research on strategic change

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• 12 Dec 2023

HBS Faculty Books of 2023: Find Happiness, Fix Things, and Fail Well

From authoritarian regimes to social responsibility, we take a look back at some of the new books by Harvard Business School faculty members this year.

• 10 Oct 2023
• Cold Call Podcast

Scaling Two Businesses Against the Odds: Wendy Estrella’s Founder’s Journey

Entrepreneur Wendy Estrella is attempting to simultaneously scale her law practice, as well as her property management and development company. What strategy will benefit both businesses, and is there a downside to scaling them together, rather than focusing on each one separately? Harvard Business School senior lecturer Jeffrey Bussgang and Estrella discuss her unique founder’s journey – from immigrating to the U.S. to building both of her businesses in Lawrence, Massachusetts despite the specific challenges she faced as a minority entrepreneur. The related case is “Wendy Estrella: Scaling Multiple Businesses.”

• 11 Apr 2023

The First 90 Hours: What New CEOs Should—and Shouldn't—Do to Set the Right Tone

New leaders no longer have the luxury of a 90-day listening tour to get to know an organization, says John Quelch. He offers seven steps to prepare CEOs for a successful start, and three missteps to avoid.

• 04 Apr 2023
• What Do You Think?

How Does Remote Work Affect Innovation?

Many companies are still trying to figure out how to manage teams that have limited in-person contact. Remote work will likely lead to new ideas, but what kind? asks James Heskett. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 14 Mar 2023

Can AI and Machine Learning Help Park Rangers Prevent Poaching?

Globally there are too few park rangers to prevent the illegal trade of wildlife across borders, or poaching. In response, Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tool (SMART) was created by a coalition of conservation organizations to take historical data and create geospatial mapping tools that enable more efficient deployment of rangers. SMART had demonstrated significant improvements in patrol coverage, with some observed reductions in poaching. Then a new predictive analytic tool, the Protection Assistant for Wildlife Security (PAWS), was created to use artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) to try to predict where poachers would be likely to strike. Jonathan Palmer, Executive Director of Conservation Technology for the Wildlife Conservation Society, already had a good data analytics tool to help park rangers manage their patrols. Would adding an AI- and ML-based tool improve outcomes or introduce new problems? Harvard Business School senior lecturer Brian Trelstad discusses the importance of focusing on the use case when determining the value of adding a complex technology solution in his case, “SMART: AI and Machine Learning for Wildlife Conservation.”

• 13 Mar 2023

How Leaders Should Leave

Perhaps you're so burnt out or so excited about your next role that you're ready to run for the door, but slow down, cautions John Quelch. He offers nine tips for leaders who are ready to take the next step in their careers.

• 10 Jan 2023

Time to Move On? Career Advice for Entrepreneurs Preparing for the Next Stage

So many people shift from one job to the next, with little time to consider how the experience changed them and what they want out of future ventures. Julia Austin recommends that entrepreneurs look within and reflect on these questions before they jump into a new opportunity.

• 05 Dec 2022

How Would Jack Welch’s Leadership Style Fare in Today’s World?

Some consider Jack Welch the best CEO of the 20th century, but two recent books examine his effectiveness as a leader. James Heskett ponders his early interactions with Welch and his complex legacy. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 29 Nov 2022
• Research & Ideas

Is There a Method to Musk’s Madness on Twitter?

Elon Musk's brash management style has upended the social media platform, but was bold action necessary to address serious problems? Andy Wu discusses the tech entrepreneur's takeover of Twitter.

• 18 Nov 2022

What Does It Take to Safeguard a Legacy in Asset Management?

Diverse hiring, deep research, and a collaborative culture have defined Brown Capital's successful investment approach. But would those qualities endure after its founder retires? A case study by Luis Viceira and Emily McComb explores how the second-largest Black-founded investment firm is preparing for its next phase.

• 15 Nov 2022

Planning the Future for Harlem’s Beloved Sylvia’s Restaurant

Sylvia’s Restaurant, which celebrated its 60th anniversary in August 2022, is a testament to the values instilled by the matriarch Sylvia Woods. She cultivated a strong community around her soul food restaurant in New York City’s Harlem neighborhood that has continued to thrive, even after her passing a decade ago. Amid business expansions and succession planning, the legacy of Sylvia Woods continues to live on. But as Sylvia’s grandson takes over the business, a new challenge faces him and his family: what should the next 60 years of Sylvia’s look like? Senior Lecturer Christina Wing and Kenneth De'Sean Woods, chief executive officer of Sylvia Woods Inc., discuss the case, “Sixty Years of Sylvia’s.”

• 08 Sep 2022

Gen Xers and Millennials, It’s Time To Lead. Are You Ready?

Generation X and Millennials—eagerly waiting to succeed Baby Boom leaders—have the opportunity to bring more collaboration and purpose to business. In the book True North: Emerging Leader Edition, Bill George offers advice for the next wave of CEOs.

• 16 Aug 2022

Now Is the Time for Entrepreneurs to Play Offense

With the specter of recession looming, many worried founders and executives are aggressively shoring up cash. But shrewd entrepreneurs are using these six tactics instead to gain advantage, says Jeffrey Bussgang.

• 30 Jun 2022

Peloton Changed the Exercise Game. Can the Company Push Through the Pain?

When COVID-19 closed gyms, seemingly everyone rushed to order a Peloton bike and claim a spot on the company's signature leader board. And then things quickly went downhill. A case study by Robert Dolan looks at the tough road the exercise equipment maker faces.

• 12 May 2022

Why Digital Is a State of Mind, Not Just a Skill Set

You don't have to be a machine learning expert to manage a successful digital transformation. In fact, you only need 30 percent fluency in a handful of technical topics, say Tsedal Neeley and Paul Leonardi in their book, The Digital Mindset.

• 05 Apr 2022

Transforming Deloitte’s Approach to Consulting

Pixel helps facilitate open talent and crowdsourcing for Deloitte Consulting client engagements. But while some of Deloitte’s principals are avid users of Pixel’s services, uptake across the organization has been slow, and in some pockets has met with deep resistance. Balaji Bondili, head of Pixel, must decide how best to grow Deloitte Consulting’s use of on-demand talent, as consulting companies and their clients face transformative change. Professor Mike Tushman discusses Deloitte’s challenges in pursuing this new approach to consulting, and what it takes to be a “corporate explorer” like Bondili in his case, “Deloitte’s Pixel: Consulting with Open Talent.” Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 22 Feb 2022

When Will the Hot Housing Market Finally Start to Cool?

Housing prices keep soaring as demand outstrips inventory, a trend that's likely to continue even as interest rates rise. Nori Gerardo Lietz argues that it's time to reconsider policies that stymie housing development. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 14 Feb 2022

Curiosity, Not Coding: 6 Skills Leaders Need in the Digital Age

Transforming an organization starts with transforming its leaders. Data from 1,700 executives by Linda Hill and colleagues reveals the most important skills and traits leaders need now. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 07 Feb 2022

Digital Transformation: A New Roadmap for Success

Is your company reaping the rewards of digital transformation yet? Linda Hill and colleagues offer seven guiding principles for transformations at any stage—nascent, progressing, or stalled. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 31 Jan 2022

Where Can Digital Transformation Take You? Insights from 1,700 Leaders

Digital transformation seems like a journey without end, but many companies are forging ahead. Linda Hill and colleagues reveal six qualities that set digitally mature organizations apart. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

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How to Actually Execute Change at a Company

• Tom Hunsaker

Four factors that will determine the success — or failure — of your initiative.

The author analyzed project teams across 257 firms to identify why only 60% of planned value is typically realized in change initiatives, focusing on four key factors: effective initial communication (“ACE the Memo”), ensuring resource accessibility and autonomy (“Master the Means”), employing mechanisms to align actions with goals (“Amplify with Mechanisms”), and strategic measurement to influence future outcomes (“Measure to Account”). These factors emphasize the importance of clear, credible, and emotionally resonant messaging, the necessity for teams to have the right resources and freedom, the use of mechanisms to increase transparency and precision, and the role of measurement in adapting and improving execution. This comprehensive approach underscores the significance of execution in turning the potential of an idea into realized value.

As important as it is to make great change decisions, equally important is to consider what happens after the decision to act is made. It is well documented that on average just 60% of planned value is realized . To what can be attributed the “lost” 40%?

• TH Tom Hunsaker is clinical professor of strategic leadership and former associate dean of innovation at ASU’s Thunderbird School of Global Management and advisor to senior leaders ranging from the Fortune 500 to rapid-growth private enterprises.

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• Clinicoecon Outcomes Res

Change and Innovation in Healthcare: Findings from Literature

Frida milella.

1 IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Galeazzi, Milan, Italy

Eliana Alessandra Minelli

2 University Carlo Cattaneo - LIUC, Castellanza, Italy

Fernanda Strozzi

Davide croce.

3 School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Science, Witwatersrand University, Johannesburg, South Africa

4 Centre for Health Economics, Social and Health Care Management, University Carlo Cattaneo - LIUC, Castellanza, Italy

Change is an ongoing process in any organizations. Over years, healthcare organizations have been exposed to multiple external stimuli to change (eg, ageing population, increasing incidence of chronic diseases, ongoing Sars-Cov-2 pandemic) that pointed out the need to convert the current healthcare organizational model. Nowadays, the topic is extremely relevant, rendering organizational change an urgency. The work is structured on a double level of analysis. In the beginning, the paper collects the overall literature on the topic of organisational change in order to identify, on the basis of the citation network, the main existing theoretical approaches. Secondly, the analysis attempts to isolate the scientific production related to the healthcare context, by analysing the body of literature outside the identified citation network, divided by clusters of related studies.

Methodology

This review adopted a quantitative-based method that employs jointly systematic literature review and bibliographic network analysis. Specifically, the study applied a citation network analysis (CNA) and a co-occurrence keywords analysis. The CNA allowed detecting the most relevant papers published over time, identifying the research streams in literature.

The study showed four main findings. Firstly, consistent with past studies, works reviewed pointed out a convergence on the micro-level perspective for change’s analysis. Secondly, an organic viewpoint whereby individual, organization and change’s outcome contribute to any organizational change’s action has been found in its early stage. Thirdly, works reported change combined with innovation’s concept, although the structure of the relationship has not been outlined. Fourth, interestingly, contributions have been limited within the healthcare context.

Human dimension is the primary criticality to be managed to impede failure of the re-organizational path. Individuals are not passive recipients of change: individual change acceptance has been found a key input. Few papers discussed healthcare professionals’ behaviour, and those available focused on technology-led changes perspective. In this view, individual acceptance of change within the healthcare context resulted being undeveloped and offers rooms for further analyses.

Introduction

Healthcare organizations are in an ongoing state of change forcing to convert themselves incrementally or in radical ways. 7 , 65 Organizational change is defined as the ‘change that involves differences in how an organization functions, who its members and leaders are, what form it takes, and how it allocates resources’. 32

Organizational change constitutes a complex phenomenon that develops in any sector. Change in the specific field of healthcare “requires a vision and understanding of the core functions of the system and infrastructure supporting those core functions”. 29

Accordingly, the paper is built upon two sequentially levels of analysis. First, the paper collects the overall scientific production concerning organizational change topic basis on the citations network. This allows for outlining main ongoing theoretical developments and detecting emerging research strands. This preliminary step is critical to gaining an insight into the depth of scientific production in the healthcare context. Second, the work groups additional contributions extant in the literature but not included in the citation network. The analysis is accomplished by selecting papers based on the occurrence of author keywords within the original set of retrieved papers. Thereby, this stage of analysis draws further conclusions on the existing body of knowledge concerning to organizational change in the healthcare context.

Specifically, the paper addresses the following research questions:

 RQ1: What are the current streams of research on change management?

 RQ2: What is the state-of-the-art of change management in the healthcare field?

A quantitative-based method, called “Systematic Literature Network Analysis (SLNA)”, introduced by Colicchia & Strozzi (2012), that employs jointly systematic literature review and bibliographic network analysis is adopted to carry out the two-stage of analysis. The dynamic perspective, which the method provides, eases the detection even of literature gaps not considered to date in the existing body of research production, due to the heterogeneous contributions.

State of Art in Healthcare

Healthcare organizations, described as “professional bureaucracy”, 40 deserve a specific focus.

Consistent with Harney and Monks (2014), 28 hospitals’ organization is characterized by a particular model: the whole arrangement draws upon the power of its high-skilled employees who are in charge to fulfil operational tasks in a professional and specific way. 4 Andreasson et al (2018) 2 observe that, in such a setting, the individuals and teams’ autonomy 53 enables them to operate into an environment where their knowledge and professional skills guide decisions.

Thereby, medical professionals can manage their patients without considering their peers throughout their activities. 24 , 40 This control over their work is partly offset by the so-called collegial influence 13 – based on professional credibility 43 - further considering that physicians pursue professional norms, work standards and institutional scripts provided externally the organization’s structure. 2 Concerning the autonomy of physicians, clinical judgment must be unrestricted due to the complexity of their job and the challenges of measuring outcomes. 33 As a result of this, managers could not handle the medical problem-solving process since they lack knowledge and skillset developed by long periods of training, apprenticeship, and socialization. 33 Such uneven allocation of power – managers – and knowledge – professionals – could determine tension between them. 49

In such perspective, professional bureaucracy organizations fulfil the function of sustaining the necessities of the professionals, who lead “decision-making on a day-to-day basis”, 12 rather than vice versa. 53 More specifically, in hospital environments, administrators are not involved in physicians’ clinical decisions 33 that aim towards patients’ needs. 1 , 36

Enshrined within this approach, it is clear that managers have to negotiate, seeking to be consistent with the organization’s culture, avoiding imposing working programs, procedures and rules. 27 Accordingly, Andreasson et al (2018) 2 observe that independent professionals and strategic leaders have to jointly approve proposed changes.

Hence, professional bureaucracy has developed drawing upon a bottom-up decision-making arrangement. 2 Striving to yield standardized outputs, the inverted power structure, 13 on the one hand, is conceived as rigid, on the other, is resistant towards the change. 40 Therefore, Andreasson et al (2018) 2 consider professional organizations based on professional workers’ authority “rather than on top-down steering”.

Consistent with Mintzberg (1983), 40 managing such an organizational configuration implies facing three distinct managerial issues. Firstly, as aforementioned, discretion might lead the focus away from the patient’s and organizational needs. 33 Secondly, fitting stable environments, professional bureaucracies tend to render “processes as predictable and routine as possible”: 33 thereby there are barriers to innovate in such a context.

Finally, the problem of coordination occurs due to a considerable autonomy that impedes managers to pursue efficiency and effectiveness of care processes’ coordination. 33

To this respect, what should be considered is the role of the professional community in healthcare organizations. The healthcare organizations can be considered as change-resistant due to the greatly fragmented essence of these organizations (namely numerous professional tribes) and the professionals’ power to block change in this sector in so far as not involved in the change process. 19 , 44 Thus, organizations with a high content of professional autonomy require a definition of the problems and actions to implement organizational changes that are not defined exclusively by the highest levels of management.

Health professionals cannot be equated with passive recipients of change because the lack of involvement would lead to considering the suggested solutions “as being poor fit with the local practice at hand”. 18

Materials and Methods

The data used in the paper were collected from Scopus database that provides coverage around 60% larger than the one of Web of Science. 56

At the beginning, related to the topic, the set of chosen keywords does not include specific terms. The multifaceted nature of the investigated subject and the purpose to obtain a comprehensive state of the art suggests performing a search strategy based on two of the most comprehensive author’s keywords, “change management” or “organizational change”.

Based on PRISMA flow diagram, 41 the selection of papers concerned contributions in subject areas ranging from “Business, Management and Accounting” to “Engineering, Social Science and Health Professions” and the search performed in early January 2019, included only articles or conference proceedings published in the last 10 years (2009–2019), with an output of 1968 documents. The query was performed as displayed below in Figure 1 .

Flow chart of the search strategy.

SLNA method contains the analysis of bibliometric networks based on the paper retrieved, such as citations and keywords analysis, as one of its components (Strozzi et al, 2017). In the following, Citation Network Analysis (CNA) and co-occurrence keywords analysis have been detailed.

To build the network two software packages were used: Vos Viewer and Pajek.

Vos Viewer ( http://www.vosviewer.com/ ) is a software tool for creating and displaying bibliometric networks. Vos Viewer was adopted for the preliminary analysis, in terms of network visualization, for creating the input file for Pajek, and for implementing the analysis of the keywords. Pajek ( http://vlado.fmf.uni-lj.si/pub/networks/pajek/ ) is a software tool for network analyses and, in this work, is employed for displaying and discussing the results of a citation network.

Citation Network Analysis (CNA)

CNA is a method based on citations, which are the links between papers (nodes) in a citation network. The isolated nodes cannot be involved in the analysis, and the citation analysis can be performed only when components are connected. 51

The first step in performing network analysis is extracting the isolated nodes, uploaded in VOS Viewer software. The bibliometric network showed only 1284 documents out of 1968 that received at least one citation, displayed in the Pajek tool. Firstly, the bibliometric network was adjusted by changing the direction of knowledge flow (ie, inverting the direction of arrows from cited to citing papers, that is, from the oldest paper to the most recent one). Secondarily, the analysis revealed that only 840 out of 1284 documents were connected.

CNA connected components in this network were 4. The first component included 353 papers, whilst the remaining components were composed of 26, 10 and 4 papers, respectively. Given the small size of the last identified components (ie, 26, 10 and 4) compared with the first one (ie, 353 papers), only the component with 353 nodes was analysed.

Figure 2 shows the first biggest connected component. In order to gain the backbone of the research line related to a group of connected paper, by recognizing the most relevant ones published over time, 11 , 37 , 51 the so-called “main path component” 37 was extracted. The main path enables to detect the main trend in the development of the research line’s contents, by calling attention to the papers based on prior articles which take on the role of hubs to the next ones. 51

First biggest connected component.

The quantification of the transversal weight of the citation was executed. The method “Search Path Count” allows considering all the paths deriving from each source (ie, a paper that does not cite any other) to each sink (ie, a paper not receiving citations by others).

A cut-off value of 0.5 was set (the default value) to eliminate all arcs having a lower value in the original citation network and to obtain the most relevant connected component. Figure 3 depicts the main path for the biggest connected component.

Main path of the first biggest connected component.

To outline a framework as comprehensive as possible on the subject, only the use of citations to trace the coordinates can be limiting. Some papers are not included in the analysis because other ones did not cite them, despite their contents were significant or they may not be selected since they were published recently, therefore they did not still receive a sufficient number of citations. This suggests that the CNA should be combined with other tools such as the Global Citation Score analysis and keyword analysis. 51

In the following, the citation network analysis is designed to trace the active research streams on the topic of organizational change and to have a preliminary assessment of the extent to which these patterns are present even among the studies dealing with organizational change in the healthcare field. In this view, a first-order analysis based on the main path associated with the biggest connected component may be useful to detect general streams and gain an overall picture. The main path sheds light on the articles that refer to prior papers, which act as hubs concerning later works.

Keywords Analysis

Global Citation Network Score Analysis is a tool to detect seminal or recent breakthrough studies 51 that were not selected in the citation network but received a significant amount of citations in the whole Scopus Database. In that sense, these works are however relevant in the field.

Co-occurrence analysis assumes that the authors’ keywords of a paper may be considered a synthetic descriptor of the content but also a reference for detecting linkages among issues analysed. 51 Therefore, the co-occurrence around the same word or pair of words may point out a research subject or trend in a specific field. 14 The tool allows to also consider the papers not having received citations nor citing others, ie, the isolated nodes of connected components. 9 In this work only the author keywords networks 14 will be performed.

Figure 4 shows the co-occurrence network of authors’ keywords obtained from the original database (1968 papers). The network was built by accounting for a minimum threshold of keywords’ occurrence equals 9 (ie, keywords that appear together at least 9 times).

Co-occurrence network of authors’ keywords.

Co-occurrence keywords analysis detects a cluster of contributions previously excluded as not having received citations nor having cited other authors’ papers. Therefore, this stage contributes to a complete preliminary understanding of which literature strands are being developed on organizational change topic within the healthcare field.

The Main Path of the First Biggest Connected Component

The core subject investigated refers to the role of individuals in implementing change, by focusing on the “individual change acceptance”. 67 Several papers 3 , 23 , 25 , 26 , 34 , 35 , 45 , 52 previously published already started adopting “micro-level perspective on change”. 65

A first research stream dwells on the factors enabling individuals to be prepared for specific change initiatives. Normative-reeducative change strategies and work environment steering towards learning culture demonstrate to be facilitators. 65 Readiness for organizational change is accomplished when individual attitude perceives change action as a necessary step and likely to be successful. 65 Therefore, readiness for organizational change is viewed conceptually similar to Lewin’s notion of the unfreezing step. 3 , 16 The group is limited to 5 papers ( Table 1 ).

Summary of Results Obtained by Citation Network Analysis

A second literature flow deepens personal beliefs that individuals develop about change initiatives. Personal appraisals about individual ability to face change actions, ie, “change self-efficacy”, 30 is referred to being factors making individuals more likely willing to accommodate and accept the change. 65 Individual’s pessimistic viewpoint about management ability to be effective in change implementation, ie “cynicism about organizational change”, 55 may jeopardise organizational change accomplishment, 47 as well as the middle managers’ strategy commitment. 63 The group contains 4 papers ( Table 1 ).

The third flow of literature proposes the adoption of a multi-level approach to organizational change and places emphasis on the change outcomes. Merging the individual-focused micro perspective and the organizational-oriented macro perspective, with inflows from meso-level theory 68 may contribute to obtaining a comprehensive vision on organizational change. Change type and change method should be converging to attain the intended change outcome. 58 The group contains 4 papers ( Table 1 .

Consistent with past studies, this step of literature review through CNA shows that works emphasized the need to give emphasis on individual perceptions towards change. The research trajectory appeared to be unexplored in healthcare. Interestingly, a comprehensive framework involving micro-meso and macro perspective to evaluate change actions and the importance of change outcome was found to be emerging trends only in the general literature on organisational change.

The use of keyword analysis is intended to confirm or to extend this initial finding on existing research streams related to the topic of organisational change in healthcare.

Clusters from Keywords Analysis

The first cluster includes approaches to manage change organization within the production context, 91 by illustrating applications in terms of product development 85 and impact on supply chain management. 83 The cluster is composed of 26 papers.

The second cluster reports supportive tools for change management, by emphasizing the importance of formal and informal communication to promote employees’ commitment to change. 75 The cluster is mainly composed of 7 papers.

The third cluster enlarges supportive and boosting tools of organizational change, containing IT applications such as a monitoring system for organizational development activities, 96 team-based simulations improving readiness for change in university setting, 73 and as a means for gaining business-IT alignment. 77 The cluster is mainly composed of 6 papers.

The fourth cluster encompasses the key role of participation for learning within change, 107 even debating a mix of learning styles to sustain successfully organizational change initiative in the healthcare context. 92 The cluster is mainly composed of 5 papers.

The fifth cluster copes with the performance management issue, by soliciting a change in organizational values to enhance a successful performance management reform. 82 Performance issue in the healthcare context is viewed as an outcome after the organizational change process. 76 Change management’s research address the related performance management issue, but the papers reviewed do not offer structured models or approaches. This is consistent with the result debated in the citation network analysis. The cluster is mainly composed of 6 papers.

The sixth cluster focuses on sustainability change initiatives in Higher Education Institutions. 80 Corporate sustainability issue is even addressed to pinpoint the effects of applying sustainability change efforts. 74 The cluster is mainly composed of 8 papers.

The core of the seventh cluster appears to emphasize the dual nature of change, including organizational and technological aspects (eg, 81 , 84 ), and suggests the need for an in-depth analysis on who has the “role of enabler” in change initiatives. This step was already addressed in the citation network analysis, where Choi and Ruona (2011b) 66 quote Rogers (1983) 48 and Rogers (2003) 49 for “the importance of readiness for change through the innovation-decision process model”. The cluster is mainly composed of 9 papers.

Within the eighth cluster, a first subject investigates the factors affecting physicians’ behaviour in technology-driven changes, assuming that clinicians’ beliefs on technology-induced improvements of patients’ care play a critical role. 93 Scholars address the issue in light of the theory of planned behaviour, 93 or by proposing an ad hoc framework where an impact assessment of individual acceptance should be a step before introducing new IoT technology in workflow. Debate on the individual behaviours involved in healthcare organizational changes points out individuals factors such as “personality, social identity and emotional intelligence” 105 influence coping strategies’ choice to tackle change-related stress, as complementary perspective.

A second related subject focuses on the managerial approach to change, revealing that, on one hand, unclear supporting methods by seniors managers may weak middle managers’ change activities, 88 on the other hand, for hospital managers, fully physicians’ involvement in technology-driven changes should impact positively on physicians’ attitude. 93

The relationship between innovation and change in the healthcare context should be explored. Both external and internal factors trigger the need for change in healthcare organizations. For instance, the current epidemiological and demographic transition is provoking a shifting of care’s need towards users affected by chronic diseases. This is leading to a compulsory changing in the healthcare organizational framework. Likewise, the need to make health processes more efficient, for instance, forms another triggering factor, the inside one, for organizational change. Therefore, the organizational change issue should be investigated by bearing in mind these multiple boosts to changing. This supports the need to investigate deeply the concept of change and innovation in a healthcare setting, by seeking to outline the boundaries of organizational change and innovation. In particular, the analysis should start investigating the issue by emphasizing on the fact that micro-context should not be assumed simply as a backcloth to action. 15

The resistance to organizational change initiative arises when professional logic comes into contrast with the management one. 18 In this regard, the future research should investigate the effect of a “local ownership” 18 of the problems behind the change in order to be recognized as relevant critical issues in the organizations by the professionals. Thus, it becomes a priority to seek a new concept of leadership where the recipients of the change can themselves be those who manage the leaders with the possibility to hinder or sustain proactively their leadership. 18 Healthcare organizations are moving towards multifaceted systems. As the work by Augl (2012) 76 pointed out in cluster number 5 of keyword analysis, the health system might be regarded as a set of social systems where organizations may be considered as communication systems. In this regard, the author suggested a new approach to change management by modifying the current communication paths to contextual collaboration. 76 Integrated systems need three pillars as institutional integration (ie, laws), management integration (ie, operational tools) and professional integration (ie, team), which are not mutually exclusive. 6 The cluster includes 31 documents.

Tables 2 and ​ and3 3 display the 8 clusters obtained by VOS (Visualization of Similarities) clustering technique.

Clusters (1-4) Obtained by VOS (Visualization of Similarities) Clustering Technique

Clusters (5-8) Obtained by VOS (Visualization of Similarities) Clustering Technique

Two contexts emerge clearly from the analysis.

The manufacturing context and the healthcare context. The former analyses the issue of organisational change also concerning supply chain management; the latter pays attention to the attitude of the clinician towards change initiatives linked to the introduction of new technology. Of the remaining clusters, some of them relate the topic of change to the adoption of support systems (IT applications – cluster 3) or support strategies (formal and informal communication – cluster 2; participation – cluster 4) for the implementation of change; further clusters tackle the topic of change as a tool to improve performance management (cluster 5) or combine it with sustainable change initiatives and the concept of innovation.

The keyword analysis shows that the general literature streams obtained in the previous CNA analysis are not yet developed in the healthcare context, although interest in the individual’s attitude to change seems to be an emerging approach.

The Importance of Individuals in Organizational Change

With the analysis carried out so far, a growing interest in the most recent literature on the individual-change relationship emerges (ie, 66 ). The subject is developed by scholars from different perspectives. Some authors focus on the psychological mechanisms that induce the individual to change, deepening the individual perception of change both as a skill that the individual recognizes inadequately pursuing a specific change initiative (ie, 30 ), and as the personal belief on the management’s ability to properly implement a change initiative (ie, 66 ). Furthermore, the literature analysed warns that the individual-organizational change relationship is a broad and articulated subject, which cannot be confined to “change recipients” only, but which deserves adequate study also concerning to the “change agents” themselves (ie, 63 ).

The contributions discussed in this paper clearly define the need to deal with acceptance of change from the perspective of the individual. What the general literature on the subject seems to offer, however, is a reading that does not allow linking the individual’s attitude towards change to the specific organizational context in which the change itself will be implemented, especially in the case of complex organizations. Martínez-García and Hernández-Lemus (2013) 38 recognize for example that

health systems are paradigmatic examples of human organizations that merge a multitude of different professional and disciplinary characteristics in a critical performance environment.

The extensive analysis reported on the topic allows contextualizing the organizational change initiatives in the healthcare world, where the individual-change relationship is central and can offer additional ideas on the profile of change recipients.

The research line takes a position on change recipients, by paying attention to the effects that organizational change causes on persons or, in other words, on the psychological aspects of the organizational change. 68 A unified framework of organizational change perspectives (ie, micro, meso and macro), to connect jointly the individual change acceptance to economic and sociological perspectives, 68 is missing, except one work. 68

Change outcome and organizational performance in change initiative appear to be not adequately explored. The work (see 58 ) illustrates only conceptual models. Studies aimed at identifying and testing empirically specific performance measures in the organizational change context appear to be missing.

Moving to the “second-order analysis”, based on co-occurrence keywords analysis, the results confirm and extend the preliminary understanding provided by the citation network analysis. A summary of the results is provided in the table number 4 ( Table 4 ). Cluster 8 provides some insights on the state of art in the healthcare research field. Beyond case studies, the topic becomes relevant only relative to the spreading of digital services in the care system. Other studies (eg, 62 ), retrieved in the previous step, describe a potential stream of organizational change issues in the healthcare context. Notably, these works address change management only concerning the negative health impact for the individual, without paying attention to the individual behaviour change. Moreover, the papers available do not point out change management in the specific context of professionalized organizations. Therefore, studies aimed at investigating the nature of change that characterizes the healthcare professionalized organizations are needed.

Summary of Results Obtained by Co-Occurrence Keywords Analysis

In summary, the literature reviewed informed us that three potential streams were not yet fully explored. Change management in the context of healthcare organizations, performance evaluations and innovation-organizational change relationship was the most evident gaps found out.

Nevertheless, the present work debates individual-level perspective on the change as a prominent dimension to tackle in designing change initiatives, albeit individual and organizational issues related to change should not be viewed as detached. This stimulates to set aside a polarized perspective on organizational change.

The performed review traces a clear step in the production research on the subject. The findings suggest that literature is seeking to overcome a traditional duality approach between “managerial change agent (the good) and resisters to change (the bad)”, 5 , 22 , 56 by paying attention to the critical role of attitude towards organizational change. Especially in the healthcare context, the literature reviewed highlighted an evident imbalance of scientific production in favour of individual effects of changing. This would be consistent with the literature stream identified, which has been moved to an integrated perspective in the organization’s vision during a change management initiative.

Technology and organization appear to be a double face of the change, being strictly related, but there is not a common perspective in defining the role of enabler for those variables. In this respect, further research should address the above-mentioned issue in the organizational change context.

Likewise, a specific investigation on organizational change and the healthcare field is encouraged. Healthcare organizations ought to adopt change models fitting their specific needs of change. Overall literature stream traces a systemic perspective, whereby an individual, organizational and expected outcome of change should be milestones of any organizational change action.

Healthcare organizations receive multiple external and internal stimuli of change.

The increasing dominancy of chronic diseases is forcing to shift the care gravity’s centre on the patient, by modulating the processes of providing the services according to the user and his changing needs. 21 , 31 The availability of new health technologies is changing the way through which health organizations offer services and deliver values (eg, e-health). New technologies are speeding up the demographic changeover and are increasing the economic burden for the NHS. 10 Health organizations are transforming their organizational models, eg, collaborative networks; 8 integrated hospital-local care; 39 , 42 sharing services 17 for reducing administrative costs. 51

The converging outcome lies on strengthen the equity, the value and the sustainability of healthcare.

In this regard, starting from the micro-level analysis, professionals needs’ integration with the organizational design and the individual technology acceptance should be pursued. Exploratory studies may be useful.

Research on change management is gaining momentum and offering many stimuli. Therefore, the development of research lines to deepen the topic is important, especially in the healthcare field.

The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

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5 key things to consider when building your tech stack.

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Ryan is the President and Chief Operations Officer of GeoLinks , a leading Internet and Digital Voice Provider.

Building a robust and efficient tech stack , the collection of software tools and applications a company uses to manage its operations, is a critical task for any business. When well-constructed, a tech stack enables companies to leverage the power of technology to drive innovation, streamline operations, and stay competitive. However, with the abundance of solutions available on the market, it can be overwhelming to determine the right components to include in your stack.

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Its contest emerging designers find support at trieste, wwe raw results winners and grades as the rock and cm punk return, 2. adapt to industry-specific tech.

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Greenhouse gas control in steel manufacturing: inventory, assurance, and strategic reduction review

• Open access
• Published: 25 March 2024
• Volume 3 , article number  27 , ( 2024 )

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• Yibo Qian 1 ,
• Yuanzhe Li   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7530-8286 1 , 2 ,
• Tong Yu 3 &
• Haoqian Hu 3 , 4  

The global steel industry is integral to the development of modern infrastructure, yet it stands as one of the most significant contributors to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions worldwide. This dichotomy brings forth the imperative for an in-depth analysis of GHG inventory practices and the pursuit of sustainable production methods. This mini-review paper addresses the current methodologies for GHG accounting within the steel sector, emphasizing the critical role of accurate and transparent emissions data as the basis for effective climate change mitigation strategies. Evaluating the prevalent carbon-intensive blast furnace-basic oxygen furnace (BF-BOF) production route, this paper contrasts traditional practices with innovative reduction initiatives, particularly those aligned with the emergence of green steel. We delve into the advancements in electric arc furnace (EAF) technology, direct reduced iron (DRI) processes utilizing green hydrogen, and the potential of carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) systems. The analysis extends to a critical examination of the challenges and opportunities these technologies face, including economic viability, scalability, and the readiness of energy infrastructure to support such a transition. Further, this review highlights the significance of verification and validation in reinforcing the credibility of GHG inventories. We scrutinize the materiality of reported emissions in the context of evolving regulatory frameworks and stakeholder expectations, stressing the need for standardized and rigorous assurance practices.

Graphical Abstract

• The global steel industry is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, and there is a need for accurate emissions data to address climate change.

• Transitioning to green steel production, using technologies like electric arc furnace (EAF) and direct reduced iron (DRI) with green hydrogen, can significantly reduce emissions.

• Verification and validation of greenhouse gas inventories are crucial for credibility in the context of evolving regulatory frameworks.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

The International Energy Agency (IEA) reports that the iron and steel sector leads in CO 2 emissions among heavy industries and holds the position of the second-largest energy consumer in this category. This sector directly contributes around 2.6 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) annually, accounting for approximately 7% of the global energy system's total emissions. Notably, this emission level exceeds that of all road freight transport. Additionally, the steel industry is the most significant industrial consumer of coal, which supplies roughly 75% of its energy needs (Fajardy et al. 2021 ; IEA 2020 ). In the Stated Policies Scenario, it is projected that by 2050, the global end-use demand for steel will reach 2.1 gigatonnes (Gt), marking a substantial increase of nearly 40% from the 1.5 Gt recorded in 2019. This significant growth in end-use demand is primarily fueled by emerging economies, which are in the process of augmenting their in-use steel stock to align with the levels currently observed in more advanced economies (Australian Steel Institute 2018 ). To address the steel industry's environmental challenges, thorough and precise GHG inventories are essential. These inventories set the stage for effective climate action by establishing the current baseline emissions, pinpointing the production areas contributing most significantly to emissions, and guiding the policymaking and investment strategies needed for sustainable progression. Instruments like the Global Protocol for Community-Scale (GPC) Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission Inventories, developed by C40 Cities in 2014, are pivotal in offering a standardized approach to measuring and managing emissions (Financial Times 2021 ). This standardized protocol allows for consistent comparisons over time and across different organizations and jurisdictions, fostering the identification of best practices and opportunities for emission reduction. The adoption of such frameworks is crucial as the sector navigates the dual challenges of rising demand and the imperative for decarbonization (Sjoberg and Wannheden 2017 ).

Transitioning to green steel production is a critical step in the industry's sustainability journey. Green steel is defined by its production process that aims to drastically reduce or completely eliminate GHG emissions. Key technological advancements facilitating this shift include the use of electric arc furnaces (EAFs) powered by renewable energy sources, the implementation of direct reduced iron (DRI) technology with hydrogen (which does not result in CO 2 emissions as a by-product), and the application of carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) techniques (Devlin et al. 2023 ). These innovations offer a significant reduction in carbon emissions compared to traditional methods. The momentum toward green steel is being driven by multiple factors. There is a burgeoning demand for sustainably produced materials as consumer awareness grows and as corporate responsibility standards become more stringent. Additionally, regulatory policies are increasingly favoring low-carbon technologies, often providing incentives for their adoption or penalizing higher-emission activities. This evolving policy landscape is influencing industry practices and investment directions, propelling the adoption of green steel technologies (IEA 2019 ).

It is clear that the journey towards a lower-carbon footprint within the steel sector is fraught with complexities and formidable challenges. Nevertheless, this transition remains imperative. The realization of this ambition necessitates a holistic approach that encompasses the advancement of low-emission technologies, the enactment of forward-thinking policies, and the responsiveness of markets. Through a strategic synergy of innovation, financial commitment, and global collaboration, the steel industry has the potential not only to sustain its foundational role in modern society but also to emerge as a frontrunner in the collective endeavor to address climate change (Wang et al. 2023 ). This review will delve into the intricacies of these dynamics, evaluating the current state while casting an eye towards future possibilities for this vital industrial sector.

2 GHG inventory in the steel industry

2.1 overview of the iron and steel core sustainable development analysis (sda) boundary.

The provided SDA boundary table (Table  1 ) suggests that the majority of direct GHG emissions in the steel.

industry come from the iron and steelmaking processes, specifically coke making, blast furnace, and BOF operations due to their energy-intensive nature and reliance on fossil fuels. The indirect emissions, while not as large as direct emissions, are also significant, especially those related to power production (both imported and on-site) and the downstream processing of steel products (Bellona et al. 2023 ). The emissions from EAFs can vary greatly depending on the source of the electricity; if the grid is coal-heavy, emissions are higher, whereas if renewable energy is used, these can be much lower, which is a key consideration in the transition to green steel (IKI 2018 ).

2.2 Current practices for GHG inventory management

Effective GHG inventory management within the steel industry involves a meticulous process of tracking emissions from various stages of production. Compared with SDA boundary, current practices simplify all the sub-processes into 7 main processes (Table  2 ).

From the acquisition of raw materials to the delivery of finished products, each phase contributes to the overall carbon footprint of steel manufacturing. The bar chart (Fig.  1 a) compares the direct and indirect emissions associated with each stage of the steel production process. Two bars represent each process: one for direct emissions (from sources that are owned or controlled by the company) and another for indirect emissions (consequences of the company's actions, which occur at sources not owned or controlled by the company) (Vorrath 2020 ). Whereas, the pie chart, Fig.  1 b, illustrates the proportion of direct and indirect emissions across different processes within the steel industry. Each sector represents the combined direct and indirect emissions for a given process. These charts serve as an example of how the steel industry might visualize its emissions inventory to identify areas where emissions are highest and to help prioritize efforts to reduce emissions (Fischedick et al. 2014 ).

a  Direct vs. indirect emissions in steel production process and ( b ) distribution of combined GHG emissions by typical process in the steel industry

2.2.1 Inputs

At the inputs stage, companies must account for direct emissions from coal mining, such as methane (CH 4 ) releases, and CO 2 resulting from energy consumption during extraction processes (Table  2 ). It is estimated that methane emissions can range from 1.0 to 2.0 kg per tonne of coal mined, significantly impacting the GHG profile of coal mining operations. CO 2 emissions associated with energy consumption during extraction are also substantial, with an average of 0.02 to 0.06 tonnes of CO 2 per terajoule of energy used. Additionally, indirect emissions from power production need to be recorded, which often come from the combustion of imported fossil fuels. The average emissions for power production from fossil fuels can be quantified, with coal-fired power plants emitting approximately 0.9 to 1.2 tonnes of CO 2 per gigawatt-hour of electricity produced, and natural gas plants emitting 0.4 to 0.6 tonnes of CO 2 per gigawatt-hour (Hasanbeigi et al. 2014 ). The production of hydrogen or synthesis gas (syngas), commonly used as a reducing agent, also results in CO 2 emissions, especially when produced from natural gas via steam methane reforming (Hasanbeigi et al. 2014 ).

2.2.2 Iron & steel making

The core processes of steel production, including coke making, sintering, and iron reduction in blast furnaces, are significant sources of CO 2 emissions. Each sub-process, from the BOF to the EAF and secondary metallurgy, contributes both direct and indirect emissions (Table  3 ). The direct emissions largely result from the chemical reactions and combustion within the processes, while indirect emissions are associated with energy consumption, notably when the electricity is sourced from fossil fuels (Villalva 2023 ).

The EAF process is indeed a distinct method of steel production, separate from the traditional blast furnace-basic oxygen furnace (BF-BOF) route. The EAF process is predominantly used to recycle scrap steel, although it can also melt DRI or pig iron. Here are the key reasons why EAF might be listed as a sub-process in some contexts:

Comparison with traditional processes: Within the context of the entire steel production industry, EAF is often contrasted with the integrated steelmaking process that involves coke making, sintering, and reduction in blast furnaces followed by the BOF. The integrated route is sometimes considered the "primary" process, especially in texts that are referring to the historical development of the industry, while EAF, being newer and with a different feedstock, may be referred to as a "sub-process" or "alternative process."

Lifecycle analysis: In a lifecycle analysis or a study of the steel production industry as a whole, EAF might be grouped as a sub-process because it's a part of the broader steelmaking system. This system includes everything from raw material extraction to the final steel product, and various routes and processes are considered within this system.

Categorization in reporting: In reporting emissions or production statistics, industries often categorize processes into primary and secondary stages. "Primary" might refer to the initial production of steel from raw materials, while "secondary" could refer to processes that refine or recycle steel, such as EAF. Despite EAF being a complete process in itself, for the purpose of emissions accounting and reporting, it might still be listed as a part of a larger category.

Technological integration: Some steel plants have both BOF and EAF facilities. In such integrated operations, the EAF might be considered a sub-process or a parallel process, depending on the perspective of the operational flow (Devlin et al. 2023 ).

2.2.3 Downstream processing

Downstream processing such as hot and cold rolling, coating, and the treatment of steel involves both direct and indirect emissions (Zhang et al. 2012 ). Hot rolling, for instance, requires considerable amounts of heat, typically generated by burning fossil fuels, while cold rolling relies on electricity, translating to indirect CO 2 emissions depending on the energy source (Table  4 ). Coating processes can emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in addition to CO 2 . Moreover, it is common for different facilities or different stages within the same facility to have separate emission monitoring systems. This is because each process or stage can have distinct environmental impacts and regulatory requirements for emissions reporting. Therefore, separate monitoring allows for more accurate tracking and management of emissions specific to each process.

2.2.4 Downstream value chain

The distribution and transportation of steel products add to the GHG inventory due to the combustion of fuels in transportation vehicles. Fabrication processes, which often occur at offsite facilities, contribute indirect emissions through their energy use (Table  5 ). Moreover, by-products such as power or materials like blast furnace slag, when exported, encompass indirect emissions related to their production and transport (Siitonen et al. 2010 ).

2.2.5 Opportunities in emission reduction

In the context of GHG management within the steel production cycle, each stage presents distinct opportunities for emission reduction. The focus on direct emissions during the raw material input stage, especially methane from coal mining and CO 2 from energy consumption, underscores the need for energy efficiency optimization and the adoption of cleaner energy sources. This stage presents an opportunity to significantly reduce methane leakage and improve resource utilization efficiency (Paltsev et al. 2021 ). During the iron and steel-making phase, the primary concern lies in the direct emissions from processes like coking, sintering, and iron reduction in blast furnaces. These emissions are predominantly due to chemical reactions and combustion activities. The opportunity here is to embrace more eco-friendly production technologies, such as the use of low-carbon burden materials and alternative reducing agents, thus reducing reliance on fossil fuels and enhancing process efficiency (Torrubia et al. 2023 ).

In the downstream processing stage, the focus shifts to the energy-intensive processes of hot and cold rolling and coating. Hot rolling's dependency on fossil fuel combustion and cold rolling's electricity requirements, along with VOC emissions from coating processes, are critical points. The adoption of renewable energy sources for electricity, process optimization to reduce energy demand, and effective control and recovery of VOC emissions represent key opportunities for GHG management (Arens et al. 2012 ). The downstream value chain stage, encompassing the distribution and transportation of steel products and offsite fabrication processes, highlights the significance of fuel combustion in transportation and energy use in manufacturing. Improving logistics and transportation efficiency, utilizing cleaner transportation methods, and collaborating with manufacturers who prioritize energy efficiency can significantly mitigate GHG emissions.

Current practices for managing these inventories are guided by standardized protocols, such as the Greenhouse Gas Protocol and ISO standards, which provide frameworks for calculating and reporting emissions. For the emission factors, companies should refer to recognized standards such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) guidelines, the Greenhouse Gas Protocol, or local environmental regulatory agencies that provide region-specific factors. Ensuring the assurance of the results requires a rigorous data management system, regular audits, third-party verification, and adherence to these standards. It's also essential to maintain a document control system that ensures all relevant evidence and documentation are up-to-date and readily available for reporting and verification purposes (Milford et al. 2011 ).

2.3 Challenges in accounting for direct and indirect emissions across the value chain

2.3.1 direct emissions.

Accounting for direct emissions presents challenges due to the variability in operational efficiency and the technology used across different plants and processes. Differences in ore quality, plant age, and maintenance can lead to significant variations in emissions, making standardization difficult. Additionally, capturing data on fugitive emissions, like methane leaks during coal mining or coking, is notoriously complex (Kazmi et al. 2023 ).

2.3.2 Indirect emissions

Indirect emissions pose a more considerable challenge, as they depend on the sources of purchased electricity and other energy forms. The variability of emission factors for electricity from national grids, the use of by-product gases as energy sources, and the allocation of emissions from cogeneration plants all complicate the GHG inventory process (Pardo and Moya 2013 ). Furthermore, accounting for emissions from the transportation of raw materials, intermediate products, and finished goods requires extensive data collection and management, which can be hindered by varying scopes of control and ownership across the value chain.

2.3.3 Value chain considerations

The value chain of steel production is expansive, stretching from the initial extraction of raw materials to the management of products at the end of their life. Within this spectrum, the complexity of Scope 3 emissions is notable, encompassing upstream activities such as the production and transportation of iron ore, coal, and the manufacturing of capital goods necessary for setting up steel production facilities. These emissions can vary, with raw material extraction and transportation contributing approximately 0.2 to 0.5 tonnes of CO 2 equivalent per tonne of steel produced. However, emissions from capital goods are more challenging to quantify due to their one-off nature in the initial investment phase (Sjoberg and Wannheden 2017 ).

Directly related to the production of steel are the emissions from various processes like the BF-BOF method, EAF operation, and DRI techniques, each with its unique emissions profile ranging from 0.1 to over 2 tonnes of CO 2 equivalent per tonne of steel. Downstream, the emissions narrative continues as the steel is utilized in various applications. For instance, the use-phase emissions for steel in construction include the energy consumption of steel-structured buildings. At the steel's end-of-life, recycling can significantly reduce emissions to as low as 0.4 to 0.6 tonnes CO 2 e per tonne, highlighting the importance of efficient recycling processes.

Transportation and distribution also play a pivotal role, with emissions depending heavily on the distance and transport method, potentially adding an additional 0.02 to 0.04 tonnes CO 2 e per tonne of steel for every thousand kilometers transported by sea. Although less significant, operational waste treatment, business travel, employee commuting, and the use of leased assets still contribute to the total emissions footprint and are increasingly scrutinized as companies aim for comprehensive emissions accounting.

To navigate these complexities and enhance emissions tracking, the steel industry is moving towards more robust methodologies and a commitment to transparency. This includes life cycle assessments to evaluate environmental impacts across all stages of a product's life and the development of Environmental Product Declarations that provide transparent environmental impact data. Additionally, there is an increasing trend of engaging with suppliers to address emissions in raw material production and improving product design to ensure that steel products are durable, reusable, and recyclable, thus minimizing end-of-life emissions. These concerted efforts are crucial as the industry progresses towards its sustainability targets and contributes to the global endeavor to mitigate climate change (Fischedick et al. 2014 ).

3 Transitioning to green steel: reduction projects

3.1 analysis of carbon-intensive processes and alternative technologies.

The traditional route for steel production, represented by the BF-BOF process, is classified under the ‘Primary Production’ category due to its use of raw materials like iron ore and coke. With an average GHG emission range of 1.85 – 2.2 tonnes CO 2 e per tonne of steel, this process is the most carbon-intensive due to its reliance on coal and coke as the primary energy source. The scalability of this technology is high due to its established nature and the infrastructure already in place globally, leading to relatively low-cost implications. However, its environmental impact makes it less sustainable in the long term. In Table  6 , "Category" indicates whether the technology is "Traditional," "Transitional," or "Green," and "Process Stage" refers to whether the technology is involved in primary production (extracting and processing raw materials), secondary production (using recycled materials), or a combination thereof. This distinction is essential for clarity on how each technology fits into the broader context of steel manufacturing and its potential impact on GHG emissions. Transitional technologies such as BF-BOF with carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) offer a reduction in emissions (1.2 – 1.7 tonnes CO 2 e/t-steel), providing a bridge between traditional and green processes (Bellona et al. 2023 ). While this technology reduces the carbon footprint, it does so at a significant cost due to the need for additional infrastructure and the complexities of storing or utilizing captured carbon. Its scalability is moderate, indicating challenges in widespread adoption due to technical and financial constraints (Sittonen et al. 2010 ).

The trend chart in Fig.  2 visualizes the shift in steel production methods over time. The traditional BF-BOF method is indicated by the red bars, which show a gradual decline, suggesting that the industry is moving away from this carbon-intensive technology (Gielen and Moriguchi 2002 ). Transitional technologies, such as those incorporating carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS), are marked by orange bars, and show a steady rise, reflecting initial steps towards reducing the steel industry's carbon footprint. The green bars represent the adoption of EAF technology, which is typically used in conjunction with scrap steel recycling and shows a notable upward trend. If there is a separate line for DRI, its color and trend should be described distinctly. The chart, therefore, encapsulates the industry's progressive shift towards more sustainable and environmentally friendly production methods over time (Paltsev et al. 2021 ).

The adoption of different steel production technologies over time

3.2 Case studies on design and implementation of reduction projects

3.2.1 direct reduced iron (dri) and electric arc furnace (eaf) technology in arcelormittal.

ArcelorMittal is pursuing a multi-faceted approach to reduce GHG emissions within the framework of its sustainable development goals, particularly focusing on the iron and steel core sustainable development analysis (SDA) boundary (Fischedick et al. 2014 ; Kazmi et al. 2023 ). Two notable projects within this initiative are the use of DRI and smart carbon technologies:

Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) and Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Technology

ArcelorMittal has committed to reducing its global carbon emissions intensity by 25% by 2030, targeting a significant reduction in both Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions. For instance, in Europe, the company aims to reduce emissions intensity from 1.7 to 1.11 t CO 2 e as shown in Fig.  3 . The company is developing DRI-EAF technology as a pathway towards net-zero steelmaking. A key project includes a hydrogenpowered DRI unit in Gijón, Spain, alongside a new hybrid EAF, expected to cut emissions in Spain by 50%. The DRI produced will be used as feedstock in two EAFs in Sestao, Spain, which is anticipated to be the world’s first full-scale zero carbon-emissions steel plant by 2025 (Australian Steel Institute 2018 ). Another significant case involving the integration of DRI and EAF technologies is at ArcelorMittal ‘s Dofasco plant in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Valued at 1.4 billion USD and expected to reduce carbon emissions by 3 million tonnes, the project is a key part of ArcelorMittal's strategy to reduce carbon emissions and transition away from traditional coal-based steelmaking processes. The new DRI furnace at the plant will have a capacity of 2.5 million tonnes. It is designed to initially operate on natural gas but will be hydrogen-ready, allowing for a future shift to green hydrogen as an energy source (Vorrath 2020 ).

ArcelorMittal's emissions intensity reduction

Smart carbon technologies

Furthermore, the Smart Carbon technologies initiative encapsulates a variety of innovative approaches:

Torero Project: the Torero project is designed to convert biomass, specifically waste wood, into biocoal through a process called torrefaction. This involves heating the biomass in the absence of oxygen, which drives off volatile compounds and leaves behind a product similar to coal but with a much lower carbon footprint. The torrefaction process is expected to be highly scalable, with the potential to convert up to 60,000 tonnes of waste wood into biocoal annually at the initial plant. This biocoal can then be used to produce DRI for steelmaking, potentially reducing CO 2 emissions by as much as 20% compared to coal-based processes.

Carbalyst® Project: the Carbalyst® facility captures waste carbon gases from the blast furnace and chemically converts them into bioethanol, which can be used as a fuel or chemical feedstock. This innovative process can convert up to 78% of the carbon monoxide and CO 2 from the offgases into ethanol, with the first commercial-scale plant aiming to produce up to 80 million liters of bioethanol annually, which equates to a reduction of about 225,000 tonnes of CO 2 emissions each year.

IGAR Project: the Innovative Gas Recovery (IGAR) process is a technology designed to capture waste CO 2 from blast furnaces and transform it into a synthetic gas composed of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. This synthetic gas can then be used as a reducing agent in the production of DRI. The pilot project for IGAR has the potential to reduce CO 2 emissions by up to 170 kg per tonne of steel produced.

ArcelorMittal is also exploring the potential of circular carbon economy concepts by recycling carbon from waste materials like wood or plastics to replace coal in the steelmaking process, which is a holistic approach to managing carbon. By recycling carbon-rich waste materials, the company aims to replace fossil fuels like coal in the steelmaking process. This strategy not only reduces the need for virgin materials but also minimizes waste and emissions. The use of plastics and waste wood as feedstock in the steelmaking process could potentially lead to a significant reduction in the company's overall carbon footprint, though exact numbers will depend on the scale and efficiency of these recycling processes (Li et al. 2019 ).

In addition to these specific projects, ArcelorMittal is also investing in clean power strategies. For instance, the company is increasing the use of electricity from renewable sources to produce hydrogen, which is essential for DRI production. Furthermore, ArcelorMittal is exploring the use of direct electrolysis for iron ore reduction, which has the potential to produce steel with zero carbon emissions if the electricity used is sourced from renewable energy (Australian Steel Institute 2018 ). The Carbon Value and Northern Lights projects represent ArcelorMittal's commitment to CCS as a critical component of its decarbonization strategy. The Northern Lights project, in particular, is part of a larger initiative to create a value chain for carbon capture and storage in the North Sea, which could become a hub for European CCS efforts. It aims to capture and store up to 1.5 million tonnes of CO 2 annually once fully operational. Through these Smart Carbon technologies and projects, ArcelorMittal is not only advancing its own sustainability goals but also contributing to the global effort to reduce GHG emissions and combat climate change (Gielen and Moriguchi 2002 ; Li et al. 2019 ). The company's approach demonstrates the feasibility of integrating innovative carbon–neutral and carbon-reducing technologies into traditional industrial processes.

3.2.2 POSCO's commitment to decarbonizing steel production

POSCO, a leading South Korean steel manufacturer, has embarked on a transformative journey toward a sustainable future by radically shifting to hydrogen-based steelmaking technology. This groundbreaking transition moves away from the conventional coal reliance, which has been a staple in the industry due to its role in reducing iron ore. POSCO is not only redefining its own production processes but also setting a precedent that could reshape industry standards globally. The company's vision to eliminate CO 2 emissions leverages the potential of hydrogen as a reductant, a clean alternative that could result in water being the only byproduct. This vision is particularly revolutionary considering POSCO's status as a major national emitter, accounting for a significant 10% of South Korea's total emissions. POSCO's initiative is not just about altering its production methodology but also aligns with the nation's broader objective to substantially reduce emissions by 30 percent from a business-as-usual scenario by 2020. In the pursuit of this vision, POSCO is investigating the production of hydrogen gas through nuclear reactors, with a focus on the newer, compact modular designs. This innovative approach could provide a consistent supply of hydrogen to fuel the steelmaking process, positioning POSCO at the forefront of an industrial evolution (Pardo and Moya 2013 ). The company's GHG reduction initiatives are multifaceted:

In the short term, efforts have been concentrated on process efficiency enhancements, which serve as immediate measures to lower emissions. These improvements are crucial steppingstones toward more significant, long-term goals.

For the mid-term, POSCO has planned the introduction of ground-breaking technologies for carbon dioxide reduction. This includes a substantial investment of 2.714 billion USD to convert coal to synthetic natural gas, chemicals, and liquids. These initiatives are part of a strategic pivot into low-carbon green growth areas such as stationary fuel cells.

In terms of its long-term strategy, POSCO has laid out a vision for a net-zero carbon footprint by 2050. This vision is supported by a methodical approach to business reorganization and setting specific GHG reduction goals. The company has taken a systematic stance, aligning its operations with the ambitious 1.5 °C climate scenario.

The commitment to this transition is evident in POSCO's governance and strategic planning. The company has integrated its carbon reduction goals into its core decision-making processes, involving the highest levels of management. This includes the formation of a specialized carbon–neutral organization, the net-zero carbon Energy Group, tasked with overseeing and executing the company's carbon neutrality strategies. Furthermore, POSCO has actively engaged in international collaborations and industry partnerships, understanding that the climate crisis is a global challenge requiring a united front. The company's participation in the Ministry of Environment’s K-EV100 project and other significant initiatives demonstrates its commitment to collective climate action. POSCO's industry leadership in this transition has been acknowledged by entities such as Climate Action 100 + , which highlights the company's comprehensive implementation of a net-zero strategy. Lastly, POSCO has been diligent in aligning with global ESG disclosure standards. The company's reporting on sustainability practices is comprehensive, following guidelines set by the International Sustainability Standards Board under the IFRS framework. This commitment to transparency is further exemplified in POSCO's systematic identification and management of climate-related risks, solidifying its role as an environmental steward in the steel industry (Py et al. 2013 ).

4 Enhanced credibility through third-party assurance and rigorous verification in the steel industry

4.1 third-party assurance.

The steel industry's commitment to environmental stewardship is increasingly demonstrated through meticulous GHG inventory processes. The robust verification and validation mechanisms in place are integral to ensuring the accuracy and reliability of reported emissions. This commitment is vital in fostering trust among stakeholders—investors, regulators, and the general public. Third-party assurance plays a pivotal role in the steel industry's GHG reporting. Independent review by third-party verifiers ensures that emissions data is consistent with the stringent standards of ISO 14064–3. ISO 14064–3 is part of the ISO 14064 series of standards that provide guidelines for organizations to quantify and report their GHG emissions and removals. Specifically, ISO 14064–3 is critical in providing stakeholders with confidence in the industry's transparent reporting and its integrity in environmental reporting.

4.2 Methodologies for verification and validation

In the steel industry, verification and validation methodologies are both intricate and critical. As per ISO 14064–3, verification is a systematic, independent, and documented process for evaluating a GHG assertion against agreed verification criteria. Validation, while similar, assesses the systems and methodologies of a GHG inventory before implementation, acting as a preventive measure to ensure that the inventory design can produce quality, accurate, and relevant data. The process in the steel industry unfolds in several stages, each with specific documents and actions:

Initiation: the process begins with a GHG application form and a proposal contract to establish the scope and parameters of the verification.

Planning: a notice of verification and a verification plan summary set the verification's approach, timeline, and criteria.

Execution: during this phase, an action list and participant List are used to track activities, a site visit plan is implemented, and a verifier note is documented.

Reporting: this final stage involves developing an authorization to release, a technical review checklist, and a verification report template to summarize findings and recommendations.

Throughout the verification and validation stages in the steel industry, adherence to various resources and guidelines is imperative. The carbon pricing regulation and MRV guidelines are among the primary references that verifiers consult to ensure that every step of the process conforms to established protocols and international standards. These documents provide a framework that guides the assessment of GHG emissions and the subsequent reporting, ensuring that the reported data is not only accurate but also meets the regulatory requirements that govern climate-related disclosures (Paltsev et al. 2021 ).

4.3 Challenges and considerations

4.3.1 complex emissions sources and activity data management.

The challenges encountered during the verification process are multifaceted and require a comprehensive approach. The complexity of emissions sources in steel production demands robust and sophisticated quantification methodologies. Given the range of processes from raw material handling to final product delivery, the quantification of emissions is a detailed and technical task. It requires a deep understanding of chemical processes, combustion calculations, and the nuances of emissions at different production stages. Data management systems play a crucial role in this context. They must be equipped to handle the intricacies of the production process, capturing every relevant piece of information that impacts GHG emissions data. This includes not only emissions from the production itself but also indirect emissions related to energy procurement and usage. Additionally, legal and regulatory concerns must be meticulously considered (Devlin et al.  2023 ; Wang er al.  2023 ). The verification process is often governed by a complex web of national and international regulations that require careful navigation to ensure compliance.

4.3.2 Schedule, timelines, and resource allocation

The timing of the verification is another critical aspect that requires careful planning and coordination. The schedule for verification must be established in concert with the client, allowing for a comprehensive review that is both thorough and timely. The planning phase considers the complexity of the GHG inventory and the scope of verification to determine the required person-days for on-site activities. The allocation of resources is then adjusted accordingly, taking into account the technical skills required, geographical considerations, and the need for technical reviewers (Belloma et al. 2023 ).

4.3.3 Risk-based approach—accuracy of greenhouse gas (GHG) data reporting

A risk-based approach underpins the entire verification scope, categorizing activities based on the level of assurance required. This approach assesses the size of emissions, the complexity of the processes involved, and the potential for significant data quality issues as follows:

Size of emissions: this approach assesses the magnitude of GHG emissions produced by the steel industry. Larger emissions are associated with a higher risk of inaccuracies in reporting. The larger the emissions, the more significant the potential environmental impact, making accurate reporting crucial.

Complexity of processes: the complexity of processes involved in the steel industry can introduce opportunities for errors or inaccuracies in data collection and reporting. Complex processes may have more variables and potential sources of emissions, which can increase the risk of data quality issues.

Data quality issues: the potential for significant data quality issues is a key consideration in the risk-based approach. This includes factors such as data gaps, incomplete records, measurement uncertainties, and other sources of potential errors in the GHG emissions data. If there is a higher likelihood of such issues, it represents a higher risk to data accuracy.

By categorizing activities and assessments based on these factors, the risk-based approach helps organizations allocate verification resources more efficiently. It ensures that the verification efforts are proportionate to the risks identified. In other words, organizations focus their verification efforts more intensively on areas where the potential for data inaccuracies is greater. This approach helps to prioritize resources and streamline the verification process, making it more targeted and cost-effective. In the context of the steel industry's commitment to accurate and reliable GHG reporting, this risk-based approach is crucial. It demonstrates a systematic and methodical approach to addressing potential data accuracy risks, thereby enhancing the industry's credibility and transparency in its environmental governance and its contribution to global efforts to combat climate change (Paltsev et al. 2021 ). It's a way of ensuring that the industry's reporting aligns with international standards like ISO 14064, which are designed to improve data accuracy and accountability in GHG reporting.

5 Enhancing assurance and materiality

To enhance the assurance and materiality of verification and validation processes within the steel industry, a multi-faceted approach is required. This approach should leverage the best practices outlined in international standards while also embracing technological advancements. At the heart of improving these processes lies the adoption and implementation of rigorous standards and certifications. "ResponsibleSteel" leads the way as the first global multi-stakeholder standard and certification initiative in the steel industry, dedicated to promoting responsible production and sourcing of steel as summarized in Table  7 . This initiative establishes a multi-stakeholder platform, fostering trust and consensus among different parties. Its primary aim is to elevate the standards of responsible sourcing, production, utilization, and recycling of steel. It achieves this by developing and implementing comprehensive standards, robust certification processes, and a suite of related tools designed to facilitate sustainable practices across the steel value chain (Kazmi et al. 2023 ).

The integration of real-time monitoring technologies presents another opportunity to improve the verification and validation processes. Real-time sensors and monitoring systems can track emissions output instantaneously, providing a continuous flow of data that is far more granular and current than periodic manual data collection methods. This immediacy enables organizations to detect anomalies quickly, take corrective action, and adjust their processes to optimize GHG management. Advanced data analytics can complement real-time monitoring by analyzing large datasets to identify patterns, trends, and insights that might otherwise remain hidden (Yao et al. 2021 ). Through the application of machine learning algorithms and predictive analytics, companies can forecast future emissions based on historical data, production rates, and other relevant variables. These insights allow for more informed decision-making and strategic planning, leading to more effective emission reduction strategies (Li et al. 2024 ; Zhou et al. 2023 ].

The current trend in the steel industry regarding GHG emissions reporting and reduction is aligned with broader environmental, social, and governance (ESG) goals. This alignment is reflective of several core elements as depicted in Fig.  4 , which also enhances the original writing on the subject.

Require more disclosure of non-financial information: the steel industry is increasingly required to disclose not only financial information but also non-financial information, such as GHG emissions data. This trend is driven by stakeholders' demands for greater transparency and accountability regarding environmental impact.

Increase the credibility of disclosure to prevent greenwashing: as the original writing suggests, the application of real-time monitoring and analytics in GHG emissions must be credible. There is a growing emphasis on avoiding greenwashing—misleading claims about environmental practices—by ensuring that the data is accurate and relevant, and reflects the true environmental impact of the steel industry.

Further consolidation and alignment between instruments: the steel industry is seeing consolidation and alignment between different reporting standards and instruments. The integration of advanced technologies, as mentioned, must comply with these emerging standards to enhance the verification and validation processes of GHG reporting.

Direct capital towards sustainable activities: investment is increasingly being channeled into sustainable practices within the steel industry. This trend towards funding green technology and innovations can help reduce the industry's carbon footprint and facilitate a transition to low-carbon operations.

Different materiality approaches define the main characteristics: the materiality of GHG emissions data is paramount. The original text emphasizes the necessity of using data that is material to GHG assertions, a principle that is in line with the industry's move towards considering different materiality approaches that define what is significant to report and act upon.

Thematic and industry-specific guidance continues to evolve: the guidance on how to report and reduce GHG emissions is becoming more nuanced and tailored to the steel industry. By adopting thematic and industry-specific guidelines, companies can ensure that their GHG inventories are compliant with the highest standards and that their environmental impacts are reported accurately.

Sustainable reporting and investment framework for the steel industry

By combining these elements with the original writing, it can be observed that the steel industry is under increasing pressure to report GHG emissions thoroughly and accurately. It must leverage advanced technologies and expertise to ensure that data is meaningful and that it contributes to a more accurate representation of its environmental impact. This holistic approach to GHG reporting and reduction is indicative of a wider trend towards sustainability in the steel industry, which aims for enhanced accountability and a more sustainable future (Hasanbeigi et al. 2010 ).

6 Conclusion

This paper has outlined the critical role of GHG inventory management and reduction strategies in the steel industry. The shift towards green steel production, characterized by the adoption of low-carbon technologies and renewable energy sources, is gaining momentum. However, the transition is complex and requires concerted efforts from all industry stakeholders. Industry-wide collaboration and policy support are imperative to facilitate this transition. Governments, industry bodies, and corporations must work in tandem to create an enabling environment for investment in green technologies and the development of supportive infrastructure. Looking ahead, the steel industry's approach to GHG management is poised to evolve significantly. With advancements in technology, the increased prevalence of standards, and a growing commitment to sustainability, the industry is well-positioned to make a substantial impact on global carbon reduction efforts.

Availability of data and materials

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

International energy agency

Greenhouse gas

Global Protocol for Community-Scale

Blast furnace-basic oxygen furnace

Electric arc furnace

Direct reduced iron

Carbon capture, utilization, and storage

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This research was funded by Enerstay Sustainability Pte Ltd (Singapore) Grant Call (Call 1/2022) _GHG (Project ID BS-001), Singapore.

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The concept for the study was developed by Qian, Y., Hu, H., and Li, Y.; the methodology was designed by Li, Y. and Qian, Y. Validation was carried out by Hao, Y., Li, Y., Yu, T., and Hu, H., with the formal analysis being conducted by Hu, H. The investigation was undertaken by Hao. Y. and Qian, Y., and the resources were provided by Li, Y. The original draft of the manuscript was prepared by Li, Y., and Hu, H., and was critically reviewed and edited by Qian. Y, and Hao. Y. The visualization was created by Hu, H. and Yu, T. The project was supervised by Li, Y., who also managed the administration of the project. All authors have read and provided their consent for the published version of the manuscript.

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Qian, Y., Li, Y., Hao, Y. et al. Greenhouse gas control in steel manufacturing: inventory, assurance, and strategic reduction review. Carbon Res. 3 , 27 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44246-024-00118-z

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