt. "Food Security Drivers: the case of China." Master's Degree Thesis, Università Ca' Foscari Venezia, 2020. http://hdl.handle.net/10579/16756.

Tincani, Lucrezia Stella. "Resilient livelihoods : adaptation, food security and wild foods in rural Burkina Faso." Thesis, SOAS, University of London, 2012. http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/13609/.

Zhao, Ke. "Australian water security and Asian food security: complexity and macroeconomics of sustainability." Thesis, The University of Sydney, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/12771.

O'Hare-Gordon, Meagan Ann. "School-Based Food Programming in the Northwest Territories: Working Towards More than Just Food Security." Thesis, Université d'Ottawa / University of Ottawa, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/35258.

Whiting, Erin Feinauer. "Understanding reservation hunger food acquisition and food security among the northern Cheyenne /." Diss., Columbia, Mo. : University of Missouri-Columbia, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/10355/4444.

Webb-Yeates, Morgan. "Food Defense Among Meat Processing and Food Service Establishments in Kentucky." TopSCHOLAR®, 2013. http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/theses/1249.

Gendron, Danielle Renee. "Eating Gitxaała, being Gitxaała : food and cultural security." Thesis, University of British Columbia, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/57890.

Stokes, Hamish Maynard. "Food security debate : limited logic and partial truths /." Title page, contents and abstract only, 2001. http://web4.library.adelaide.edu.au/theses/09AR/09ars8743.pdf.

Wright, Helena Louise. "Effective finance for food security under climate change." Thesis, Imperial College London, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/10044/1/43800.

Tiwasing, Pattanapong. "Nutrition, labour productivity and food security in Thailand." Thesis, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/10443/3412.

Yobom, Oudah. "Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security in Sahel." Thesis, Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 2020. http://www.theses.fr/2020UBFCG001.

Johnson, Michelle. "Measurement of household food security in rural Ecuador." The Ohio State University, 2005. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1407147571.

Kane, Kathleen Joanne. "Diet quality and Food Security of Cancer Patients." The Ohio State University, 2018. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1524141604292618.

Nakabo, Ssewanyana Sarah. "Women and household food security in rural Uganda." Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/14527.

Kankwamba, Henry [Verfasser]. "Economic disruptions, markets and food security / Henry Kankwamba." Bonn : Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Bonn, 2020. http://d-nb.info/1225793084/34.

Delbourg, Esther. "Achieving water security through cooperation and food trade." Thesis, Université Paris-Saclay (ComUE), 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016SACLX077/document.

Foord, Wayne. "Energy scarcity and food security : strategies for transition to resilient food system governance." Thesis, Queen's University Belfast, 2016. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.705918.

Yao, Ruoxue. "Trends in beverage consumption among U.S. food secure and food insecure adults: NHANES 2001-2010." University of Cincinnati / OhioLINK, 2013. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ucin1384869898.

Reynolds, Stuart David. "Resilience to food insecurity: Measuring access to food in the urban environment." Thesis, University of Canterbury. Geography, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/10092/9454.

Chhabra, Surbhi. "Social Capital, Social Support, and Food Insecurity in Food Pantry Users." University of Cincinnati / OhioLINK, 2012. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ucin1342540700.

Munim, Khandaker Mohammed Ashraful. "Salinity intrusion and food security : evidence from three food systems in south-western Bangladesh." Thesis, University of Leeds, 2013. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.634213.

Mwakatoga, Joyce Donald. "Improving Food Production and Food Security in Tanzania through a Youth DevelopmentProgram in Agriculture." The Ohio State University, 2016. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1469199250.

Grutzmacher, Stephanie Kristen. "Influence of food-related life skills on food security of rural, low-income families." College Park, Md. : University of Maryland, 2004. http://hdl.handle.net/1903/1463.

Vermeulen, Hester. "A balanced food basket approach to monitor food affordability in South Africa." Thesis, University of Pretoria, 2020. http://hdl.handle.net/2263/73175.

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Search for dissertations about: "thesis in food security"

Showing result 1 - 5 of 113 swedish dissertations containing the words thesis in food security .

1. Engagement with Fungi-Based Food : Recovery and Valorization of Resources for Food

Author : Coralie Hellwig ; Kamran Rousta ; Marianne Thomsen ; Högskolan i Borås ; [] Keywords : TEKNIK OCH TEKNOLOGIER ; ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ; sustainable lifestyles ; fungi ; resource recovery ; sustainable food ; food waste reduction ; Resource Recovery ; Resursåtervinning ;

Abstract : There has been an increasing demand for more sustainable food and ways of encouraging individuals to lead more sustainable lives. This thesis seeks to contribute to understanding human engagement with fungi-based food in a multidisciplinary manner by complementing resource recovery with an occupational perspective that sheds light on aspects that encourage or discourage individuals from engaging with this food. READ MORE

2. Producing Food, Security, and the Geopolitical Subject

Author : Jiayi Zhou ; Eva Lövbrand ; Malin Mobjörk ; Björn-Ola Linnér ; Jonna Nyman ; Linköpings universitet ; [] Keywords : SAMHÄLLSVETENSKAP ; SOCIAL SCIENCES ; Food security ; Russia ; United Nations ; Security ; Discourse ; Geo-politics ;

Abstract : This study uses food as a lens through which to empirically and theoretically problematize the concept of security. Food – its supply, provision, and access – is situated at the center of several interconnected crises, from environmental and climatic upheaval to growing geopolitical turbulence and great power competition. READ MORE

3. Food for Naught : The politics of food in agricultural modernization for African smallholder food security

Author : Cheryl Sjöström ; LUCSUS ; [] Keywords : SAMHÄLLSVETENSKAP ; SOCIAL SCIENCES ; global food system ; smallholder food security ; sub-Saharan Africa ; agricultural modernization ; critical discourse analysis ; power ; politics of food ; Millennium Villages Project ; Malawi ;

Abstract : Why is there hunger in sub-Saharan Africa? What forces drive the global food system? What is the global food system? To approach these questions, this study investigates power and politics in food, in its production and in its organization. Proceeding from a critical realist approach, focus of this study is on the challenge of African smallholder food insecurity and how it is presented as part of a dominant discourse of agricultural modernization. READ MORE

4. Fields of Gold : The Bioenergy Debate in International Organizations

Author : Magdalena Kuchler ; Björn-Ola Linnér ; Johan Hedrén ; Eva Friman ; Linköpings universitet ; [] Keywords : SAMHÄLLSVETENSKAP ; SOCIAL SCIENCES ; bioenergy ; biofuels ; debate ; discourse ; concept ; international organizations ; international relations ; FAO ; IEA ; IPCC ; energy security ; climate change ; food security ; food vs. fuel ; bioenergi ; biobränsle ; debatt ; diskurs ; begrepp ; internationella organisationer ; internationella relationer ; FAO ; IEA ; IPCC ; energisäkerhet ; klimatförändringar ; livsmedelssäkerhet ;

Abstract : The concept of producing energy from biomass has, for the last two decades, occupied attention of policy-makers, private industries, researchers and civil societies around the world. The highly contested and contingent character of the biofuel production, its entanglement in the nexus of three problematic issues of energy, climate and agriculture, as well as its injection into the current socioeconomic arrangements, is what makes it timely to analyse. READ MORE

5. Child nutrition in rural Nicaragua : Population-based studies in a transitional society

Author : Mariela Contreras ; Eva-Charlotte Ekström ; Anders Hjern ; Christel Larsson ; Uppsala universitet ; [] Keywords : autonomy ; education ; feeding practices ; food security ; nutritional status ; social support ; Nutrition ; Nutrition ;

Abstract : Emerging favourable as well as unfavourable nutrition patterns are observed in societies undergoing rapid social and economic change. The aim of this thesis is to analyse the associations between household and maternal resources and infant and young child feeding habits and nutritional status in rural Nicaragua, a low-income transitional society. READ MORE

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Food Security in the United States: The Major Lapses of the Conventional Food Systems Essay

Introduction, the meaning of food security, food insecurity in the american perspective, major problems associated with the traditional food systems, american communities affected by food insecurity, my role in the food system.

Even as commercial and peasant farmers continue to increase pressure on farmland for the production of non-food crops, food security continues to dominate major global forums. Global farmlands are gradually losing their historical fertility, food-processing companies are increasingly becoming unstable, and food galleries are becoming emptier.

The issue of food security is a universal dilemma that has struck several nations across the world, even as climate continues to be unpredictable, and the events of hunger and drought continue to occur repeatedly. The intent of this essay is to give an in-depth meaning of food security, the perspective of food insecurity to the case of the United States, the major lapses of the conventional food systems, and the American communities that frequently remain affected by food insecurity.

Food security may refer to the sufficient accessibility of nutritious, safe, and religiously and culturally appropriate food to all the people across the world. Food security may also depict a situation whereby all communities of the world, regardless of their ethnic backgrounds, religious beliefs, political affiliations, and socioeconomic statuses, rightfully enjoy unlimited access to reliable and affordable food that is nutritious and safe for human consumption.

Food security is also a state whereby all the people across the continents are capable of accessing food that is sufficient in quantity and quality, depending on their daily nutritional demands. The concept of quantity applies because food has to be adequate to feed the populations sufficiently. The concept of quality applies because food has to be safe and nutritious.

Despite the United States seeking equitable access to economic food resources and physical food resources, food insecurity in the American perspective comes in a disparity manner. American food insecurity occurs when the vulnerable groups of people in different communities are suffering an acute shortage of ability to have an economic and physical access to safe, nutritious, and religiously and culturally appropriate food.

Food insecurity in America is eminent when children are facing a devastating shortage of adequate food that is nutritious and safe for human consumption. Food insecurity in the United States also becomes eminent when the elderly, the ethnic minority, and the rural people, lack access to food of the right quality and quantity, due to their mobility conditions and other socioeconomic situations.

The foremost problem associated with the American conventional food systems is lack of food maintenance. The traditional American food systems lacked proper food maintenance because they lacked proper food harvesting techniques, they lacked proper food preservation methods, and they lacked ample storage infrastructures.

Although the traditional food systems are more nutritious and safer compared to the foods produced through the contemporary technologies and stored through the modern industrial systems, they lack their sustained value because of poor preservation. Since the modern industrial food systems replaced the traditional methods of producing and preserving food, food security has improved tremendously across the continents. The traditionally gathered foods have never proven significant in dealing with the modern food insecurity. The replacement of traditional galleries with industries is worthwhile.

Although hunger is a universal problem that affects all the global communities, food insecurity in United States affects the minority ethnicities unfairly. The most affected minority communities are those that make up the biggest minority groups. The ethnic communities of America that often face food insecurity are large minority communities.

These communities involve the African American ethnic communities and the Latino minority population, which report constant events of food shortages. In the American demographic statistics and history, the two minority communities have remained disproportionately affected by poverty, food insecurity, and unemployment misfortunes. These two ethnic communities of the United States live in the rural, the suburban, and the underdeveloped cities of America. These are areas, where racial poverty, lack of education and unemployment, are major social concerns.

My major role in the modern food system is to ensure appropriate use of the available food in the markets, at home, and within the institution. People must use the right amount of food required by the body tissues to enable the body systems work properly. I must practice suitable cooking. Suitable cooking means cooking the right amount of food, without wasting any food amount that may deem important somewhere else in the world.

My other significant role in the food system is ensuring an appropriate budgeting of food to avoid unnecessary food decay, which literally leads to loss of food. Lastly, my other role in the food security is sensitizing the local communities about the appropriate use of farmland.

Food insecurity is becoming a growing concern in many nations. Food security primarily means an unlimited economic and physical access to food that is nutritious, safe, and culturally and religiously acceptable. Although hunger is a universal problem that affects many people across the world, the situation may sometimes be disproportionate in some parts of the world, depending on several socioeconomic dynamics.

In America, poverty, unemployment, and old age are some of the variables that determine access to food, as well as define the situation of food insecurity in the nation. In America, there is food insecurity when the elderly, the ethnic minority, the children, and the rural and suburban populations report considerable incidences of hunger. Such situations make the issue of food insecurity a complex phenomenon.

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IvyPanda. (2020, May 15). Food Security in the United States: The Major Lapses of the Conventional Food Systems. https://ivypanda.com/essays/food-security-in-the-united-states/

"Food Security in the United States: The Major Lapses of the Conventional Food Systems." IvyPanda , 15 May 2020, ivypanda.com/essays/food-security-in-the-united-states/.

IvyPanda . (2020) 'Food Security in the United States: The Major Lapses of the Conventional Food Systems'. 15 May.

IvyPanda . 2020. "Food Security in the United States: The Major Lapses of the Conventional Food Systems." May 15, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/food-security-in-the-united-states/.

1. IvyPanda . "Food Security in the United States: The Major Lapses of the Conventional Food Systems." May 15, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/food-security-in-the-united-states/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Food Security in the United States: The Major Lapses of the Conventional Food Systems." May 15, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/food-security-in-the-united-states/.

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Food Security Research Papers, Thesis, Dissertations, Projects for Students and Researchers

Whether you are an undergrad or postgraduate student or researcher working on food security research, this may be helpful.

The United Nation’s Committee on World Food Security defines food security as all people of the world having access to safe, sufficient and nutritious food that meets their food preferences and dietary need for an active/healthy life.

For anyone doing research on food security;

• food security research papers
• food security project 
• food security thesis and dissertations

Whether you are looking for food security research topics or wish to glean relevant materials for your topic the above links will prove useful. You may also go through some of the selected food security research papers thesis, projects below.

Some Food Security Research Papers

Improvement of food security in Nigeria

Food security is made up of two words “food” and “secure”, meaning “securing of food”.The opposite of food security is food insecurity. It is a sad situation of limited or uncertain availability of nutritionally adequate or safe food.Different countries have different methods of combating food insecurity. For Nigeria, sustainable agricultural intervention by all stakeholders is the key. Having seen the aftermath of food insecurity, the question then is what is the way forward in improving food security in Nigeria? | See full document

Food Security; Improving Food Security and Livelihoods

Food security, as defined by the United Nations’ Committee on World Food Security, means that all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their food preferences and dietary needs for an active and healthy life.

Food security exists when “all people, at all times have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”. Close to 800 million individuals do not have access to enough food, 2 billion individuals experience key micronutrient deficiencies, and; 60% of individuals in low-income countries are food insecure. | See full document

Food Security in Nigeria: A Case Study of President Buhari’s Agricultural Policy (2015- 2018)

Squealing to the discovery of petroleum, Nigeria has rapidly grown into a major food importing nation as the government has become neglectful of the agricultural sector since petroleum is considered a more viable resource for economic development. This situation quickly polarized the nation into high and low income groups. Unfortunately, while only small fraction of the population benefited from the oil wealth, the population suffered the misfortune of food insecurity as they can hardly afford the rising prices of imported foods. However, this paper highlights the important role the Buhari’s regime have played in revamping the agricultural sector in overturning the food insecurity problems that befell Nigeria and the coping strategies. | See full document

Analysis of Food Security Among Farming Households in Imo State

Prevalence of food insecurity has remained a concern in Imo State and indeed the Sub-Saharan Africa. Hence, this study investigated the analysis of food security among farming households in Imo State, Nigeria. Multi-stage random sampling technique was used to select 144 farmers for this study. Information on the objectives of this study was elicited from the sampled respondents through a well- structured questionnaire. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Food security index and Probit regression model. | See full document

Gender Differentials in Rural Households’ Food Security Coping Strategies in South-Western Nigeria

The study was carried out to investigate gender differences in rural households’ food security coping strategies in South-Western Nigeria. A multi stage sampling technique was used in selecting 252 respondents utilized for the study. A well-structured questionnaire was used to elicit information from them. The result shows that the females were older than the male with a mean age of 50 and 45 years respectively. Most of the male respondents were married as against the females. | See full document

Food Security: A Means to Sustainable Economic Growth

No doubt, no matter the development and height any person can scale, food will always remain relevant. The last thing that will get off anybody’s budget is food. It is a life-long essential and it will remain relevant as long as life remains. The paper exposes how important food security is and how food security can bring about sustainable economy growth. The paper recommends that public policy makers must as a matter of urgency see food security as a vital means to sustainable economic growth and as such develop sufficient political will to achieve increased food production; evolve food policy and eventually attain food security for all. | See full document

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Some Food Security Thesis

Food security thesis are postgraduate thesis written on food security and related topics. We have a lot of them on Afribary. Some of the available thesis include;

Relative Effect of Food and Cash Remittances on Household Food Security

Considerable policy consensus concerning cash remittance as an operational model in the household food security policy dialogue has been established, yet, little knowledge base exists with regard to food remittances and its effect on food security. In view of this, the study focused on food remittance against the backdrop of remittance and food security. Specifically, the study examined spatial variability in food security outcomes across districts in Ghana, the impact of food remittance on household food security and the relative effect of food and cash remittance on household food security. View full document

Determinants Of Food Security Status Of Smallholder Farming Households In The Wa West And Sissala West Districts Of The Upper West Region Of Ghana

Smallholder farmers play a vital role in food production in Ghana. However, their households are major casualties of food insecurity despite their efforts in food production. This study sought to identify the determinants of food security status and describe the coping strategies used among smallholder farming households in the Upper West Region of Ghana. The study calculated a food security index (FSI) to determine the food security status of households in the study area. View full document.

Food Security In The Semi-Arid Machakos County: A Case Study Of Mwala Sub-County

Ensuring food security is a global significant challenge despite struggles to increase agricultural productivity, food distribution and identify appropriate policy interventions to cub food shortage. The recent recurrent incidences of food deficit in Kenya have placed the nation among the 20 most food insecure countries in the world. Food insecurity in the country is a prevalent issue since approximately 84% the country’s landmass is covered by arid and semi-arid land. View full document.

The Nexus Between Usaid-Funded Food Security Programs And Positive Peace: A Case Of Ensure Program, Buhera

This research constitutes one of the first attempts to provide a comprehensive review of the circular relationship between food security and positive peace. It offers some insights on the impact of food security on positive peace and its related development outcomes and how the absence of positive peace contributes to food insecurity. This way it is possible to look beyond income, entitlements or livelihoods related-frameworks as the drivers of food insecurity. View full document

Assessing The Food Security Status Of Smallholder Farm Households In The Northern Region Of Ghana

Smallholder farmers play a vital role in food production especially through subsistence farming. However, their households are major casualties of food insecurity despite their efforts in food production. This study seek to assess the food security status, factors influencing household food security status and coping strategies used among smallholder farm households in West Mamprusi (WMD) and Mamprugu Moaduguri (MMD) Districts in the Northern region of Ghana. The study used the COC, HDDS and HFCS methods to explore the food security status of households in the study area. View full document

The Contribution Of Self Help Groups To Household Food Security In Kakamega Central District, Kenya

Food security is the first of the eight Millennium Development Goals, which seeks to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger by the year 2015. Despite Kakamega Central District having so many SHGs, studies have shown that food insecurity was on the rise. The study examined the contribution of SHGs to household food security by comparing the food security status between members and non members of SHGs. View full document

Institutional Determinants Of Food Security In Tanzania: A Case Study Of Singida Region

Food insecurity is relatively high in Singida Region although there has been an influx of development related institutions, some of which deal with food security. The extent to which the two were linked was empirically unknown. Therefore, the research for this thesis was conducted in Iramba and Singida Districts of Singida Region to determine the role of institutions in improving food security. View full document

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Some Food Security Dissertations 

Food Security Policies And Nutrition In Zimbabwe; Case Study Of Mashonaland Central Province: 2000 To 2015

The paper examines the role of food security policies that have been inaugurated or put in place to ensure food security and nutrition in Zimbabwe since 2000 till date. Such an idea has been necessitated culminating from Zimbabwe experiencing severe food shortage of crop and meet production due to continued early termination of rains (droughts), effects of the fast track land reform, banning of humanitarian aid societies, reduced socio-economic development, increased mortality and mobility among others. View full document

Impact Of Agricultural Adaptation Strategies To Climate Change And Variability On Food Security In Mwanga District, Tanzania

Climate change and variability (CCV) has posed great challenges on agriculture around the world. In response, the farmers and the Tanzanian government have employed different adaptation strategies to cope with this problem. However, Mwanga among other districts are still faced with the problem of food insecurity as a result of impacts of CCV on food crop production. View full document

Contribution Of International Organisations In Enhancing Food Security A Case Of World Food Programme In Chamwino District, Dodoma

This study focused on the contribution of international organizations in enhancing food security: A case of World Food Programme in Chamwino District, Dodoma. The general objective of this study was to assess the contribution of World Food Programme in enhancing Food Security. The study specifically intended to (a) determine various strategies used by World Food Programme to solve food insecurity in Chamwino District, (b) examine how WFP strategies contribute to solving household food insecurity in the study area, (c) assess people‟s perception of strategies used by WFP to solve food insecurity in the study area. View full document

Effects Of Local Government In Promoting Food Security In Tanzania: A Case Of Manyoni District

This study was set to examine the effect of local Government of Tanzania in promoting food security at the household level a case study of Manyoni district. Specific objectives were to examine the strategy used by local government in promoting food security at the household‟s level, to determine the challenges facing local government in promoting food security to the household‟s level and to analyze the achievement of local government reached in promoting food security at household level. View full document

The Efficacy Of Prison Farms Towards Food Security At Chikurubi Maximum Prison

The research sought to find out the contribution of Chikurubi Farm Prison Towards Food Security in the ZPCS. The ZPCS has been affected by food insecurity and due to several factors that include the nation’s economic problems and successive droughts. The concept of food insecurity caused immense suffering to inmates. This has caused the student to research how Chikurubi Farm Prison can contribute to food security in the ZPCS. This research sought to explain the food security situation in the ZPCS. View full document

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