gender inequality in pakistan essay css

Gender Equality in Pakistan and the Rise of Feminism

Gender equality and the rise of feminism in Pakistan is an intricacie topic, with multiple cultural, social, and political influences at work to shape this subject matter. While substantial strides have been taken toward equality over recent years, true equality still requires considerable work on our part.

Strong patriarchal culture:

One of the main obstacles to gender equality in Pakistan is its long-standing patriarchal culture, which places value on men over women and reinforces traditional gender roles that limit opportunities available to women. Furthermore, religious and social customs such as purdah require women to cover themselves up when in public spaces such as mosques. This further marginalises women.

Feminism: In spite of these challenges, there has been an emerging movement in Pakistan to promote gender equality and the rights of women – often referred to as “feminism.” One main goal of this movement is breaking down traditional gender roles that limit opportunities available to women while also creating equal access to education, employment and political participation for them all.

Pakistan’s feminist movement has achieved many significant accomplishments over time, most notable of which being its widespread achievements.

One of the greatest achievements of Pakistan’s feminist movement has been an increase in female workforce participation rates, according to World Bank estimates. Accordingly, female labor force participation rates increased from 24% in 1990 to 34% by 2020 – still low compared with many other countries but an important step for Pakistani women.

Increased recognition and acceptance of women’s rights have contributed to greater understanding and awareness surrounding the matter.

Feminist activism in Pakistan has also helped raise awareness and acceptance of women’s rights. For example, in 2016 Pakistan passed the “Protection of Women Against Violence Act”, criminalizing domestic abuse while providing victims protection and support services.

Has Pakistan achieved gender equality?

Many women still face discrimination and violence on a daily basis, being denied education and employment opportunities and facing social and cultural barriers that need to be broken down in order to create an equitable society.

Gender equality and the rise of feminism in Pakistan is a complicated matter, affected by various cultural, social, and political influences. Although progress has been made over recent years, full equality still requires much work. Feminist movements in Pakistan have played an instrumental role in advocating for gender equality and women’s rights – they continue to act as agents of change today.

Pakistan’s economy is facing numerous challenges, such as high inflation, large trade deficits and an ever-widening budget deficit. One way to address these obstacles and promote economic growth would be increasing participation of women in the workforce – they make up half of population after all and their presence could make a dramatic difference to Pakistan’s economic development.

Increased participation by women in the workforce

First and foremost, expanding women’s participation in the workforce can contribute to economic expansion. When women can work and earn a living they can significantly enhance the economy through increased productivity and consumption; moreover, women tend to invest more in their families and communities which further fuels economic expansion.

Address issues of poverty and inequality

Second, more women in the workforce can help address issues of poverty and inequality. Women often face discrimination and barriers to education and employment that keep them living in poverty. Increasing women’s participation can reduce poverty while simultaneously creating greater equality.

Thirdly, increasing women’s participation in the workforce can also help improve Pakistan’s balance of trade. More women entering the labor force will help contribute to increasing exports. While decreasing imports; this can reduce its trade deficit and improve its balance of payments.

Increased female employment can help strengthen a nation’s overall economic stability. When women can work and earn an income to support themselves and their families independently of government assistance. It reduces government burden as well as improving social stability.

Pakistan’s economy is facing several significant hurdles.

One way of meeting these challenges is increasing female participation in the workforce. Since women make up half of society and can have a dramatic effect on economic performance by driving economic growth. Addressing poverty and inequality issues. Improving balance of trade relations and stabilizing economies.

Pakistan has taken several steps to provide women with more active roles in both society and the workforce. Some key initiatives for women include:

Education: The government has made efforts to increase access to education for girls by building schools in rural areas and offering scholarships.

Legal Reforms: The government has passed several laws designed to safeguard women’s rights. Such as the “Protection of Women against Violence Act” and “Prevention of Anti-Women Practices Act”.

Economic Empowerment: To promote women’s economic empowerment, several initiatives have been undertaken by the government. For instance, they include “Benazir Income Support Program”. Which offers cash transfers to low-income families; and the “Prime Minister’s Youth Training Program”, which offers women training and skills development opportunities.

Political Participation: The government has taken several steps to increase women’s involvement in politics. Such as reserving seats for them in both the National Assembly and Provincial Assemblies and encouraging more of them to run for office.

Social Change: The government has undertaken various campaigns designed to change societal attitudes toward women and advance gender equality. Such as the “Aurat March” and Pink Taxi service for exclusively female customers.

Healthcare: The government has taken several steps to improve healthcare services for women and reduce maternal mortality rates. Such as the “Lady Health Worker Program” and the “Mother and Child Health Program”.

Support to Women Working:

The government has taken measures to assist women entering the workforce. Such as providing childcare facilities in workplace settings and encouraging employers to adopt flexible working hours. Additionally, women-led businesses have been actively promoted.

Noteworthy is the fact that women in Pakistan still face many barriers in attaining true equality. And many initiatives to support women have met resistance in terms of implementation and enforcement. Furthermore, some rights activists accuse the Government of discrimination, harassment and violence against women.

Gender equality and the rise of feminism in Pakistan is an intricate topic influenced by various cultural, social and political forces. Feminism in Pakistan has played a central role in advocating for gender equality. And the rights of women; its movement remains an important force for change today. Additionally, Pakistan’s Government has taken several steps to give women more active roles within its workforce and society. Such as providing more access to education; passing laws protecting these rights; increasing economic empowerment programs. Expanding political participation opportunities for women and launching social change campaigns as well as improving healthcare services provided for working women. Such as increasing education access; passing laws protecting rights of women while improving healthcare services support working women alike.

However, much remains to be done before women in Pakistan can achieve true equality. And many initiatives have faced difficulties in implementation and enforcement. Furthermore, the Government is facing criticism from women rights activists. Who contend they are not doing enough to empower women; more needs to be done to address systemic issues of discrimination, harassment and violence against them.

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• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 22 December 2022

Perpetuation of gender discrimination in Pakistani society: results from a scoping review and qualitative study conducted in three provinces of Pakistan

• Tazeen Saeed Ali   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8896-8766 1 , 2 ,
• Shahnaz Shahid Ali 1 ,
• Sanober Nadeem 3 ,
• Zahid Memon 4 ,
• Sajid Soofi 4 ,
• Falak Madhani 3 ,
• Yasmin Karim 5 ,
• Shah Mohammad 4 &
• Zulfiqar Ahmed Bhutta 6 , 7  

BMC Women's Health volume  22 , Article number:  540 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Gender discrimination is any unequal treatment of a person based on their sex. Women and girls are most likely to experience the negative impact of gender discrimination. The aim of this study is to assess the factors that influence gender discrimination in Pakistan, and its impact on women’s life.

A mixed method approach was used in the study in which a systematic review was done in phase one to explore the themes on gender discrimination, and qualitative interviews were conducted in phase two to explore the perception of people regarding gender discrimination. The qualitative interviews (in-depth interviews and focus group discussions) were conducted from married men and women, adolescent boys and girls, Healthcare Professionals (HCPs), Lady Health Visitors (LHVs) and Community Midwives (CMWs). The qualitative interviews were analyzed both manually and electronically through QSR NVivo 10. The triangulation of data from the systematic review and qualitative interviews were done to explore the gender discrimination related issues in Pakistan.

The six major themes have emerged from the systematic review and qualitative interviews. It includes (1) Status of a woman in the society (2) Gender inequality in health (3) Gender inequality in education (4) Gender inequality in employment (5) Gender biased social norms and cultural practices and (6) Micro and macro level recommendations. In addition, a woman is often viewed as a sexual object and dependent being who lacks self identity unless being married. Furthermore, women are restricted to household and child rearing responsibilities and are often neglected and forced to suppress self-expression. Likewise, men are viewed as dominant figures in lives of women who usually makes all family decisions. They are considered as financial providers and source of protection. Moreover, women face gender discrimination in many aspects of life including education and access to health care.

Gender discrimination is deeply rooted in the Pakistani society. To prevent gender discrimination, the entire society, especially women should be educated and gendered sensitized to improve the status of women in Pakistan.

Peer Review reports

Gender discrimination refers to any situation where a person is treated differently because they are male or female, rather than based on their competency or proficiency [ 1 , 2 ]. Gender discrimination harms all of society and negatively impacts the economy, education, health and life expectancy [ 1 , 2 ]. Women and girls are most likely to experience the negative impacts of gender discrimination. It include inadequate educational opportunities, low status in society and lack of freedom to take decisions for self and family [ 1 , 3 ].

Likewise, gender discrimination is one of the human rights issues in Pakistan and is affecting huge proportion of women in the country [ 1 , 2 ]. In Pakistan, nearly 50% of the women lacks basic education [ 4 ]. In addition, women in Pakistan have lower health and nutritional status. Furthermore, most of the women are restricted in their homes with minimal or no rights to make choices, judgments, and decisions, that directly affect their living conditions and other familial aspects [ 2 ]. In contrast, men are considered dominant in the Pakistani society [ 5 ]. This subordination of women has negative influences on different stages of women’s life.

Study design

The mixed method study design was used. Systematic review was done in phase one and qualitative interviews; in-depth interviews (IDIs) and focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted in phase two.

The objective of the systematic review

To map a broad topic, gender discrimination/inequality research in Pakistan including women undergoing any form of intimate partner violence.

Systematic review

The three authors (TSA, SSA and SN) independently performed an extensive literature search using two databases: PubMed and Google Scholar and reports from organizations such as WHO and the Aurat Foundation. Quantitative and Boolean operators were used to narrow down the search results. The following keywords and phrases were used: Intimate partner violence (IPV), domestic violence, violence against women, domestic abuse, spousal violence, and Pakistan. Articles from 2008 to 2021 were assessed. The selection criteria of the articles included: women undergoing any form of IPV (physical, psychological, and sexual); quantitative study design; English as the publication language; and articles in which Pakistan was the study setting. The shortlisted articles were cross-checked by two of the authors (TSA, and SN) for final selection. The quality of the selected articles was reviewed using a STROBE (Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology) checklist, which ensured all articles followed a structured approach, including an introduction, methodology, results, and a discussion section. It was also determined that all selected articles are published in peer-reviewed journals and have been used nationally or internationally. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) chart was used for study selection (Fig.  1 ).

PRISMA Diagram to select the final articles

The selected articles were approved by one of the authors (TSA), who is an expert in the field of IPV. Articles were excluded: (i) If the study was not conducted in Pakistan; (ii) Studied spousal violence against men and (iii) Domestic violence involving in-laws or other family members. Furthermore, from the selected articles, the data were extracted by 3 authors (TSA, SSA, SN) by carefully studying the methodology and results. The methodology was entered into an extraction template in which location was summarized including the study design and sample size in the articles. The results covered: (i) The title, (ii) Authors, (iii) Publication year, (iv) Objectives of the research, (v) Population and Setting, (vi) Research design, (vii) Data collection methods, (ix) Results, (x) Perpetuating factors (xi) Recommendations and (xii) prevalence of Intimate Partners Violence (IPV) faced by women, which was further categorized into: (a) Psychological/emotional violence, (b) Physical violence, (c) Sexual violence, (d) Both combined and (e) Violence of any other type.

Qualitative data collection

Participants selection.

Purposeful sampling was done to recruit the participants for qualitative data collection. Participants included groups of married men and women aged between 18 to 49 years, groups of unmarried adolescent boys and girls aged between 14 to 21 years, and groups of healthcare professionals (HCPs), comprising of doctors, nurses, Lady Health Visitors (LHVs), Lady Health Workers (LHWs) and Community Midwives (CMWs). Ethics approval was obtained from the Aga Khan University, Ethics Review Committee.

Study sites

The selected study sites included two districts from Chitral (Upper and Lower Chitral), six districts from Gilgit (Gilgit, Ghizer, Hunza, Nagar, Astore, and Skardu), and two districts from Sindh (Matiari and Qambar Shadadkot). The following are the details of the data collection (Refer Table  1 ).

Data collection

Data were collected by conducting (IDIs) and (FGDs). The IDI and FGD interview guides were developed specifically for the study and reviewed based on the literature. IDIs were conducted with the healthcare industry administrators, Heads of the Departments (HODs), and HCPs of private and government health settings, including gynaecologists, LHWs, LHVs, and CMWs. The IDI interview guides comprised of the questions related to knowledge, sources of information, and attitudes regarding gender-based discrimination (how each gender is perceived in society and how physical and social differences in the roles of males and females affect an individual or society). The IDIs were conducted in Urdu and local language. The interviews were audio-recorded. Each IDIs lasted for 45–60 minutes.

Likewise, the FGDs were conducted using different interview guides, which were designed to assess the perception of adolescent girls and boys, married men and women and health care workers regarding gender discrimination in the society (perceptions of masculinity and femininity, and gender role expectations of a society). The FGDs were conducted in Urdu and local language. The interviews were audio-recorded. Each FGDs lasted for 60–120 minutes.

Data analysis

All interviews were audio recorded and transcribed in English. Training was provided to the data collectors, and they were supervised by the authors throughout the process to ensure transcriptions are written accurately and correctly, representing the actual data collected during interviews. Thematic analysis was carried out in four different steps. Firstly, manual analysis was done by the research team where transcriptions were thoroughly read, and codes were identified. These codes were combined according to their contextual similarity which followed the derivation of categories, based on which, themes were developed. Secondly, similar manual analysis was conducted by an expert data analyst. Thirdly, analysis was conducted using QSR NVivo 10. In the final step, all three analyses were combined and verified by the research team followed by the compilation of results.

Data integrity

To maintain the credibility or truthfulness of the data, the following strategies were used: (1) Prolonged engagement: Various distinct questions were asked related to the topic and participants were encouraged to share their statements with examples, (2) Triangulation: Data was analyzed by the author, expert data analyst and through QSR NVivo10, (3) Persistent observation: The authors read and reread the data, analyzed them recoded and relabeled codes and categories and revised the concepts accordingly, and (4) Transferability: The ability to generalize or transfer the findings to other context or settings, was ensured by explaining in detail the research context and its conclusions [ 6 ].

Ethical considerations

Ethical approval was obtained from the ethics review committee (ERC), Aga Khan University. The ERC number is 2020-3606-11,489. To ensure voluntary participation of the study participants both verbal and written consent were obtained. For those who were younger than 18 years of age were given written assent, and their parent, or guardian’ verbally consented due to literacy issues. In addition to anonymity of the study participants were maintained by assigning codes to the study participants. To avoid loss of data, interview recordings were saved on a hard drive and in the email account of the author. The data on hard copies such as note pads used during IDIs and informed consents were kept in lock and key. All the data present in hard copy was scanned and saved in the hard drive with password protection. To ensure confidentiality, only the authors had access to hard and soft data of the study.

The studies selected were scrutinized to form a data extraction template with all the relevant data such as author, publication year, study title, purpose, design, setting, sampling, main results, perpetuating factors, and recommendations (Refer Table  2 , provided in the attachment). Most of the 20 studies included in the review were conducted in Pakistan however the most frequent study design was cross-sectional ( n  = 9) followed by narrative research based on desk reviews ( n  = 8), one was a case study, and two were cross-country comparison by using secondary data. Four studies were conducted in Province Punjab, three studies were conducted in KPK, and one in both KPK and Punjab. Only one study was conducted in Sindh province. The remaining used whole Pakistan in systematic review. The maximum sample size in a cross-sectional study was ( n  = 506). Six major themes have emerged from the review which included (1) Status of Women in Society (2) Gender Inequality in Health (3) Gender Inequality in Education (4) Gender Inequality in Employment (5) Gender Biased Social Norms and Cultural Practices (6) Micro and Macro Level Recommendations.

Status of a woman in the society

The Pakistani women often face gender inequality [ 13 ]. Women are seen as a sexual object who are not allowed to take decision for self or their family. However, the male is seen as a symbol of power. Due to male ownership and the patriarchal structure of the Pakistani society women are submissive to men, their rights are ignored, and their identity is lost. Out of twenty, nine studies reported that a female can not take an independent decision, someone else decides on her behalf, mainly father before marriage then-husband and son [ 1 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 13 ]. The three studies report that women are not allowed to participate in elections or have very limited participation in politics. Furthermore, women often face inequalities and discrimination in access to health, education, and employment that have negative impact in their lives [ 1 , 2 ]. In addition, media often portrays women in the stereotyped role whose only responsibility is to look after the family and household chores [ 2 ]. Likewise, women have less access and control over financial and physical assets [ 13 ]. Similarly, in most of the low economic and tribal families’ women face verbal and physical abuse [ 8 ].

Gender inequality in health

Gender disparity in health is obvious in Pakistan. Women suffer from neglect of health and nutrition. They don’t have reproductive health rights, appropriate prenatal and postnatal care, and decision-making power for birth spacing those results in maternal mortality and morbidity [ 13 ]. Women can not take decision for her and her children’s health; she doesn’t have access to quality education and health services [ 13 , 15 ]. Furthermore, many papers report son preference [ 1 , 3 ]. Gender-based violence is also very common in Pakistan that leads to harmful consequences on the health and wellbeing of women [ 9 ].

Gender inequality in education

Low investment in girls’ education has been reported in almost all the papers reviewed. The major reason for low investment is low returns from girls, as boys are perceived to be potential head of the house and future bread winner [ 6 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 15 ]. One of the case study reports, people believe, Muslim women should be brought up in a way that they can fulfill the role of a good daughter, wife, and a mother; and education can have a “bad influence” to develop these characteristics in women [ 12 ]. If girls are educated, they become less obedient and evil and don’t take interest in household chores that is the primary responsibility of her [ 12 ]. Moreover, religious leaders have strong authority in rural areas. They often misuse Islamic teaching and educate parents that through education, women become independent and cannot become a good mother, daughter, and a wife. These teachings mostly hinder girl’s education. Other barriers in girls’ education are access to the facility and women’s safety. Five studies reported that most of the schools are on long distances and have co-education system that is perceived as un-Islamic. Parents are reluctant to send their daughters for education as they feel unsafe and threatened [ 1 , 4 , 12 , 13 , 15 ]. Poverty is another root cause of gender disparity in education, as parents cannot afford the education of their children and when there is a choice, preference is given to boys due to their perceived productive role in future. As a result, more dropouts and lower attainment of education by girls particularly living in rural areas [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 11 , 13 ].

Gender inequality in employment

Economic disparity due to gender inequality is an alarming issue in Pakistan. The low status of women in society, home care responsibilities, gender stereotyping, and social-cultural humiliated practices against women are the main hurdles in women’s growth and employment opportunities. Low education of females, restriction on mobility, lack of required skillsets, sex-segregated occupational choices are also big obstacles in the attainment of economic opportunities. Most of the women are out of employment, however those who are in economic stream are facing several challenges [ 7 ]. They face discrimination in all layers of the economy. Men are mostly on the leadership positions, fewer females are involved in decision making, wages are low for females if compared with males, workplace harassment and unfavourable work environment is common that hinders long stay in job [ 1 , 7 , 8 ]. Moreover, a study reported that in a patriarchal society very limited number of females are in business field and entrepreneurship. The main hurdles are capital unavailability, lack of role models, gender discrimination in business, cultural and local customs, and lack of training and education [ 8 ].

Gender biased social norms and cultural practices

The gender discrimination is deeply rooted in the Pakistani society. The gender disparity in Pakistan is evident at household level. It includes Distribution of food, education, health care, early and forced marriages, denial of inheritance right, mobility restriction, abuse, and violence [ 1 , 2 , 4 , 6 , 7 , 11 ]. Furthermore, birth of a boy child is celebrated, and the girl is seen as a burden. Likewise, household chores are duty of a female, and she cannot demand or expect any reward for it. On the other hand, male work has socio-economic value [ 2 , 7 , 15 ]. Furthermore, the female has limited decision making power and most of the decisions are done by male figures in a family or a leader of the tribe or community who is always a male. This patriarchal system is sustained and practiced under the name of Islamic teaching [ 2 , 12 , 13 ]. The prevalence of gender-based violence is also high, in form of verbal abuse, physical abuse, sexual assault, rape and forced sex, etc., In addition, it is usually considered a private matter and legal actions are not taken against it [ 8 ] . Moreover, Karo Kari or honor killing of a female is observed in Pakistan. It is justified as killing in the name of honor . Similarly, women face other forms of gender-based violence that include: (i) bride price (The family of the groom pay their future in-laws at the start of their marriage), (ii) Watta Satta (simultaneous marriage of a brother-sister pair from two households.), (iii) Vani (girls, often minors, are given in marriage or servitude to an aggrieved family as compensation to end disputes, often murder) and (iv) marriage with Quran (the male members of the families marry off their girl child to Holy Quran in order to take control of the property that legally belongs to the girl and would get transferred to her after marriage) [ 1 , 4 , 9 , 14 , 15 ]. Furthermore, the women are restricted to choose political career [ 13 ].

Micro and macro level recommendations

The women should have equal status and participation in all aspects of life that include, health, nutrition, education, employment, and politics [ 1 , 4 , 7 , 9 , 11 ]. Women empowerment should be reinforced at policy level [ 1 , 7 ]. For this, constitution of Pakistan should give equal rights to all citizens. Women should be educated about their rights [ 1 , 2 , 4 , 6 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. To improve status of women, utmost intervention is an investment in girls education. If women is not educated she cannot fight for her rights. Gender parity can only be achieved if women is educated and allowed to participate in decision-making process of law and policies [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 9 , 11 , 14 ]. Similarly, access to health care services is women’s right. Quality education, adequate nutrition, antenatal and post-natal care services, skilled birth attendants, and access and awareness about contraceptives is important to improve women’s health and reduce maternal mortality.

Similarly, women should be given equal opportunities to take part in national development and economic activities of the country to reduce poverty. This is possible through fair employment opportunities, support in women’s own business, equitable policies at workplace and uniform wages and salaries. Besides these, female employees must be informed about their rights and privileges at workplace and employment [ 1 , 7 , 8 , 11 ]. Policy actions should be taken to increase the level of women’s participation in economic growth and entrepreneurship opportunities. There should be active actions to identify bottlenecks of gender parity and unlock growth potential of social institutions [ 5 ]. Another barrier for women empowerment is threatened and unsafe environment to thrive. There should be policies and legislation to protect women from harm, violence, and honor killing that ensure their health, safety, and wellbeing [ 4 , 12 ]. Educational institutions and mass media are two powerful sources that can bring change in society. Government must initiate mass media awareness campaign on gender discrimination at household level, educational institutes, and employment sectors to break discriminatory norms of patriarchal society and to reduce the monopoly of males in marketplace. Parent’s education on gender-equitable practices is also important to bring change at the microlevel. It includes gender-equitable child-rearing practices at home including boys mentoring because they think discrimination against females is a very normal practice and part of a culture [ 3 ]. There is insufficient data on women’s participation and gender parity in health, education, and employment. Thus, there is a strong need to identify effective interventions and relevant stakeholders to reduce the gender discrimination in Pakistan [ 5 ] .

Findings from primary data collection

The following are the major themes emerged from the primary data collection (Refer Table  3 ).

Theme 1: perception of women regarding gender discrimination in society

Woman as a sexual object.

Female participants highlighted that they are seen as “sexual objects” and “a mean of physical attraction” which prevents them from comfortably leaving their homes. One female participant explained this further as,

“We are asked to stay inside the house because men and boys would look at our body and may have bad intentions about us” (Adolescent girl, FGD).

Male participants echoed this narrative as they agreed that women are judged by their physical appearance, such as the shape of their bodies. A male participant stated,

“ Woman is a symbol of beauty and she's seen by the society as the symbol of sex for a man" (Male HCP, IDI).

A male participant reported,

“Women should cover themselves and stay inside the house” (married man, FGD).

One female participant verbalized,

“ We have breasts, and therefore, we are asked to dress properly". (adolescent girls, FGD).

Another stated,

“ Girls are supposed to dress properly and avoid eye contact with boys while walking on the road” (adolescent girls, FGD).

Women as dependent beings

One of the major study findings suggests the idea that women must be “helped” at all times, as they are naturally dependent upon other persons to protect them. One participant stated,

“If a woman is alone, she is afraid of the man's actions ” (adolescent girl, FGD).

Some female participants, however, agreed with this statement to some extent because they felt that men help women to fit into society. Oftentimes, judgment is passed for women without an accompanying male. Participants verbalized that wife cannot survive without husband and similarly daughter cannot live without her father. One participant mentioned,

“We are only allowed to go out when we have our father or brothers to accompany us” (Adolescent girl, FGD).

Other participants agreed with the sentiment differently. Since it is implied that men easily get attracted to women, having a male figure with female will protect her from naturally prying eyes. However, if she cannot be accompanied by a male, she must protect herself by covering fully and maintain distance with males.

Women’s autonomy

Female participants, especially young adolescent girls, shared how restrictions have affected their livelihoods. Participants expressed how easy it is for males to gain permission and leave the house, while females often have series of obstacles in front of them. A young girl stated,

“ There are lot of constraints when we see women in our culture. They must take care of everything at home, yet they must get everybody's permission to go five minutes away. Whereas a boy can go out of town and that too, without anyone’s permission. Looking at this, I wish I were a boy. I'd go wherever I want, and I could do whatever I want” (adolescent girl, FGD).

Males as an identity for females

Women are often identified through a prominent male figure in their life and are not considered to have individual personalities and identities. A female participant mentioned that,

“Woman is someone having a low status in society. People know her through their husband or father name” (married women, FGD).

Child’s upbringing responsibility

Culturally, it is expected from the female members of the family, often mothers, to rear children and take care of their upbringing. Male members, mainly fathers, are expected to look after finances. Thus, mothers usually take a greater portion of responsibility for child’s upbringing and blame in case of misconduct. A married woman explained that,

"If a girl does something, the mother is blamed for that. Even in our house, my mother-in-law talks to my mother if I argue or refuse for anything. This is the culture in my maiden home as well" (Married Woman, FGD).

Unrecognized contribution of women

Many female participants verbalized their concern for disregard they receive from their families despite contributing significantly. Women who perform major roles in maintaining the family and household chores are not recognized for their efforts. By doing cleaning, cooking and other duties, they keep family healthy and help keep costs low. One participant mentioned,

“If women don’t clean the house, it is extremely dirty. If women do not rear children, no one else would do it. We do so much for the family” (married woman, FGD).

Gender differences in daily activities

Both men and women struggle with self-expression as certain expectations from both genders hold people back from expressing their views and opinions. Men, for example, as indicated by participants, are expected to remain firm in challenging situations and not show emotions. Even for hobbies, participants shared that, parks and recreational activities are geared towards young boys and men, while girls and women are given more quiet and indoor activities. A female participant verbalized that,

“ Boys have a separate area where they play cricket and football daily but for girls like us, only indoor activities are arranged” (adolescent girl, FGD).

In places where males and females freely mix or live closely in one area, people often find themselves taking extra precautions in their actions, as to not be seen disgraceful by the community. One female participant reported,

“ Two communities are residing in our area. Events for females, such as sports day, are very rarely arranged. Even then we cannot fully enjoy because if we'll shout to cheer up other players, we would be scolded as our community is very cautious for portraying a soft image of females of our community ” (adolescent girl, FGD).

Another participant stated that,

“ After prayers, we cannot spend time with friends as people would point that girl and say that she always stays late after prayers to gossip when she is supposed to go home ” (adolescent girl, FGD).

Deprivation of women’s rights

A woman’s liberty has always struggled to be accepted and males are always favoured. Thus, women are given lower status. Participants highlighted that, in general, men are seen as superior to women. One participant stated,

“ Men are the masters of women…” (FGD married women).

On the other side, male suppress female liberty and women are unaware of their rights leaving them vulnerable to deprivation. A female participant explained,

“Women do not dominate society that's why people take away their rights from them” (married woman, FGD).

Female participants also shared that they see men as strong and dominant personalities, making them better decision makers regarding health care acquisition, family income, availing opportunities and producing offspring. One female participant verbalized,

“If there's one egg on the table and two children to be fed, it is considered that males should get it as it is believed that males need more nutrition than us” (HCP, IDI).

Another reported that,

“There is a lack of equal accessibility of health care facilities and lack of employment equality for women” (HCP, IDI).

Theme 2: perception of men regarding gender discrimination in society

Male dominance.

Inferiority and superiority are common phenomenon in Pakistan’s largely patriarchal society. This allows men to be seen as dominant, decision-maker of family and the sole bread winner. Women, however, are caught in a culture of subordination to men with little power over family and individual affairs. A female participant said,

“If we look at our society, men are dominant. They can do anything while a woman cannot, as she is afraid of the man's reactions [gussa] and aggression” (adolescent girl, FGD).

While another reported,

"In our society, husband makes his wife feel his superiority over her and would make her realize that it is him, who has all the authority and power” (married woman, FGD).

Preference for male child

There is often an extreme desire for birth of sons over daughters, which adds to the culture of gender discrimination in Pakistan. Male children are important to the family as they often serve their parents financially, once they are able. This is one of the main reasons that parents are more inclined towards birth of a male child rather than female. Consequently, education is prioritized for male children. Female participants expressed that their desire for a male child is to appease their husband’s family and reduce the pressure on her to fit in the house. According to a female participant,

“When my son was born, I was satisfied as now nobody would pressurize me. I noticed a huge difference in the behavior of my in-laws after I gave birth to my son. I felt I have an existence in their family” (married woman, FGD).

Participants highlighted that, women who have brothers are often more protected. According to a young participant,

“Brothers give us the confidence to move within the society because people think before saying anything about us” (adolescent girl, FGD).

Lack of communication among husband and wife

Married couples often lack communication and rarely discuss important matters with each other. Men often choose not to share issues with their wives as they believe they are not rational enough to understand the situation. A male participant stated,

“ Women are so sensitive to share anything. They can only reproduce and cook food inside the home” (married man, FGD).

Men are protectors

Many female participants considered men as a source of protection, as they manage finances and ensure safety of family members. They feel confident in man’s ability to contribute to their livelihoods. One participant mentioned,

“We go out when we have our father or brothers to accompany us” (Adolescent girl, FGD).

Another highlighted,

“Men are our protectors. We can only survive in the society because of them” (Married woman, FGD).

Theme 3: factors influencing gender discrimination

The role of family head.

A tight-knit family situation, difference of opinions, cultural values and generation gap can highly affect one’s view on gender. Participants highlighted the role of elders in the family who often favor their sons and male family members. Married women expressed that daughter in-laws often struggle to raise their voice or express their concerns in such family situation. One participant mentioned,

“We don’t take decisions on when to have the child or what method needs to be used for family planning. Our mothers-in-law decide and we must obey” (married woman, FGD).

The family system that often includes three generations living closely, allows traditional norms to carry forward, as opposed to a typical nuclear family. This includes attire, conduct, and relationships. One participant mentioned,

“I live with my mother-in-law. I must cover my head whenever I had to leave the house”. (Married woman, FGD).

Media influence

Media plays an important role in disseminating gender awareness. For example, advertisements of cooking oils and spices usually show young girls helping their mothers in kitchen, while men and boys are observed enjoying something else or not present. These short advertisements are impactful in perpetuating gender conduct solely for societal acceptance. One participant verbalized,

“Every household has a radio, on which different advertisements are going on. People get messages through media” (married man, FGD).

The study reveals that women are seen as sexual objects and therefore confined to their homes. Women are often judged on their physical appearance that hinders their autonomy in various aspects of life. Many women face difficulties in leaving their homes alone and require protection from men [ 3 ]. Men are, therefore, labeled as protectors while women are regarded as dependent beings who need man’s identity. The role of men inside the house is identified as authoritative, while women need approval from male because they are considered incapable of making appropriate decisions. Women are caretaker of their families and have primary responsibility of husband, children, and in-laws. However, these contributions are mostly unnoticed. These gender power differentials are so strong in households, that many women do not know their rights. Women comply with societal and cultural values that force them to become lesser beings in the society. Girls in society grow up and eventually adopt the traditional role of women [ 8 ]. Increased education and awareness level among communities can improve status of women in the Pakistani society [ 3 ].

Moreover, males have dominant role in the society [ 1 ]. Likewise, there is discrepancy in power structures between male and female in the family system that often leads to lack of communication especially between married couples as husbands do not share concerns with their wives nor ask for their advice, considering women incapable to understand anything [ 5 ].

Furthermore, a common phenomenon observed in the Pakistani society, is the strong desire for a male child, while the birth of a female child is mourned [ 5 ]. Girls are seen as a liability, while the birth of a male child is celebrated as it is believed that males will be the breadwinner of the family in the future [ 5 ]. Thus, preference for a male child leads to illegal termination of pregnancies with female fetuses in many situations [ 9 ]. In addition, some of the studies suggest that the preference for a son is significantly high in low socioeconomic areas if compared with the middle and upper ones. Men are seen as economic and social security providers of the household. Therefore, men are tagged as manhood in the society as it is considered that hierarchal familial structures are produced from them, and all powers are attributed to men. This increases the disparity of roles between men and women leading to gender discrimination [ 5 ]. Our study also reveals that media has important influence towards gender discrimination. It is commonly observed in the Pakistani TV advertisements, that household chores are mostly performed by women while men have professional roles in the society [ 6 ].

Thus, lack of female autonomy and empowerment are recognized as the major reasons of discrimination of women in our society. They do not have the means to participate in society, neither they are allowed to speak against traditions. Therefore, interventions are required to increase female autonomy and decision-making capacity. The other significant contributor to gender discrimination is male dominance, which must be brought down to empower women. To reduce this, communication is key between spouses, family members and community members. Gender discrimination has greater influence at different levels of Pakistani society. Certain schools and television advertisements portrays stereotypes, such as allowing boys to be active outdoors and forcing girls to remain indoors. Therefore, media channels and other public systems such as healthcare facilities and schooling systems must promote gender equity and equality. In terms of Sexual and Reproductive health (SRH), the health care facilities should play an important role in providing knowledge and effective treatment to both males and females. The SRH related services are often compromised for people due to lack of resources, staff, and attention. Schools and communities should play an important role in creating SRH related awareness among youth and adults that include puberty, pregnancy, and motherhood. SRH should also be made part of curriculum in educational institutes.

The use of group interviews allowed rapport development with communities. With multiple people present sharing similar views, many were inclined to give purposeful answers and recommendations regarding gender roles in communities. Based on previous literature searches, this study, to the best of our knowledge, has not been published in Pakistan at the community level. No other study explores the views of Pakistanis on gender discrimination with inclusion of multiple community groups and across multiple districts. In limitations, due to the topic’s sensitive topic, may have held back participants from answering fully and truthfully. Thus, considerable time was taken to develop trust and rapport. Therefore, it is possible that some study subjects might not have answered to the best of their ability. Furthermore, challenges were faced due to the COVID-19 pandemic and extreme weather conditions in some areas, as some participants could not reach the venue. Also, the lockdowns following the pandemic made it very difficult to gather 10–12 people at one place for the FGDs. Interviews could not be done virtually as the information was very sensitive.

Gender roles in Pakistani society are extremely complex and are transferred from generation to generation with minimal changes since ages. This study reveals some of the factors due to which women in Pakistan face gender discrimination. The cultural and societal values place women in a nurturing role in the Pakistani society. Through reinforcement of these roles by different family members, as well as by the dominant men in the society, women face adverse challenges to seek empowerment that will help them defy such repressive roles assigned to them. Gender discrimination is evident in public institutions such as healthcare facilities and schooling systems. Thus, administrative reorganization and improved awareness in the healthcare facilities, and appropriate education in schools for boys and girls will help decrease gender discrimination in the Pakistani societies.

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Abbreviations

Aga Khan Foundation

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

Reporting of Observational studies in Epidemiology

Intimate Partner Violence

Healthcare Professionals

Lady Health Visitors

Lady Health Workers

Community Midwives

In-Depth Interviews

Focus Group Discussions

Heads of the Departments

Sexual and Reproductive health

United Nations Population Fund

Ethics Review Committee

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Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the research specialist, coordinator, and research associates for data collection, and the study participants for their time and valuable data. We would also like to appreciate and thank Mr. Adil Ali Saeed for helping us with the literature for the systematic review of the paper, and Ms. Amirah Nazir and Daman Dhunna for the overall cleaning of document. We are thankful to UNFPA and AKF for providing advisory and monitoring support. We would like to acknowledgment UNFPA Pakistan that through them the funding was received from Global Affairs Canada.

Global Affairs Canada (GAC). Project No: P006434; Arrangement #: 7414620.

Role of the funder: This is to declare that there was no role of the funding agency for planning and implementation of this study.

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All authors have read and approved the manuscript. Their contribution is as follows: TSA contributed to proposal development, interview guide development, ERC approval, data supervision, data validation, systematic review, data analysis, manuscript development, and overall supervision. SSA assisted in proposal development, data collection supervision, data validation, systematic review, data analysis, and reviewed manuscript. SN, contributed in -literature Review, analysis of literature review and write up of findings. ZM reviewed interview guides, assisted in ERC approval, filed preparation for data collection, assisted in data validation and enhancing the approval processing, reviewed data analysis, and the final manuscript. SSA, contributed to proposal development, assisted in ERC approval, overall supervision, filed preparation for data collection and training of data collectors, assisted in data validation and enhancing the approval process and review of final manuscript. FM contributed to the interview guide development, facilitated field data collection, and contributed to the validation and analysis processes. Reviewed the final manuscript before submission. YK contributed to the interview guide development, facilitated field data collection, and contributed to the validation and analysis processes. Reviewed the final manuscript before submission. SM, contributed to proposal development, field preparation for data collection, validation, and review of the final manuscript. ZB, contributed to proposal development, brought the funding, assisted in ERC approval, overall supervision, data validation and enhancing the approval process and reviewed the final manuscript. He provided overall mentorship.

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Ali, T.S., Ali, S.S., Nadeem, S. et al. Perpetuation of gender discrimination in Pakistani society: results from a scoping review and qualitative study conducted in three provinces of Pakistan. BMC Women's Health 22 , 540 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-022-02011-6

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Gender Differences in Education: Are Girls Neglected in Pakistani Society?

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Differences in education between girls and boys persist in Pakistan, and the distribution of household resources and socioeconomic disparities are compounding the problem. This paper determines education attainment (primary to tertiary level) and current enrollment and explores underlying gender differences with reference to per capita income and socioeconomic characteristics of the household by using survey data of Pakistan (2005–2019) that have never been used in this context before. The potential endogeneity bias between income and education is addressed through the two-stage residual inclusion (2SRI) method that is appropriate for non-linear models used in this study. Findings indicate that income is likely to increase and facilitate a significant transition from primary- to tertiary-level education attainment. The boys have a higher likelihood to increase tertiary-level education attainment by household income. However, the probability of current enrollment is equivalent for girls and boys after controlling for endogeneity. The gender effects of Oaxaca-type decomposition indicate higher unexplained variation that describes a strong gender gap between boys and girls. The standard deviation for education inequality and gender gap ratio confirm that higher levels of discrimination and lower economic returns are associated with girls’ education, and individual and community attributes favor boys’ education. Findings suggest policies and educational strategies that focus on female education and lower-income households to build socioeconomic stability and sustainable human capital in the country.

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Introduction

According to the Education for All (EFA) report, knowledge stimulates the stock of human capital in an economy (Karoui et al., 2018 ; Kim et al., 2021 ) and increases the probability of resources being equally distributed of regardless of gender, caste, color, or region (Heb, 2020 ; de Bruin et al., 2020 ). Gender equality in education is indispensable for developing countries like Pakistan which holds rich human capital to improve economic growth (Asif et al., 2019 ). The existence of patriarchy, cultural norms, regional conflicts, son preference, and traditional notions of womanhood regarding procreation, domestic chores, and early marriage have deep roots in society (Ashraf, 2018 ). All the impediments that women face have interconnected bases in prevailing gender differences and insufficient investment in education (Kleven et al., 2019 ) at the household and state level; these also negatively impact the economic growth in Pakistan (ur Rahman et al., 2018 ).

Some educational initiatives are working effectively in Pakistan but have not completely achieved. These include alternative learning programs (ALPs) for formal schools, digital innovations programs by the collaborations between UNICEF and UNESCO targeting the attainment of Sustainable Development Goals (Ministry of Federal Education, 2022), an EU partnership to implement a 5-year development program (Education Ministry of Balochistan, 2021), the Ilm- Possible Footnote 1 Project for Zero OOSC (out of school children), and equity-based critical learning (STEM, 2021). However, 22.84 million children of secondary school age have never enrolled in formal education (UNESCO Pakistan Country Strategic Document, 2018–2022). In addition, the literacy rate has declined from 62 to 58 % (World Bank Statistics, 2022) that has increased global inequality (Paris21 Strategy Agenda, 2030). This situation raises the question as to whether existing educational policies and projects are adequate for curbing the gender inequality in different provinces of Pakistan (see Fig. 1 ).

Literacy rate by province and gender in Pakistan. Source: Author construction based on data from PSLM Bureau of Statistics, Pakistan. Figure 2 displays the trend of per capita income from 2005 to 2019, one of the inevitable indicators of educational achievement. The statistics calculate a sharp drop in per capita income after 2010, which improved in 2012 but eventually declined after 2016

The country has been ranked 151 out of 153 countries by the Gender Parity Index. It has also been found that 21 % of boys and 32 % of girls in primary education have experienced gender-based discrimination (Human Rights Watch, 2018). Likewise, boys are 15 % more likely to have the opportunity to go to school than girls, as boys are viewed as financial assets by their parents. Evidently, if household income is equally distributed, girls perform outclass in grades (Yi et al., 2015 ), provide higher marginal returns to education (Whalley & Zhao, 2013 ), and achieve sustainable environment (Heb, 2020 ). The economic benefits that result from female education are as high as those that result from male education (Minasyan et al., 2019 ; Sen et al., 2019 ), particularly in relation to the achievement of tertiary education (Alfalih et al., 2021 ; Wu et al., 2020 ). In addition, although Pakistan has the largest young population in Asia, approximately 80 % of the female population has never participated in the labor market, and 130 million girls (those aged between 6 and 17 years) have never attended any form of educational institution (World Bank, 2020). Nevertheless, the latent demand for schooling remains associated with the socioeconomic status and purchasing power of the household (Asif et al., 2019 ). Likewise, parental and household treatment effects can formulate considerable gender gap that requires thorough investigation at micro level.

The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between gender differences in education and household income in Pakistan. Measuring gender differences with the help of microdata and through the use of qualitative and quantitative approaches is not easy in studies of human capital development (Najeeb, 2020 ). Nor is the investigation of the circumstances that lead to more investment in a male child than a female child a straightforward matter. Findings in this area remain inconclusive, which demonstrates a lack of research conducted at the household level in Pakistan (Minasyan, 2019 ). In addition, many studies of the effect of household income on education suffer from bias-related issues which arise as a result of measurement errors and spurious relationships. Some studies use corresponding variables, such as permanent income (Kingdon, 2005 ), or ignore endogeneity while controlling for children’s cognitive skills (Chevalier et al., 2002 ). Others deal with potential endogeneity by examining sector- or community-based union membership (Chevalier, 2013 ), government tax changes (Paul, 2002 ), and rented or owned lands with the caution of the weak instrument (Okabe, 2016 ).

This study determines education achievement using ordered logit and logit models by two outcome variables: education attainment (categorical variable) and current enrollment (binary variable). It seeks to examine the causes of the prevailing gender differences in Pakistan by examining the per capita income and socioeconomic characteristics of households. This study attempts to deal with underlying potential endogeneity using a novel approach for a non-linear model and examines extant inequalities and gender effects within households. This study finds a positive and robust relationship between gender and education attainment, and the significant transformation from primary- to tertiary-level education by per capita income of the household; this contradicts the results of Munshi ( 2017 ). The findings are significantly negative with regard to the relationship between gender and current enrollment, which is opposite to the findings of the study by Maitra ( 2003 ). After dealing with potential endogeneity using the two-stage residual inclusion (2SRI afterwards) method, the results contradict those of prior studies (Chevalier et al., 2002 ; Maitra, 2003 ), and they establish a clear link between education and income along with other socioeconomic characteristics. The findings show that inequalities in education, at the micro level, exert a more powerful impact on girls than boys in relation to reducing education attainment and current enrollment. Gender decomposition reveals that individual and community attributes favor boys’ education over that of girls.

This study contributes to the literature in the following ways. Firstly, there is a risk that the factors that influence education achievement remain mis-specified due to the fact that limited information is available about children’s environments and family structures. This is why it is vital to focus on the determinants of human capital at the micro level. Most existing studies focus on the role of education and the impact of gender inequalities in relation to their impact on economic growth across countries (Assoumou-Ella, 2019 ; Evans et al., 2021 ), within country at the macro level (Rammohan et al., 2018 ), and focus on only one education level (Lloyd et al., 2005 ). This study is the first to attempt to highlight the importance of the gender gap in relation to education attainment and current enrollment and confirm whether it exists or not. It does so by examining the link between per capita income and the socioeconomic characteristics of households using a repeated cross-sectional dataset that has not achieved much academic attention from scholars in relation to the country of Pakistan. Secondly, this study develops an empirical strategy for non-linear model to address the potential endogeneity by using 2SRI approach that remain ignored mostly. It exploits exogenous variations using income shocks, windfall income, and non-labor resources to examine the potential endogeneity between income and education (Banzragch et al., 2019 ; Chevalier et al., 2002 ). Lastly, while previous studies have argued that gender inequality influences economic growth (Kopnina, 2020 ), some of these studies contain troubling contradictions (Sirine, 2015 ), some do not find that gender inequality affects economic growth to a considerable degree (Maitra, 2003 ), and some investigate its unidirectional effect (Tansel & Bodur, 2012 ). This study captures discriminations effect in education investment in boys and girls by education inequalities and gender decomposition estimated at household level. It also adopts alternative specifications of gender inequalities to examine economic returns on education.

The rest of this study is structured as follows. The “Literature Review” section explains the importance of gender equality with reference to previous studies. The “Methodology and Data” section describes the methodology and the data used in this study. The “Empirical Results and Discussion” section presents the results and analysis, and the “Conclusion and Policy Implications” section concludes the study while also discussing policy implications and the limitations of the study.

Literature Review

Education is an essential element of the Cobb–Douglas production function (Saleem et al., 2019 ) that can improve human capital, promote economic growth, and curb poverty in the long term (Arshed et al., 2019 ). Many countries have experienced improvements in enrollment rates; however, their economic growth appears difficult to achieve. This mechanism of human capital can be revisited and revised by focusing on the equal distribution of education in economic and sustainable approach (Livingstone, 2018 ). The study of Duflo et al. ( 2021 ) examines the impact of free secondary education on gains in economic welfare after the completion the target of UPE (universal primary education). They use data relating to secondary high schools from 54 districts in Ghana to examine 1500 students enrolled in a scholarship program. They find that the program increased secondary-level education attainment by 27 % and further resulted in better learning skills and lower rates of early marriage and reduced fertility rates among girls. This suggests a potential movement toward the more equal treatment of the genders within households. However, they did not find any significant influence of education attainment on future employment. Using the Barro-Lee dataset of education attainment, Evans et al. ( 2021 ) estimate the gender gap and its effects on long-term economic growth. Instead taking the gender gap ratio, it prefers to employ difference of the education attainment between men and women. Their findings indicate that low levels of education in women are the reason why the gender gap has become so pronounced in many countries. This gap is revealed to be highly correlated with the age of the women and per capita income.

The study by Kopnina ( 2020 ) discusses the sustainable educational goals that are indispensable for progressive universal education and economic growth. It reveals alternative measures that might influence the circular economy and argues that gender differences will decrease as a result of investment in female education. It endorses the use of the term “empowerment education,” and particularly to refer to females who remain unempowered with regard to their financial independence and social status. They propose the direct influence of female education on the food patterns, efficient consumption of household and natural resources, and renewable energy that can handle growing population in a sustainable approach. Likewise, the study of de Bruin et al. ( 2020 ) finds that education and income can promote sustainability and reduce gender inequality. They use age, education, and different types of work to analyze the gender-differentiated impact of these factors on economic change.

Another study, that of Rammohan et al. ( 2018 ), examines gender disparity in education using district-level data in India and ordinary least squares (OLS) regression. To do so, they use data related to the gender gap between male and female education attainment, GDP per capita, and ethnicity. Their study finds that those living in wealthier districts are more inclined toward educating their daughters than those living in poor ones. Sahoo and Klasen ( 2021 ) focused on female participation in the STEM streams by using the variables: female, siblings, age, parental education, test scores, household size, and ethnicity. They reveal that girls are 20 % less likely to enroll in STEM streams than boys. The plausible explanation for lower female participation is associated with parental preferences and income disparity in the household. Maitra ( 2003 ) uses a probit model and a censored probit model simultaneously and finds that there is no gender difference in the current enrollment rates of boys and girls (6–12 years) but that there is a higher gap in relation to grade attainment for girls (13–24). The data used is from the Matlab Health and Socio-Economic Survey (MHSS) of rural Bangladesh, which surveys 149 villages. The explanatory variables include religion, household size, number of siblings, the head of the household’s education level and occupation, a log of per adult household expenditure, and household characteristics such as the number of bedrooms, access to water and a toilet, and the availability of electricity. The endogeneity issue of the income has dealt by taking the residual term of the log of the adult expenditure in the household.

The study of Davis et al. ( 2019 ) uses the World Value Survey (1981–2014) to capture individual effects on women’s status. They argue that individual decision-making can increase women’s education attainment, their choice to bear a child, and advance economic sustainability such as urbanization and the provision of basic necessities. The above effects provide economic benefits that further support gender equality and discourage the traditional role of women in the society. Robb et al. ( 2012 ) examine the gender differences in education attainment using data about university graduates and an ordered probit model. They find that female students perform better than their male counterparts but that they are less likely to obtain a first-class degree. It is shown that factors such as the type of institution, individual abilities, and the choice of subjects are not the reason for gender inequality; however, the effects of these factors increase the gender gap in relation to educational performance. The predict probabilities of their study explain that the likelihood that female students will attain a first-class degree is 5 %, compared with 8 % for male students. Other studies also advocate that reducing gender differences in education achievement can have transitional and long-term effects on women’s empowerment (Kabeer, 2021 ), legal protection (Durrani et al., 2018 ), employment (Najeeb et al., 2020 ), and sustainable growth (Heb, 2020 ).

Prior Literature in the Context of Pakistan

In the context of Pakistan, Ashraf et al. ( 2018 ) apply Dickey–Fuller generalized least squares (DF-GLS) to examine the impact of secondary school attainment on gender inequality. They employ multiple sources of data about Pakistan, namely, economic surveys, the National Assembly of Pakistan database, and the Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement (PSLM) survey. They use the Gender Inequality Index (GII) as the dependent variable. The findings show that economic deprivation can decrease women’s participation in the labor force and their education attainment. Notably, the external or spillover effects of education attainment on gender inequality are also crucial to understanding the lower purchasing power of the household. Qureshi ( 2007 ) conducts a bivariate regression analysis using the Learning and Educational Achievements in Punjab Schools (LEAPS) dataset to investigate whether the education attainment of an older sister impacts on the education attainment of younger children in the household. Mainly, it describes a spillover effect in education that remains unnoticed to receive its maximum economic benefit. It takes into account age, the father’s education level, the household head’s education level, the number of children, the infrastructure of the household, the regional languages, and the number of the districts in the province. The findings reveal 0.2 % of years of schooling increases in youngers boys by the older educated sister that can be the potential human capital in the future labor market. However, their study fails to analyze the spillover effect that an educated older brother has on a younger sister.

The study of Asif et al. ( 2019 ) demonstrates that the strong and significant impact of investment in education without gender bias creates other avenues for sustainable growth in Pakistan. Likewise, some studies investigate education investment to explore other dimensions including welfare gains in relation to eradicating hunger (Ali et al., 2021 ), the awareness of climate change by energy consumption and recyclable goods (Ali et al., 2019 ), the transformation of society into one with equal rights and zero violence (Durrani et al., 2018 ), the female leadership in entrepreneurial decision-making (Shaheen and Ahmad, 2022 ), and the voluntary effort toward food security and patterns of daily life (Qazlbash et al., 2021 ). Mahmood et al. ( 2012 ) use time-series data (1971–2009) to investigate the relationship between human capital investment and economic growth. In their work, autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) and OLS models show a positive relationship between high enrollment rates in education and economic growth rates in the short and long term.

A similar strategy is proposed by Zaman ( 2010 ), who also suggests that there is a correlation between female education and economic development. Interestingly, Lloyd et al. ( 2005 ) find that parents tend to prefer that girls and boys attend separate schools; however, availability of primary schools and type of school (public or private) also play key roles. The study of ur Rahman et al. ( 2018 ) finds that a solution to the vicious cycle of poverty comes in the form of increasing the education level of a household. By using logistic regression, they find a negative relationship between education and poverty in Pakistan. They emphasize the role of education plays in providing potential human capital for the labor market and even generating new and improved employment opportunities that result in better living standards and economic well-being. However, a key issue with regard to the aforementioned studies is that they do not propose well-specified econometric strategies with that can be implemented to tackle gender differences in education, while others fail to address the potential endogeneity in non-linear models and some remain unable to decompose gender effects within the household.

Methodology and Data

Data and variables.

This study uses repeated cross-sectional data from the PSLM survey conducted by the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS) of the Government of Pakistan for the seven fully available rounds from 2005 to 2019 (2005–2006, 2007–2008, 2010–2011, 2011–2012, 2013–2014, 2015–2016, and 2018–2019). The survey was designed to provide social and economic indicators at the provincial and district level; starting in 2004, the survey aims to accurately describe the country. The sample size of the PSLM surveys is approximately 80,000 households. The total number of observations after pooling the data is 1,011,849.

This study uses two models for alternative measurements of the education achievement of boys and girls; the first model is education attainment (the highest completed schooling; aged 9–24 years), and the second model is current enrollment (aged 5–24 years). The boys and girls are restricted in first model to the 9–15, 16–19, and 20–24 age groups for primary-, secondary-, and tertiary-level education attainment, respectively. The following criteria are considered: additional year for class repetition by the students, late admission into schools, the completion standards of the Pakistan education system, and traditional age requirements for entering in school adopted in past studies (Maitra et al., 2003 ). In addition, boys and girls are restricted to not having the status of head or working person. In the first model, education attainment is a categorical outcome variable examines by the ordered logit model that can be defined as:

In the second model, current enrollment is a dichotomous outcome variable examines by logit model that can be described as:

The explanatory variables include dummy variables of the gender and age of boys and girls depending on models. Age is represented by a linear and quadratic term to control for birth cohort effects and capture non-linearity effects on education achievement. As age is directly proportional in contributing to cognitive skills and human capital, age square indicates marginal returns from age that decrease over time.

Other explanatory variables include the marital status of the household members (Kingdon, 2005 ). This study uses a series of dummy variables for the education level of individuals including the head of the household, parents, and other members of the household (i.e., those older than 24). This is because a joint-family structure is the majority form of family structure in Pakistan, and the head of the household is usually not the father but rather any elderly family member. Likewise, head’s personal treatment and decision-making influence on the education achievement. In addition, using parental education instead of maternal education is also feasible for gender difference analysis to avoid the issue of multicollinearity. Several tests are run to check for multicollinearity, including the variance inflation factor (VIF) and correlation matrix. The VIF for each predictor variable should be less than 10. It is 7.02 for the education attainment model and 4.12 for current enrollment model. Footnote 2 The siblings’ variable is used to control the reciprocal relationship between quantity and quality of education (Hazarika, 2001 ; Maitra, 2003 ). Occupational heterogeneity is controlled by different household members’ professions (McNabb, 2002 ) ranging from high-salaried (officer) to low-salaried (laborer) professions.

The variable of interest in this study is the per capita income of the household. It represents the household’s possible investment in education, which can maximize economic returns and minimize gender inequality. The availability of electricity, gas, and broadband internet access is a proxy for household infrastructure and technology advancement. The latter is of interest as it may impact on digital education, sustainable development, and the urgency of the micro- and macro-crisis such as health. The high demand to shift education from formal to virtual platforms during the COVID-19 pandemic has opened up new dimensions with regard to the acquisition of skills and knowledge. The other control variables consist of the dependency ratio, household size, ownership of house and any establishment other than agricultural land (ur Rahman et al., 2018 ), and ownership of the cultivating land for the personal use of the household (Sawada, 2009 ). Finally, community characteristics are controlled by including dummy variables for locations and number of the provinces of the country (Hazarika, 2001 ).

Empirical Strategy

The concept of the ordered logit model for education attainment is to incorporate intermediate continuous variable says y in the latent regression accompanied by the observed ( x i ) explanatory variables and the unobserved error term ( ε i ). The range of y is divided in adjacent intervals that comprise four categories—namely, 0 = no education, 1 = primary education, 2 = secondary education, and 3 = tertiary education—related to latent variable ( Y ∗ ). The structural model for latent education is:

where β is the vector of the parameters to be estimated; ε is the disturbance term, which is assumed to be independent across observations; and y ∗ can take value with observations.

For the discrete choices, the following are observing as:

Where Y is the category of education attainment, and τ denotes the threshold parameters, explaining the transition from one category of education attainment to another category. Consequently, τ must satisfy the rule according to τ 0  <  τ 1  <  τ 2  <  τ 3 , as the ε i is logistically distributed. The resulting probabilities can be observed as:

Hence, the probability of outcome can imply as:

whereas the log likelihood function for ordered logistic regression is:

The function formulates the ordered logit model with multiple equations, whereas each equation presents the logit model (Williams, 2005 ). The econometric model is therefore:

Endogeneity Bias

The main econometric challenge is to identify the endogeneity problems. There is the possibility that variable per capita income is likely to be related to unobservable factors that affect education achievement in many ways not included in the regression. There may be errors in measuring per capita income that bias the results. In addition, a causal relationship may exist between income and education achievement. This relationship might also be influenced by parental economic circumstances, social status, and any spurious third factor such as personal preferences. Reverse causality occurs when the poor educational performance of the boy or girl might lower household income and vice versa. Therefore, the model may suffer from omitted variable bias and (reverse) causality issues. The literature also explores per capita income as an endogenous variable that has instrumented by parental and household characteristics including employment, education, and farming activities (Bratti, 2007 ; Hoogerheide, 2012 ). Other studies examine its causal relationship with income shock (Coelli, 2005 ), the difference in households’ incomes, rainfall, and climate change in relation to productivity concerns (Fichera et al., 2015 ).

In the first model of education attainment, income shock such as head unemployment and non-labor resources of grandparents in the household are used as instruments for per capita income (Behrman et al., 1997 ). If the head of the household is unemployed, this is unlikely to influence the total years of schooling undertaken by boys and girls when there is a joint family structure where the parents are responsible for meeting educational expenditures. Similarly, the permanent or non-labor income of the grandparents is an exogenous and strong instrument that does not directly affect the total years of schooling undertaken by boys and girls (Bratti, 2007 ). However, these instruments may affect the current enrollment of boys and girls, thus necessitating the exploration of other exogenous variables. Therefore, the potential endogeneity in the current enrollment model is captured by another set of exogenous variables; first, the difference in per capita income between households (included in the PSLM survey) and country, and second, windfall income. The difference in per capita income is a proxy for income shock that does not relate to agricultural goods but rather a retrospective analysis of households having or not having wages. This difference may represent the transitional effect of the financial condition of the household (Björkman-Nyqvist, 2013 ; Sawada, 2009 ) in developing countries such as Pakistan. Similarly, windfall income comprises mainly of the unearned income of the household or non-labor income that includes lottery wins, inheritances, gifts, unexpected charity payments, and irregular sources of income (Kingdon, 2005 ; Powdthavee et al., 2013 ), which are exogenous.

Another source of endogeneity might arise due to the relationship between education spending and current enrollment in the logit model regression. The literature provides instruments for education spending such as community-, labor-, or industry-union membership of the household’s head that in unavailable in PSLM dataset while some studies refer to the head’s occupations (Maitra, 2003 ). The estimation results after instrumenting education spending with the head of household’s occupation show that the null hypothesis of homogeneity is not rejected, as it has a p -value of 0.93. However, this study tries to control educational spending through the addition of dummy occupational variables, home ownership, and land cultivation (Maitra, 2003 ; Shea, 2000 ). Other individual and socioeconomic characteristics are considered as exogenous. The OLS regression (for instrument validation) and alternative approaches to capture potential endogeneity—such as the control function approach, two-stage least squares (2SLS) (ignoring the nature of the outcome variable), and the IV probit model (splitting the outcome variable into a binary variable where necessary)—are also examined.

To apply the 2SRI method, the first step is to find exogenous variables; however, this method is different from the standard IV estimation method. The strategy behind choosing variables is that variables predict a possible definition of homogeneity. The argument behind this method (Terza, 2018 ) is based on the inappropriateness of the traditional linear instrumental variable estimator for the correction of the endogeneity problem. The core advantage of this method is that the estimated coefficients associated with the residuals from the first-stage regression significantly express the presence of endogeneity in the model (Huasman, 1978 ). In this method, the first stage consists of the OLS regression and predicts the endogenous variable by using the instruments and the rest of the explanatory variables. The second stage is estimated using the ordered logit model with the inclusion of the first-stage residuals. In the final stage, the whole program is set to be bootstrapped. The latent model will be established by splitting the explanatory variables into exogenous and endogenous variables, say X ex and X en , and the equation becomes:

The first-stage equation of the 2SRI method is estimated for income using all the exogenous variables and instruments in the OLS regression. It takes the form as:

where E ( X en ,  Z ) ≠ 0 and E ( ε i ,  Z ) = 0; β and γ are coefficient parameters; and v i and ε i are error terms, respectively. The second stage of the 2SRI method estimates outcome variable using the residuals obtained from the first-stage equation taken as control variables along with other explanatory variables. The model is described as:

This method is a simple test of endogeneity: if the residuals of the first stage are statistically significant, then the results will be biased in the first model, refer to control the endogeneity issue (Terza, 2018 ; Akarçay-Gürbüz & Polat, 2017 ).

Education and Inequality Parameters

The Gini coefficient for education, average years of schooling, and standard deviation are the inequality parameters that have been considered by observing the education system and structure of the country, the efficiency of learning performance, and variations in gender-specific education investment (Digdowiseiso, 2010 ; Thomas et al., 2001 ). Footnote 3 The consideration of these inequalities might help to reveal the socioeconomic and intrahousehold factors behind the different treatment for girls’ education. Therefore, the extended model can be described as:

The gender decomposition examines while using the basic models of each specification by the mean, the coefficient (Kingdom, 2005 ), and the interactions of the boy dummy variable (Maitra, 2003 ). Furthermore, the results are decomposed for gender effects by variant type Oaxaca decomposition (Dong et al., 2009 ; Golsteyn et al., 2014 ; Pal, 2004 ). This approach is generally used to examine the gender effects related to economic returns and the wage gap (Oaxaca, 1973 ). In this study, however, the standard approach has been modified to examine the gender effects related to education achievement. The probability of education attainment determines, say AT, separately for girls and boys with other characteristics, say X g and X b , respectively. Assuming \(\Pr \left( AT,{X}_i,{\theta}_i^{\ast}\right)\) is the expected probability of AT and \({\theta}_i^{\ast }\) is the vector if the maximum likelihood estimates of the parameters of the ordered logit model for i  =  g , b for girls and boys, respectively, the expected AT for any individual would be:

Using expected education attainment for the boys’ and girls’ samples, respectively, one can decompose the boy-girl differential in alternative ways as follows:

In brief, the explained variation is attributable to the different characteristics of boy-girl, while the unexplained variation is attributable to the different treatment of boys and girls in the household. This is achieved by allowing the parameters to vary while the characteristics are held constant. A similar approach was adopted for current enrollment as well.

The alternative specifications explore the impact of gender inequalities in education achievement on the household income using OLS regression. This study uses three different measurements of gender difference. Considering education attainment, the first indicator—the gender gap Footnote 4 —is calculated as the difference in illiteracy rates between girls and boys (Cooray, 2011 ). The second indicator, gender difference, Footnote 5 measures the difference in education attainment between girls and boys (Baliamoune–Lutz & McGillivray, 2015 ), while the final indicator—the gender gap ratio Footnote 6 —is constructed based on the difference between boys’ and girls’ education attainment (Digdowiseiso, 2010 ). Similar inequalities in current enrollment for boys and girls (5–24) are also estimated. The alternative specification estimates in the linear regression model are defined as:

Furthermore, the robustness tests for education achievement are examined using several other specifications including ordered probit and probit models, another explanatory variable—per capita expenditure of the household, and provincial heterogeneity.

Descriptive Statistics

The detailed descriptive statistics of the selected variables are exhibited in Table 1 . On average, 10 % of boys and girls attain a primary level of education, and 2.1 % attain a tertiary level of education. On average, the variable gender signifies 49 % girls in first model of education attainment and 48.8 % in second model of current enrollment. On average, 38.9 % of boys and girls are currently enrolled in education, and per capita income (in the log) is 8.8 (see Fig. 2 ). Overall, the age of the household has a nonlinear effect; as with the increase of age of the household’ members, there is decrease in the education level (see Fig. 3 ). Meanwhile, this study uses the age of the boys and girls, according to the models’ criteria. The mean age in the first model is 15.95 years whereas it is 13.59 in the second model. This study observes a higher ratio of low-salaried occupations (for example, machine operators); thus, the dependency ratio is also higher at 41.6 %. A total of 44.5 % of the population lives in urban areas, 80.6 % receive electricity, and 37.7 % have access to gas supplies. Among other provinces, the highest population locates in the province of Punjab.

Household’s income in Pakistan. Source: Author construction based on data from PSLM Bureau of Statistics, Pakistan. Figure 2 displays the trend of per capita income from 2005 to 2019, one of the inevitable indicators of educational achievement. The statistics calculate a sharp drop in per capita income after 2010, which improved in 2012 but eventually declined after 2016

Education attainment by age (2005–2019). Source: Author construction based on data from PSLM Bureau of Statistics, Pakistan. Figure 3 expresses the predictive margins between the age of the persons living in the household and their education levels. The probability of primary education attainment decreases after 25 years of age, whereas it is the opposite for the tertiary level. Meanwhile, with the increase in age, it is more likely to achieve secondary education

Empirical Results and Discussion

Determining education attainment and current enrollment levels.

Table 2 describes the average marginal effects of the ordered logit model for primary-, secondary-, tertiary-level, and no education attainment with the help of household income per capita and various socioeconomic characteristics. In the full sample models, variable gender—girl, increases primary-, secondary-, and tertiary-level education attainment by 0.4, 0.5, and 0.2 percentage points, respectively, at the 1 % significance level; this contradicts the findings of Munshi ( 2017 ). Per capita income, on average, increases the likelihood of primary-, secondary-, and tertiary-level education attainment by 0.1, 0.2, and 0.1 percentage points, respectively. The effect of age is more likely to increase secondary- and tertiary- education attainment. As findings reveal that the transitional effect of education attainment is progressive from primary level to secondary level, however, it does not appear with same proportion from secondary level to tertiary level. The impact of the age and squared-age has non-linear effect that can be justified in two manners. Firstly, with the increase in age, the proportion of transition of the education attainment levels decreases. Secondly, there is a negative relationship between the term squared age and education attainment.

Meanwhile, the presence of an educated head of household significantly improves primary-, secondary-, and tertiary-level education attainment—by 5.0, 10.4, and 4.1 percentage points, respectively. Other household members are likely to increase secondary- and tertiary-level education attainment by 20.9 and 11.5 percentage points, respectively. The results show higher marginal effects for education attainment by technicians (low-salaried) compare to managers (high-salaried), indicating that lower occupations have strong inspiration to maximize the human resources capital of the household. In addition, the availability of electricity, internet access, and access to a gas supply are highly likely to enhance education attainment. On average, living in urban area has the likelihood to impact primary-, secondary-, and tertiary education attainment by 0.2, 0.3, and 0.1 percentage points, respectively.

From models 5 to 8, for girls, it can be seen that per capita income significantly increases each level of education attainment. However, it increases secondary-level education attainment more than other levels, by 0.2 percentage points. Age has a significant and nonlinear effect. The variable married is likely to decrease the probability of education attainment by 1.6 and 5.0 percentage points at the tertiary and secondary levels of education, respectively. Interesting, parental education has a positive influence, but it is only significant at the secondary education attainment with 23.3 percentage points. In addition, the presence of an educated head of household and other members also provides a positive and significant effect. On analyzing different occupations, the results indicate a 19.6, 23.7, 8.9, and 1.5 percentage point increase in tertiary education attainment by clerks, officers, managers, and machine operators. The household size shows an inverse relationship with girls’ education attainment, particularly at the secondary level. The household infrastructure provides positive effect on girls’ education attainment. It may exhibit that sustainable consumption of household resources including electricity and gas can exert female education that can promote gender equity and economic returns.

From models 9 to 12, for education attainment, it can be seen that the impact of the per capita income of the household is comparatively equal for boys and girls. The household income is likely to increase secondary—and tertiary—education attainment in boys by 0.2 and 0.1 percentage points, respectively. Parental education is highly unlikely to increase the probability of education attainment. The presence of an educated head of household increases education attainment by 4.9, 9.5, and 3.2 percentage points at the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels, respectively. Similarly, the presence of household members with numeracy skills and secondary education is likely to increase secondary-level education attainment by 10.9 and 22.2 percentage points, respectively. This study observes a strong impact of occupational heterogeneity on education attainment; officers and clerks significantly improve the primary- and secondary-level education attainment in boys. The clerks are highly likely to increase tertiary-level education attainment, by 15.4 percentage points. Compared to Punjab, provinces such as KPK and Balochistan are less likely to increase primary, secondary, and tertiary education attainment.

Table 3 describes the average marginal effects from the current enrollment models with the help of logit model regression.

In the full model, the estimate of the variable girl is highly significant and negative—an opposite finding to that of past studies (Maitra, 2003 )—and likely to decrease the probability of current enrollment in education by 0.8 percentage points. A unit increase in income per capita is more likely to improve the current enrollment rates for girls than it is for boys; an increase of 0.4 percentage points is observed for girls. Age has a nonlinear effect with its squared term; thus, current enrollment rates decrease with age. Additionally, variable married decreases the probability of current enrollment in education in girls by 15.6 percentage points. Current enrollment increases for boys if there are educated household members; however, this is not the case for certain professions such as clerks and machine operators.

Other indicators associated with physical capital such as ownership of establishment or land are negatively related to current enrollment rates. This indicates that education is not the primary objective among landowners, as they do not worry about employment. The educational transition from primary to higher grades is less valuable than monetary assets, and most people are reluctant to leave their ancestral profession if it is associated with land cultivation. Household infrastructure is likely to benefit girls more than boys, however when we examine the influence of living in an urban location, which is highly likely to increase enrollment rates in education for boys. The dependency ratio provides higher marginal effects for current enrollment in boys, which further supports the objective of this study. The majority of the households in Pakistan support male earners who are likely to bear all the expenditures. Therefore, the parents prefer to invest in boys’ education for potential job opportunities and financial support in the long run. Results from siblings shows a positive relation to current enrollment and reveal higher quantity-to-quality trade-offs particularly among girls. The results show a higher marginal effect in KPK province; this might be due to the new framework of free and accessible education that has been in place since 2013 (KPK Government Statistics, 2021).

Dealing with Endogeneity Bias

Table 4 shows the results of the average marginal effects using the ordered logit model regression/2SRI approach after dealing with endogeneity. In the full sample, the per capita income of the household is likely to increase education attainment at each level by a higher ratio compared to the aforementioned results. There is a drastic increase in primary-level education attainment: 11.2 percentage points. Likewise, secondary- and tertiary-level education attainment increase by 15.9 and 4.9 percentage points, respectively. Even the variable gender is almost two times higher than the previous results for secondary-level education attainment. Other indicators that illustrate higher marginal effects are educated head of household, household size, and infrastructure. The results find a positive relationship between education and urbanization by introducing income shock of head unemployment and non-labor resources. It retrieves two strong arguments; first, the income shock is likely to increase potential human mobilization for confronting household economic burden. The second, non-labor resources exert positive impact on population by increasing non-market activities, as time allocation shifts from work to leisure.

From models 5 to 8, for girls, the results are significant but with higher marginal effects than the full sample. A sharp increase in secondary-level education attainment is caused by household income: an increase of 10.8 percentage points. Results find negative relationship between married persons and education attainment of the girls, especially at primary level. It might be possible that married persons are quite young in age, particularly women, without having any education awareness and sufficient resources. These results may indicate the need of awareness programs in the household to encourage women education and discourage early-age marriages. On the other hand, a significant decrease in household size supports an increase in primary-level education attainment.

There is a higher impact of per capita income on boys’ education attainment than girls, indicating household’s preferences. The per capita income of the household is likely to increase primary-, secondary- and tertiary-level education attainment by 13.0, 17.9, and 4.9 percentage points, respectively. The presence of an educated head of household has a strong and positive effect on boys’ education attainment; however, it is the opposite for girls’ primary-level education attainment. The results show that intermediate internet access is more effective for girls than boys. Meanwhile, household size also impacts quite positively on boys’ education attainment as they are potential lone bread earners for their families. Living in an urban location results the potential career for boys, thus revealing a positive correlation with education attainment.

The average marginal effects are shown in Table 5 for current enrollment after dealing with potential endogeneity. Per capita income is four times more likely to increase the likelihood of current enrollment in the full sample than the results reported in the “Determining Education Attainment and Current Enrollment Levels” section. Its impact is 4.4 percentage points for boys and girls. The variable girl reduces the probability of current enrollment by 0.3 percentage points. The results find a significant effect of parental education on boys, thus revealing a gender bias in investment in education. Similar results are reported for the impact of educated members of the household and the occupations of those living in the household. The other results describe a wider gap in current enrollment in Sindh and Balochistan, where girls are highly unlikely to enroll in any kind of educational institution.

Estimations of Education Attainment and Current Enrollment by Inequalities

Table 6 illustrates the average marginal effects by incorporating different educational inequalities such as the Gini coefficient, years of schooling (on average), and standard deviation for education attainment by ordered logit model, as shown in panels A, B, and C. For this moment, only results with educational inequalities have been provided. Full results can be provided on demand. In girls’ sample, by examining panel A, we can see that the Gini coefficient is highly significant and indicates a sharp decrease in tertiary- and secondary-level education attainment, by 0.6 and 1.6 percentage points, respectively. Furthermore, in panel B, the average years of schooling have positive relationship with secondary- and tertiary-level education attainment. In panel C, the estimates explain that the standard deviation inequality decreases secondary- and tertiary-level education attainment by 0.1 percentage points, respectively. For boys’ sample, in panel A, the results show that the Gini coefficient decreases the secondary- and tertiary-level education attainment of boys; however, the marginal effects are slightly higher compared to those for girls. In panel B of average years of education, there is an equal improvement in secondary- and tertiary-level education attainment of boys; however, no significant effect is found in panel C.

The relationship between current enrollment and educational inequalities is shown in Table 7 . In panel A, the results indicate that educational inequalities impact both boys and girls. However, examining the marginal effects by gender, the Gini coefficient is found to be higher for boys. In panel B, the average years of schooling of currently enrolled boys and girls are higher for girls by 0.6 percentage points. This indicates that girls are almost 0.4 times more likely to enroll in school. There is an insignificant impact of standard deviation on boys’ current enrollment; however, it is the opposite for girls. A unit increase in standard deviation decreases the probability of girls’ current enrollment by 0.2 percentage points.

Explaining the Gender Gap and its Decomposition

Table 8 provides mean statistics and differences in the coefficients in relation to education attainment.

In panel A, most of the household characteristics favor girls; these include personal attributes such as age and infrastructure while per capita income, educated members, head, and urbanization provide higher mean probabilities for boys ’education attainment. The difference between boys and girls is shown in the last column by interacting the boy dummy variable with each explanatory variable as an additional regressor in the basic model of the full sample using ordered logit model regression. The estimates find favorable values for girls’ education attainment in relation to the education level of her parents and the head of the household and household characteristics. Panel B provides mean statistics and coefficient differences for current enrollment. The personal attributes such as age, married, and infrastructure have the higher mean probabilities for girls’ education attainment. The last column displays the differences between boys and girls and shows that educated head, urbanization, and provinces favor boys.

Table 9 presents the gender differences in education attainment and current enrollment by predicted probabilities using variant type Oaxaca decomposition by incorporating four scenarios. Such as (i) girls using estimated parameters obtained from girls’ equation, (ii) girls using estimated parameters obtained from boys’ equation, (iii) boys using estimated parameters obtained from boys’ equation, and (iv) boys using estimated parameters obtained from girls’ equation (Pal, 2004 ). Comparatively, boys are having approximately two times lower corresponding probabilities using girls’ parameters. Conversely, the probability of girls’ education attainment increases almost two times higher using boys’ parameters. A similar proportion of increase observes in girls’ current enrollment using boys’ parameters. While two times lower probabilities observe for boys’ current enrollment using girls’ parameters. The estimates of difference are presented with the boys’ reference. In the end, explained and unexplained variations of gender difference are estimated. While explained variation in education attainment and current enrollment are −142.8 and 41.4 %, respectively (Dong et al., 2009 ). The unexplained variation, generally considers as discrimination, has higher values in both models and highlight the different treatment between boys and girls in the household. However, this study presents such variation as gender differences that may be due to unobservable factors and imperfectly observable attributes.

Alternative Specification and Robustness Tests

In Tables 10 and 11 , the estimates are presented for education attainment and current enrollment using other models such as ordered probit and probit models (McNabb et al., 2002 ), and other variables such as per capita expenditure and permanent income (non-labor assets) are included.

In both models, the results are highly significant and provide additional evidence to support the previous estimations. The variable girl is more likely to increase education attainment at the secondary level. The unit increase in income per capita is marginally higher in the probit model regression. The findings show that per capita expenditure is likely to positively impact on girls’ education, particularly in relation to secondary-level education attainment. Considering the robust test by incorporating the permanent income of the household, the variable gender is positively significant with education attainment. A unit increase in permanent income raises primary- and secondary-level education attainment more in boys. In addition, there is sharp increase in boys’ current enrollment with a unit increase in permanent income. Other robustness tests, including provincial heterogeneity, the control function approach, IV probit, 2SLS, and the determination of education attainment and current enrollment for boys and girls from a different age group (13–24), are available on request.

Table 12 presents results for alternative specification where per capita income is the dependent variable and gender inequalities (education attainment and current enrollment) as interested variables. This specification can also be interpreted as the future earning potential of girls and boys. Considering education attainment, in panel A, the gender gap due to illiteracy decreases income by approximately 11.3 % more in girls compared to boys. In panel B and C, gender difference is likely to decrease income by 3.2 and 1.2 % in girls. Moving toward current enrollment, in panels A, B, and C, each gender inequality reduces the household income comparatively higher among girls than boys by 7.1, 3.0, and 1.7 %.

Conclusion and Policy Implications

Despite having the potential for human resource capital, Pakistan struggles with extreme poverty, socioeconomic disparity, and gender inequality at the grass-root level (Ali et., 2021 ; Asif et al., 2019 ). To address these undeniable issues, it becomes crucial to comprehend the significance of the equal distribution of household resources in education regardless of gender that builds a sustainable economic structure toward global equality (Kopnina, 2020 ). This study aims to examine education achievement and underlying gender differences using two models: education attainment and current enrollment. The findings highlight the importance of the relationship between education and income along with other household characteristics. This study deals with potential endogeneity by using the 2SRI approach and examines gender and educational inequalities at the micro level.

The findings demonstrate that household income has a significant and positive impact on education attainment and the current enrollment of boys and girls. The education attainment transition from primary to tertiary-level is successful that supports the past studies (Duflo et al., 2021 ; Wu et al., 2020 ). However, the transition from primary to secondary education is higher than that from secondary to tertiary education attainment. The community and individuals’ attributes support education investment in boys indicating household and socioeconomic preferences. Girls can improve their education with the availability of personal and household attributes (Yi et al., 2015 ). Other findings from education attainment and current enrollment models predict a demographic framework that encourages a sustainable environment with a decline in household size and dependency ratio (Heb, 2020 ; Asif, 2019 ; Fichera et al., 2015 ). These findings contradict those of past studies (Munshi, 2017 ) and establish a link between temporary residents (daughters) and different occupations of the households, whereby lower-salaried households and deprived areas can significantly improve female education attainment and current enrollment.

The findings show that there is a negative relationship between the Gini coefficient and education attainment and that this gap is wider at secondary and tertiary education levels, thus supporting the results of the basic model. The standard deviation of educational inequalities is higher for girls that further confirms the existence of gender differences in education. Likewise, the findings from the alternative specifications provide decrease in potential economic returns on education by gender inequalities. The findings support those of Pfeffer et al. ( 2018 ) with regard to discouraging wealth accumulation in terms of physical capital and increasing investment in female education (Kopnina, 2020 ). It can effectively transform the developing society of Pakistan by framing public policies for women’s empowerment (United Nations Education, 2030), gender equality (Arshed et al., 2019 ), poverty alleviation (ur Rahman et al., 2018 ), and sustainable development (Sen, 2019 ). Therefore, this study identifies some valuable recommendations for policymakers wishing to promote gender equality:

Implement cooperative projects created by federal and local governments that supply free, digital, and up-to-date education in schools, colleges, and universities to improve transition levels, with a particular focus on poor infrastructure, highly deprived regions, and mobility restricted areas.

Adopt targeted policies to minimize education and gender gaps between those enrolled and not enrolled in education by supporting low-income households through the allocation of funds, scholarships, and incentives.

Reform educational strategies to provide cost effective education in collaboration with parents, teachers, and schools with the aim of creating advanced and scientific curricula aligned with sustainable development goals.

Craft awareness campaigns to eradicate gender-specific investment in education, encourage talented females to enter tertiary-level education in particular, and address socioeconomic challenges by establishing reliable and organized educational committees in each province.

Finally, some potential limitations should be noted, as these might open up new horizons for future research. Quantitative research should be conducted to examine other household characteristics and upcoming survey rounds than those discussed in this study.

Translated as Knowledge Possible project that having contribution of US $ 1 billion for sustainable programs.

These tests are available on request.

The Gini coefficient for education is defined as the ratio to the mean (average years of schooling) of half of the average overall pairs of absolute deviations between all pairs of people (Deaton, 1997). It is further redeveloped by Thomas ( 2001 ):

where E L is the Gini coefficient based on education attainment, 𝜇 is average years of schooling, Pi and P j are the proportion of the population, y i and y j are years of schooling at different educational levels, and n is the number of levels in the attainment data. Average years of schooling and standard deviation can be calculated as follows: \(\textrm{AYS}=\sum_{\textrm{i}=1}^{\textrm{n}}{\textrm{P}}_{\textrm{i}}{\left({\textrm{y}}_{\textrm{i}}-\upmu \right)}^2\) and \(\textrm{SD}=\sqrt{\sum_{\textrm{i}=1}^{\textrm{n}}{\textrm{P}}_{\textrm{i}}{\left({\textrm{y}}_{\textrm{i}}-\upmu \right)}^2}\) .

Gender gap (illiteracy rates [9–24 years of age]) = number of girls’ illiterate – number of boys’ illiterate

Gender difference (education attainment [9–24 years of age]) = total years of schooling of girls – total years of schooling of boys.

Gender gap ratio (education attainment [9–24 years of age]) = total years of schooling of girls/total years of schooling of boys.

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Acknowledgements

This study benefited from the discussion with the participants of the American Economic Association Annual Meeting, 2022, USA; 49th Australian Conference of Economists CEA 2021, Australia; International Population Association Conference, 1PC 2021; 23 INFER Annual conference, 2021 Porugal; and 23rd Applied Economics Meeting, ALdE, 2021, Spain. I would like to thank Prof. Theophile T. Azomahou (CNRS- CERDI), Prof. Colin Green (Norwegian University of Science and Technology), Dr. Ababacar Sedikh, and Dr. Nestor Sawadogo (CNRS-CERDI) for their thoughtful comments. I also would like to thank the editor and two anonymous reviewers for their valuable suggestions.

Data Availability Statement

Data is available on the website of Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS): https://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/microdata .

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Pasha, H.K. Gender Differences in Education: Are Girls Neglected in Pakistani Society?. J Knowl Econ (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-023-01222-y

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Gender equality is a myth | CSS important Essays

A school of thought believes there is no discrimination on the basis of gender in the world, so no need to talk about gender inequality because no one’s rights are being violated. These people, to solidify their point, provide some examples like Article 25(2) of the Constitution of Pakistan, 1973, which guarantees that “There shall be no discrimination on the basis of sex,” and thus safeguards women’s rights. They also put up the examples of women leaders like Fatima Jinnah, Benazir Bhutto, Dr. Fehmida Mirza, et al, as women’s active participation in politics. Nonetheless, in reality, gender equality is a myth. We have made laws, but have not implemented them properly. Women’s participation in all activities of life is limited. Almost everywhere there is discrimination on the basis of gender. Rights of each gender being infringed and violated.

Females make more than 50 percent of the population of Pakistan. However, by not providing them the opportunities — and facilities — to participate in all sectors of life, we have failed to cash in on the talents and skills of a major chunk of our population and it has resulted in huge economic losses.

However, it is important to note that the problem of gender inequality has plagued not only Pakistan but almost every part of the world. Males, females, eunuchs; all genders are facing inequality all around the world. This burning issue must be resolved as early as possible in the light of the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights (UNDHR) the Article 2 of which asserts that “Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.”

Before analyzing the issue of gender inequality in detail, it seems suitable to know as to what gender equality actually is. Generally, gender equality is considered the provision of rights only to females only, but in actuality, it is achieved when women and men enjoy the same rights and opportunities across all sectors of society, including economic participation and decision-making, and when the different behaviors, aspirations and needs of women and men are equally valued and favored.

Ours is a patriarchal society and males are dominant here in almost all fields of life. But, there rights, too, are violated and they face discrimination — though its ratio is meagre. It is often observed that while numerous men have queued up in order to get something — for instance, a ticket — a female comes and gets that before them; bypassing all the males who have been waiting for their turn for many hours. Although it is considered an act of courtesy in our society, yet this is violation of males’ rights.

Moreover, in public sector as well as private sector, women not only have quota but some positions like office assistant, personal secretary, receptionist, etc., are also almost every time offered only to females. It’s also a common observation in many offices that men share the most part of the work burden.

To present the other side of the story, it is pertinent to mention that mostly females are the victims of the violation of their rights.

In Pakistan, we often read news about the instances of ‘vani’, an ugly tradition where young women are traded between families in resolution of a dispute; ‘swara’, a deplorable practice under which minor girls are given away in marriage to the enemy’s family as a symbol of ‘lasting and effective’ peace between two disputing parties, etc., which means that girls are treated like a commodity. Moreover, in our common households, boys are given preference over girls in terms of provision of basic necessities of life. Unequal treatment of boys and girls can be seen in almost every facet of life. For instance, it is rampant in terms of provision of food as well as education; if a son wants to go for an outing with his friends, he is encouraged to do so. But, if similar wish is expressed by a daughter, she would be snubbed and would not be allowed owing to “traditions” of the society. Domestic violence is also ubiquitous in Pakistan and the findings of Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (PDHS) speak volumes about this fact. The PDHS has found that 43 percent of women and 35 percent of men in Pakistan deem it absolutely justified if a husband inflicts violence on his wife in case she argues with him.

The cancer of honour killings has also been rampant in Pakistan as according to a report by Aurat Foundation around 1,000 women and to another one by the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP) around 900 women annually are killed in the name of honour in Pakistan; let alone the actual figure which must be much higher than those reported because these organizations collect data only from newspapers and other like sources.

The chronically dejected class, which consists of transgenders or eunuchs, is the most vulnerable in our society. As per the findings of a recent survey, 60 percent of the people of Pakistan do not want to befriend the eunuchs; only 14 percent replied in affirmative. The birth of a eunuch is considered not less than a torment. Most families virtually abandon them and leave them on the mercy of the fate. Resultantly, most of them end up being a beggar, a street singer or a dancer. They are even denied their right to inherit as they are not given proper share in the property left by their parents. Besides this inhumane treatment, almost all families don’t want to send them to schools and colleges for getting education. And, if they howsoever successfully get education, then jobs are not offered to them despite possessing the qualities required to perform the job effectively and efficiently.

Although it was like a whiff of fresh air when in 2012, the Supreme Court of Pakistan (SC) ruled that eunuchs be given equal rights as any other citizen of the country, yet the situation on ground is still far from satisfactory. We need to recognize that eunuchs are not less talented than the individuals belonging to other genders. Hardly would have anyone known that Cai Lun, a Han dynasty Chinese official who is traditionally regarded as the inventor of paper and the papermaking process was a eunuch.

In India, the transgenders or eunuchs are constitutionally a third category of gender, and the Indian government has taken steps in order to uplift them from social backwardness and to bring them into society’s mainstream.

When it comes to civil services of Pakistan, a 10 percent quota is reserved for females. At provincial level, also, women have a specific quota in provincial government services; for instance, it is 15 percent in Punjab, 7 percent in Sindh, 5 percent in Baluchistan and 10 percent in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. But, when it comes to transgenders, mum’s the word.

In private sector educational institutions and business concerns, the situation is appalling. In this sector, males are offered more salaries than the female counterparts. Mostly, females are offered a job to work as a showpiece while sitting on the front desk of the office. They are mostly given jobs as telephone operator or personal secretary. It is another form of discrimination which should be avoided and a culture of meritocracy should be promoted instead.

When it comes to the Armed Forces of Pakistan, we see that there are only 4000 females among 617,000 active personnel. There number is really scant and it should be increased to encourage more and more women to join the armed forces. After independence, an attempt of introducing combat training program in Pakistan armed forces was made by Begum Ra’ana Liaqat Ali Khan; but her attempt was foiled by General Frank Walter Messervy — First Commander-in-Chief of Pakistan Army from 15 August 1947 to 10 February 1948. In 1949, the first lady took personal initiatives and established her own Pakistan Army Women National Guard (WNG) with few combat courses. The unit’s first GOC and chief controller was Begum Ra’ana, with the rank of a Brigadier. After a long struggle, in 2002, Ms. Shahida Malik became the first female officer to reach the rank of Major General in Pak Army.

On 14th July 2014, 24 female officers of Pakistan Army successfully completed a paratroopers’ course, becoming the first group of women to do so in Pakistan military history and proved that females are not less competent than males; they can do everything, if they are provided proper facilities.

Prior to this, in 2003, Pakistan Air Force had inducted the first batch of women as general duty pilots which joined the combat services of PAF in 2006.

In terms of women’s participation in country’s legislative business, we find that out of 342 seats in the National Assembly of Pakistan, only 60 have been reserved for women — not a single one for the third gender. After brief study of the parliaments of other countries, it dawns on us that not only Pakistan’s but almost every parliament in the world is male-dominated. How ironic it is that the absolute authority to making laws on women rights lies in the hands of men!

The Global Gender Gap Report 2015, launched by the Davos-based World Economic Forum, ranked Pakistan at 144th position among 145 countries. This shows our seriousness in eradication of gender inequality in Pakistan.

It’s common observation even in this modern era that after an ultrasound of a pregnant woman, if it is found that the baby would be a girl, many a time the mother is made to go through abortion. But, if the fetus is of a male, then that woman is treated like a princess or a queen.

Even in a country like United States of America, which boasts to be the world’s lone superpower and the torchbearer of human rights, all the presidents had been males. No woman has ever been provided an opportunity to lead the country.

The same situation is with the United Nations. All of the eight secretaries-general of the UN — the last being Ban Ki-moon in the list — were males; no woman has ever been elected to this coveted post.

In the Muslim world, the situation is not much different. For instance, in Saudi Arabia gender inequality prevails as women were not allowed to drive cars for a long time. However, a campaign in 2011 had done a little and some women are now allowed to drive cars and they are being issued driving licenses.

In a nutshell, gender inequality has permeated the world and it is right to say that ‘gender equality is a myth’. However, if the abovementioned issues are resolved, this myth can be broken. It is the only way to promote gender equality because it is a prerequisite that must be fulfilled if a country wants to tread the path that leads to development and prosperity.

It is opportune to conclude the above discussion in the words of former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan who once said, “Gender equality is more than a goal in itself. It is a precondition for meeting the challenge of reducing poverty, promoting sustainable development and building good governance.”

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• Empowering Women: The Impact of Feminist Movement on Pakistan's Political and Social Landscape

Empowering Women: The Impact of Feminist Movement on Pakistan’s Political and Social Landscape

Empowering Women: The Impact of Feminist Movement on Pakistan’s Political and Social Landscape. The feminist movement in Pakistan has been an ongoing struggle for women’s rights, equality, and empowerment. The movement has gained momentum over the years and has made significant progress toward breaking down gender barriers in Pakistan’s political and social landscape. The feminist movement aims to challenge the traditional patriarchal structure of society that has historically marginalized women and perpetuated gender inequality

The feminist movement has had a significant impact on Pakistan’s political and social landscape, particularly in empowering women to take an active role in these areas. The movement has challenged patriarchal norms and practices that have historically oppressed women and limited their participation in public life.

In the political sphere, the feminist movement has played a key role in advocating for women’s rights and representation. As a result, Pakistan’s government has taken steps to address gender inequality, including implementing quotas for women in political positions, such as reserved seats for women in parliament.

These efforts have led to an increase in women’s political participation. With more women than ever before being elected to public office. In the 2018 general elections, a record-breaking 33 women were elected to the National Assembly, representing about 10% of the total seats. Empowering Women: The Impact of Feminist Movement on Pakistan’s Political and Social Landscape.

The feminist movement has also had a significant impact on Pakistan’s social landscape. challenging traditional gender roles and advocating for women’s rights in areas such as education, employment, and healthcare. Women’s rights organizations have worked to increase awareness of issues such as domestic violence, forced marriages, and honor killings, and to provide support to women who have experienced these forms of violence.

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As a result of these efforts, there has been a growing recognition of women’s rights and an increased willingness to challenge patriarchal norms and practices. However, the movement has faced resistance from some quarters, including conservative religious groups and traditionalists who view women’s empowerment as a threat to their cultural and social values.

Despite these challenges, the feminist movement in Pakistan continues to make progress, empowering women to take control of their lives and participate fully in society. With ongoing support and advocacy, it has the potential to bring about significant change in the country’s political and social landscape and to improve the lives of millions of women across Pakistan.

Understanding Gender Inequality in Pakistan

Pakistan’s cultural and societal norms deeply root gender inequality. Historically, women faced marginalization and discrimination in various aspects of life, including education, employment, and politics. The patriarchal structure of society has perpetuated gender stereotypes. Limiting the opportunities available to women and reinforcing social and economic disparities.

History of Women’s Rights in Pakistan

The struggle for women’s rights in Pakistan dates back to the early 1900s when women began advocating for their right to vote. Begum Ra’ana Liaquat Ali Khan was elected as Pakistan’s first female parliamentarian in 1947 when the country gained independence.. Since then, women have made significant progress in various fields, including education and employment.

Impact of the Feminist Movement on Education and Employment for Women

The feminist movement has played a significant role in increasing access to education and employment for women in Pakistan. The movement has focused critically on women’s education, considering it as a means to empower women and break down gender barriers. The movement’s efforts have resulted in a significant increase in the number of girls enrolled in schools and universities in Pakistan. Empowering Women: The Impact of Feminist Movement on Pakistan’s Political and Social Landscape

The feminist movement has also worked to challenge discriminatory practices in the workplace. Advocating for equal pay and opportunities for women. As a result, more women are entering the workforce, and there has been an increase in the number of women in leadership positions in various industries.

Political Representation of Women in Pakistan

Despite progress in education and employment, women’s political representation in Pakistan remains low. Women’s representation in parliament is currently at 21%, which is still below the 33% quota set aside for women. The feminist movement has been working to increase women’s political representation. Advocating for women’s participation in decision-making processes and challenging gender stereotypes in politics.

Gender-Based Violence and Discriminatory Laws in Pakistan

Gender-based violence is a significant issue in Pakistan. Women face various forms of violence, including domestic violence, sexual assault, and honor killings. Discriminatory laws, such as the Hudood Ordinance, have perpetuated gender-based violence, making it difficult for women to seek justice.

Legislative Reforms and Women Empowerment in Pakistan

The feminist movement has been advocating for legislative reforms to empower women and address gender-based violence. The most significant legislative reforms include the Protection of Women against Violence Act 2016. The Criminal Law Amendment Act 2016, criminalized honor killings .

Domestic Violence and Measures Taken by the Government

Domestic violence is a prevalent issue in Pakistan, with women being the primary victims. The government has taken measures to address domestic violence. Including the establishment of the National Commission on the Status of Women and the Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Bill 2021.

Challenges Faced by Feminist Movement in Pakistan

The feminist movement in Pakistan faces various challenges. Including societal and cultural resistance to change, lack of political will, and limited resources. The movement’s efforts are often met with opposition and hostility, and women’s rights activists are targeted for their work.

Conclusion: The Future of Feminism in Pakistan

The feminist movement in Pakistan has made significant progress toward achieving women’s rights, equality, and empowerment. However, society still needs to do much work and legislative reforms. It must be advocated for by continuing the movement to challenge societal norms. The future of feminism in Pakistan relies on the collective efforts of women’s rights activists and allies. Working towards a more equitable and just society.

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Essay Outlines: Gender Discrimination in Developing States

Table of Contents

1. Introduction

2. historical perspective of gender discrimination and priority to male gender – the dominant gender in society., 3. causes of gender discrimination.

3.1) Male dominant society, putting an axe over female voice and rights. 3.2) Third gender is considered as alien, and not a part of society. 3.3) Brutal practice of honor killings in Pakistan endangers the lives of females and the third gender. i.e: Qandeel Baloch murder and transgender Alisha murdered in Peshawar in 2016.

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4. gender discrimination in developing states:.

4.1) Impacts of gender discrimination. Impacts on women a) Low female literacy rate as compared to males in developing countries like Pakistan, Bhutan and Nigeria, as people are unaware about the importance of female education. b) Female employment rate in Pakistan and India is 28% and 29% respectively, as compared to 80% in Netherland and 65% in China, because developing nations underestimate the importance of female in national development. c) Increasing nation of crimes against women e.g. harassment, acid crimes, abduction, trafficking etc. • Bangladesh is considered as the country with largest number of acid attacks. It is also ranked 142nd out of 187 countries in 2013 on the Human Development Index and 115 out of 149 countries on Gender Inequality Index. • National Crime Records Bureau states in 2010-1 bride murdered every hour over dowry demands in India. Impacts on 3rd Gender a) The ratio of population is divided into two specific genders, as in Pakistan male: female ratio is 49.51, but no attention towards approximately 3 lach third gender population. b) No jobs and education facilities provided to third gender in developing states, as they are bound to engage themselves in inappropriate activities to earn for survival. c) Third gender is getting obstacles among their way of self actualization, as they are not considered as a part of respectable fields like police, politics and medicine.

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5. comparison of developing states with mdcs in gender discrimination:.

5.1) Australia and Germany, identified third gender as a part of society, and provided them birth certificates with gender “X”, whereas developing states are unable to provide them identity. 5.2) Countries like Andorra, Czech and Belgium are sustaining 100, 99 and 99% of female literacy rate whereas it’s 12% in Afghanistan, 38% in Bhutan and 42% in Pakistan. 5.3) In U.S.A. third gender is getting prominent over media, as they are getting popular over shows like “Dancing with stars”, whereas in developing states they are considered as sign of embarrassment and social taboo.

6. Latest positive steps taken by developing countries to overcome gender discrimination:-

6.1) First women bank has been established in Pakistan with 50% of share holders and more than 50% of female employees, to utilize the potential of women in economic stability of nation. 6.2) UNDP in Pakistan focusing over gender equality and women’s empowerment to achieve millennium and sustainable development, and ensuring that women must have a real voice in all governance institutions. 6.3) “The Hamsafar”, organization in India, that is taking care of the rights of third gender, India has also considered third gender as a part of nation, and has updated the passport application forms with three options, as male, female and Eunuch for third gender. 6.4) Pakistan has considered third generation as civilians of Pakistan and has given them their own I D cards and also provided them voting rights.

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7. changing situation in developing countries regarding women empowerment..

1. In Pakistan Present Govt. (2014) being a state part to the convention on elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) lead the govt to take measures to ensure women’s rights as envisaged in CEDAW. 2. Punjab Protection of Women against Violence Act 2016 passed to provide security, rehabilitation and relief against violence on women. During the previous govt. (2008-2013) 2. 26 Shaheed Benazir Bhutto enters established for women for immediate relief to female victims of violence – Around 1 million women could receive direct assistance from Benazir Income Support programme while National Commission on the status of women was strengthened to monitor the violation of women rights. 3. Adoption of Protection Against Harassment of Women at Workplace Act 2010. 4. Acid control and Acid Crime Act and prevention of Anti Women Practices Act.

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8. suggestions to neutralize the issues created by gender discrimination:.

8.1) Required to promote the importance of female education, and needed to enhance their enrollment in education sectors. 8.2) Females must be considered as the main part of society and their talent should be utilized to bring political, social and economic development. 8.3) Needed to bring change in social behavior, and third gender should be considered as a part of society, and they should get a chance to enhance their capabilities in better way. 8.4) Legislative and constitutional protection should be provided to third gender and their rights must not be neglected.

9. Conclusion

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Gender Inequality in Pakistan: An Assessment

• Qurat ul ain Rana Ph. D. Scholar , Department of Sociology , University of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan
• Prof. Dr. Muhammad Ali Tarar Chairman , Department of Sociology , Ghazi University, DG Khan, Punjab, Pakistan
• Prof. Dr. Rana Saba Sultan Professor , Department of Sociology , University of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan

The gender analysis reveals the widening discrepancy between men and women in a number of sectors, as well as the difficulties Pakistan confronts in addressing these issues. There are only a few data points available on gender gaps in specific areas like educational success, health, and political engagement that could be used to help us reach this goal. A lack of resources and opportunities, as well as a scarcity of knowledge and information, exacerbate the gender gap. In terms of political engagement, educational attainment, and economic production, the study looks at Pakistan's gender disparities. We gathered data from a range of government, foreign development, and local non-governmental organizations for this study. Based on the findings of a gender assessment, a variety of techniques and policies can be implemented to address gender issues. Government education spending should prioritize gender equality while identifying places where there is a greater gender divide. Increased government spending on education and political engagement will have a huge positive impact on rural women.

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Promoting Gender Equality in Pakistan Means Tackling Both Real and Misperceived Gender Norms

The education gaps that are closing between boys and girls in many countries persist in Pakistan. Pakistan has among the most out-of-school children in the world ( 23 million ), and one of the biggest gaps between boys and girls, measured both by enrolment and learning. For every 100 boys enrolled in school in Pakistan, 86 girls are enrolled, and girls are less likely than boys to be able to read and do simple maths .

An important driver of gender gaps are gender norms. In Pakistan, men are generally expected to be breadwinners and women are generally expected to stay home. This leads to higher demand for school for sons than for daughters. Depressingly, demand for school for girls may come more from improving their marriage prospects than their job prospects.

Our large new household survey on the factors associated with differences in gender norms sheds light on what policymakers can do in the post-COVID world to address the gender gap and improve opportunities for girls (the survey dataset is available here ). Here are four things we learnt from the survey results.

Lesson 1: A large minority of men think women should not be allowed to work outside the house

Gender norms are still regressive in Pakistani society. Forty percent of women need permission from a family member to seek or remain in paid employment, according to the 2019 Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement (PSLM) survey. Less than 10 percent of households say women can decide for themselves.

Behind the power dynamics are powerful gender norms . In our sample, 43 percent of men think women should not work outside of the house. Just under half think women cannot do the same jobs as a man.

On the other hand, women are much more likely than men to think that they should be allowed to work. Over 80 percent think they should be allowed to work, and 69 percent think women can do all of the same jobs as men (Figure 1a).

Figure 1a. Gender roles and biases on female participation in the labour market

Note: data collected in February 2021. Sample size of 852 male respondents and 179 female respondents. Vertical bars indicate 95 percent confidence intervals. T-tests show the difference between the proportion of females agreeing with each statement is statistically significant.

Women in Pakistan also face other barriers related to gender norms when entering the labour market, such as lack of access to safe transportation, lack of female facilities in the workplace, and time constraints due to household responsibility . Of women who are not actively seeking paid work, 92 percent said they would be interested in working. Over 70 percent are not seeking work either because their husband or father won't let them, or because of their household duties (2019 PSLM).

Although half of men think women should be allowed to work, almost a third of these (28 percent) don’t think a woman can do the same job as men. This raises concerns for women who are already in the labour market, as they have fewer and less diverse job options. These are concentrated in low-pay sectors, sometimes even when women have completed secondary education.

What is puzzling is that most respondents in our sample believe that girls are more intelligent than boys in a classroom (Figure 1b). This is true even among the majority of men who don't believe women can execute the same jobs as men (65 percent), possibly highlighting that women’s acceptance into the labour market is related more to social norms and biases than to perceptions of their capabilities.

Figure 1b. Majority of men think girls are more intelligent than boys in the classroom

(By men’s belief that women can do all the same jobs as men)

Note: sample size of 852 men

Lesson 2: Pakistani men and women overestimate their peers’ disapproval of women working outside the home from others

One potential avenue for improving gender equality is through addressing "misperceived norms." For example, in Saudi Arabia , the majority of young married men privately think that women should be allowed to work, but also think that other men disapprove of women working. Correcting this misperception, by revealing that the majority of others actually also approve, led some married men to help their wives search for and find jobs.

We replicated these findings on misperceived norms in our sample. We asked respondents “how many [men/women] out of 100, [they] believed agreed with the statement that a woman should work outside the home.”

Men in our sample do overestimate disapproval by other men, by around 5 percentage points. Interestingly however, women overestimate disapproval by other women by much more—by over 20 percentage points.

There is clear room to correct misperceptions of acceptance for women to work outside the household in Pakistan.

Figure 2. Both men and women overestimate disapproval of women working outside the home from others

Note: to capture perception of other's views we asked respondents "We asked 100 [men/women] like you the same question. How many do you think agreed that a woman should be allowed to work outside the home?"

Lesson 3: Schooling is associated with positive gender attitudes

What factors correlate with more progressive attitudes to gender? Our data show that women have more progressive attitudes than men. People with more schooling have more progressive attitudes than those with less. People who were interviewed by a female enumerator also reported more progressive attitudes than those interviewed by a man. Finally, those with more progressive norm perceptions also have more progressive norms themselves (Figure 3).

Each year of schooling is associated with a 1 percent increase in the probability of agreeing with either statement. Those with a secondary school degree or more are 10-12 percent more likely to have a positive gender attitude. Hence increasing education for boys, as well as girls, is an important measure to close gender gaps .

Being interviewed by a female enumerator is associated with a 7 and 14 percent higher likelihood of agreeing with the statement.

The belief that an extra 10 percent of other people support women’s rights to work is associated with a 2-4 percent increase in respondents’ own positive gender attitudes. That is, if a respondent believes half of the public “agree women should work outside the home,” they are 20 percent more likely to privately agree with the same statement than those who believe no one agrees.

Figure 3. Correlates of gender attitudes

Note: sample size of 844 respondents (699 male and 145 female). Marginal effects from a probit model including control for age and age squared.

Lesson 4: Parents have different professional aspirations for daughters and sons

Almost all parents of boys (97 percent) want them to work outside the house, compared with only half of parents of girls (47 percent). Most of the latter (53 percent) would like their girls to do housework or childcare. This is similar for both mothers and fathers. Notably, while only a little more than half of the mothers want their own daughter to work outside the house (55 percent) a majority think women generally should be allowed to work outside (82 percent).

There are also clear differences in which professions are deemed suitable for girls. The most common are doctors (18 percent) and teachers (13 percent), professions in which women are over-represented as they have limited interaction with other adult men.

Parents who support women’s rights to work are more likely to want their own daughters to work (53 percent) than those who don’t (37 percent).

Figure 4. Parental aspirations are less diversified for girls compared to boys

Note: Sample size of chart on the left is 592 parents of boys and 442 parents of girls. Chart on the right includes 442 parents of girls only of which 172 disagree and 268 agree with the statement. Vertical bars indicate 95 percent confidence intervals.

Our findings can help promote gender equality in Pakistan

Pakistan has restrictive gender norms coupled with strong misperceptions of gender norms. To promote gender equality, leaders and policy makers can correct this misperception by simply making people aware of what other people think, creating room for positive change.

Aid donors have a strong focus on girls education in Pakistan. Our results suggest that educating boys can also benefit girls, by inculcating more progressive gender norms amongst the next generation of men. And more progressive attitudes to gender can influence parental aspirations for girls in the future.

For more on this survey, check out the dataset .

CGD blog posts reflect the views of the authors, drawing on prior research and experience in their areas of expertise. CGD is a nonpartisan, independent organization and does not take institutional positions.

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Gender Inequality in Pakistan | PMS 2019 Paragraph

• Rimsha Mureed
• January 30, 2023
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Write a 200 words paragraph on Gender Inequality in Pakistan | The following topic was asked in the English Precis and Composition Paper of PMS 2019

Miss Rimsha Mureed   has attempted this 200-word paragraph on the given pattern, which Sir  Syed Kazim Ali  teaches his students, who have consistently been qualifying their CSS and PMS essays. The paragraph is uploaded to help other competitive aspirants learn how to write a 200-word paragraph; how to put arguments in it; how to connect sentences and give transitions; how to write a topic sentence; how to put evidence within the paragraph. 

The Paragraph Starts From Here!

Gender inequality in Pakistan remains a pervasive and pressing issue, impacting women across all levels of society. Despite some progress in recent years, such as increased enrollment of girls in schools, women in the country still face widespread discrimination, violence, and limited access to resources and opportunities. For example, women have limited access to education, which limits their ability to participate in the workforce and achieve economic independence. Next, women’s political representation is also low, with very few women holding elected positions in government. Further, women also experience high levels of domestic violence and honour killings and have limited access to justice and protection. In addition, women’s reproductive rights are often violated, with limited access to contraception and safe abortion services. Undoubtedly, these issues are human rights violations and harm the country’s overall development and progress. Addressing gender inequality demands a comprehensive and sustained effort by the government, civil society, and individuals. That includes investment in education, healthcare, and economic opportunities for women and a change in cultural norms and attitudes toward women. This can be achieved through programs and initiatives that promote gender equality, such as girls’ education initiatives, women’s empowerment programs, and laws and policies that protect women’s rights. By addressing gender inequality in all its forms, Pakistan can promote equality, justice, and prosperity for all its citizens.

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Breaking barriers through education

Education Problems in Pakistan Essay

I. introduction.

The education system in Pakistan is a federal responsibility, with the provinces responsible for implementing policies and managing schools. However, due to a lack of funding and resources, the education system in Pakistan has been facing several issues. The literacy rate in Pakistan is around 62.3% . The enrollment rate in primary schools is around 78% . Furthermore, the education system in Pakistan consists of five levels : primary, middle, secondary, higher secondary, and tertiary. This essay aims to discuss education problems in Pakistan.

The education system in Pakistan is facing a number of challenges that have resulted in poor quality of education and limited access to education for many children in the country. These include lack of access to education in rural areas, inadequate funding, gender inequality, and poor quality of education. The high rates of illiteracy in Pakistan are a reflection of these challenges. The inadequate funding for education has resulted in dilapidated school buildings and inadequate resources. Gender inequality in education is also a significant issue, with girls facing more barriers to access and completion of education than boys.

Also Read: Islamophobia: Challenges and Ways to Combat for Ummah Essay

II. Lack of Access to Education

High rates of illiteracy in pakistan.

Illiteracy is a major issue in Pakistan, with a literacy rate of only 60% according to the 2021-2022 Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement ( PSLM ) survey. The literacy rate is even lower among women, with only 46.49% , according to statista.com. The literacy rate is also lower in rural areas compared to urban areas, with only 44% of rural residents being literate compared to 72% of urban residents. This disparity in literacy rates between rural and urban areas highlights the lack of access to education in rural areas.

Additionally, there are also significant disparities in literacy rates among different ethnic groups in Pakistan. Balochistan province has the lowest literacy rate at only 38%. These high rates of illiteracy in Pakistan have significant implications for the country’s development and progress, as education is a key factor in economic and social development.

Lack of schools and trained teachers in certain areas

The lack of schools and trained teachers in certain areas of Pakistan is one of the major problems facing the education system in the country. In many rural areas, there is a shortage of schools and many children do not have access to education. In 2019, Pakistan’s gross primary education enrollment rate was 95.4% nationwide—102.3% for boys and 87.9% for girls ( World Bank 2021 ) This is not enough to meet the needs of the country’s population. Additionally, many of these schools are in poor condition and lack basic facilities, such as clean drinking water and toilets.

Furthermore, there is also a shortage of trained teachers in many areas of Pakistan. According to the Pakistan Education Statistics 2015-2016, there is a shortage of teachers in all provinces. The highest shortage is in the Balochistan province. This shortage of teachers is particularly acute in rural areas. Many schools do not have enough teachers to provide quality education to students. This shortage of teachers is due to several factors. A lack of incentives and poor working conditions are those which discourage people from becoming teachers.

III. Inadequate Funding

Limited government funding for education is one of the major problems facing the education system in Pakistan. According to the Pakistan Economic Survey 2018-2019, the government’s budget allocation for education was only 2.2% of the total budget. This is far below the internationally recommended target of 4-6% of GDP. This limited funding has resulted in inadequate resources and poor infrastructure in schools. This is making it difficult for students to receive a quality education. Many schools in Pakistan lack basic facilities such as clean drinking water, toilets, and electricity. The limited funding also affects the teacher’s salaries and training, which leads to a shortage of trained and motivated teachers.

The limited government funding for education also affects the higher education sector in Pakistan. The government’s allocation for higher education is inadequate. It leads to a lack of resources and poor infrastructure in universities. This affects the quality of education provided by these universities and makes it difficult for students to receive a quality education.

Limited private investment in education

Private sector investment in education is crucial for the development of the education system in Pakistan. It is because it can supplement government funding and provide additional resources and infrastructure. However, private investment in education in Pakistan is limited due to various factors. A lack of trust and transparency in the education sector, a lack of proper regulations and policies to encourage private investment, and a lack of awareness about the benefits of private investment in education are prominent.

Consequences of inadequate funding

One of the most significant consequences is the poor condition of school buildings and infrastructure. Many schools are in poor condition and are not well-maintained, which can be dangerous for students and teachers. Dilapidated school buildings and poor infrastructure can create an unhealthy and unsafe learning environment. It affects the quality of education provided to students.

Another consequence of inadequate funding is the lack of resources and materials available for students and teachers. Many schools in Pakistan lack basic resources such as textbooks, computers, and other educational materials. This makes it difficult for teachers to provide quality education to students and for students to learn effectively. Additionally, schools often lack resources such as science labs and libraries, which are essential for providing students with a well-rounded education.

IV. Gender Inequality

Gender inequality in education is a significant issue in Pakistan. Here, girls are facing more barriers to access and completion of education than boys. The disparity in enrollment rates is even greater in rural areas, where many girls do not have access to education. Additionally, the dropout rate for girls is higher than for boys, with many girls dropping out of school early due to societal attitudes and a lack of resources and support.

Societal attitudes towards girls’ education are a significant barrier to access and completion of education for girls in Pakistan. Many families view education as less important for girls and prioritize marriage and domestic responsibilities for them instead. Additionally, cultural and religious beliefs also play a role in limiting access to education for girls. For example, many girls are not allowed to attend school if it is far from home or if it requires them to mix with boys.

Another issue is the lack of female teachers and role models in schools. The lack of female teachers makes it difficult for girls to see themselves in leadership roles and can make it difficult for girls to feel comfortable in the classroom. Gender inequality in education has a significant impact on the education system in Pakistan, as it limits access to education for girls and affects the quality of education provided to girls.

V. Quality of Education

The quality of education provided in Pakistan is a significant issue facing the education system in the country. There are several factors that contribute to the poor quality of education provided in Pakistan. One of the most significant factors is inadequate teacher training and education. Many teachers in Pakistan do not receive adequate training or education, which makes it difficult for them to provide quality education to students. Additionally, many teachers are not motivated or engaged in their work, which can negatively affect the quality of education provided.

Another factor that contributes to the poor quality of education provided in Pakistan is the lack of emphasis on critical thinking and problem-solving in the curriculum . The curriculum in Pakistan is based on rote learning and memorization, which does not prepare students for the job market. This lack of emphasis on critical thinking and problem-solving makes it difficult for students to develop the skills necessary to succeed in the job market.

Lastly, the curriculum in Pakistan does not align with the current job market needs . The curriculum does not provide students with the necessary skills and knowledge for the current job market, which makes it difficult for students to find employment after graduation.

VI. Conclusion

In conclusion, the education system in Pakistan is facing a number of challenges that have resulted in poor quality of education and limited access to education for many children in the country. These challenges include lack of access to education in rural areas, inadequate funding, gender inequality, and poor quality of education. The high rates of illiteracy in Pakistan are a reflection of these challenges, as well as the limited number of schools and trained teachers in certain areas.

The inadequate funding for education has resulted in dilapidated school buildings and inadequate resources, while the lack of emphasis on critical thinking and problem-solving in the curriculum has resulted in a lack of preparedness for the job market. Gender inequality in education is also a significant issue, with girls facing more barriers to access and completion of education than boys.

To address these challenges, it is important for the government to increase its budget allocation for education, create a conducive environment for private investment in education, and promote gender equality in education. Furthermore, the government needs to improve teacher training and education. It should emphasize critical thinking and problem-solving in the curriculum, and align the curriculum with the current job market needs. It is also essential to provide resources and materials for students and teachers and to improve the quality of education provided in Pakistan. Only by addressing these challenges, the education system in Pakistan can improve, and the country can achieve its development and progress goals.

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