air pollution in manipur essay

Frequently Asked Questions

Everything you wanted to know about air pollution in Manipur.

What is the most polluted district in Manipur right now?

Currently in Manipur, the most polluted district is Thoubal .

I have asthma | .

You're likely at high risk to experience adverse health effects due to air pollution. You should try to identify the sources of air pollution around you and try to reduce your exposure to it. It is not usually possible to eliminate air pollution, but proactive measures can help. In the meantime, you can wear a face mask , use an air purifier or get an air quality monitor to track your personal exposure to air pollution. Please consult your physician.

What is the data source for these air quality forecasts?

All the air quality forecasts on AirPollution.io come from Urban Emissions , India's leading source of information, research and analysis about air pollution. It is led by Dr. Sarath Guttikunda .

What city has the worst air pollution in India?

It is tempting to ask this question, but let's first recognize that air pollution is a problem that affects the vast majority of India. Currently Indians across districts are breathing air that does not meet WHO's clean air guidelines. But to answer your question, the residents of Faridkot district in Punjab are breathing the worst air pollution in India right now with µg/m3 of PM2.5 pollution.

I don't have money to buy an expensive face mask and air purifier. What can I do?

I am glad you asked. Many face masks and air purifiers available in the market are quite expensive, but not all of them. A company called Smart Air Filters sells affordable air purifiers and face masks . This is not an ad.

Where are India's most polluted districts ?

The health effects of air pollution are staggering. According to a story in The Guardian , air pollution may damage every organ and virtually every cell in the human body. Yes, air pollution increases the risk of heart attacks, lung cancer, asthma and COPD, but it is also known to exacerbate depression and also increase violent crime in a city.

Faridkot , Punjab

PM2.5 forecast is 303.4 µg/m3

Moga , Punjab

PM2.5 forecast is 247.8 µg/m3

Bathinda , Punjab

PM2.5 forecast is 225.6 µg/m3

Barnala , Punjab

PM2.5 forecast is 221.2 µg/m3

Firozpur , Punjab

PM2.5 forecast is 220.2 µg/m3

Mohali , Punjab

PM2.5 forecast is 213.8 µg/m3

Central Delhi , Delhi

PM2.5 forecast is 208.4 µg/m3

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Manipur pollution control board.

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The Manipur Pollution Control Board (MPCB) is a statutory body constituted by the Government of Manipur under the provision of Section 4 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and Section 5 of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. The aim of MPCB is to ensure that the people of the state breathe clean air, drink safe water, and live in healthy environment. In order to meet the objectives, MPCB has to address to the environmental problems associated with rapid urbanisation and the growth of small and medium scale industries in the state that will lead to pollution of water bodies, deterioration of air quality, unaesthetic and noisy surrounding, etc. if left unattended.

MPCB is mainly entrusted with the enforcement and implementation of the following Acts and Rules:

• The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
• The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
• The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
• The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2010
• The Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016
• The Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules, 2016
• The Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016
• The Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016
• The E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016.

The above Acts and Rules prescribe the main functions and duties of the State Pollution Control Board. MPCB is also required to carry out duties entrusted by the State Government, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, GOI, New Delhi and the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Delhi from time to time.

The following major activities were targeted thrust areas of MPCB:

• Air Laboratory Management and Monitoring of Air Quality
• Inventorisation/survey of Industrial Units in 16 districts for grant of Consent and authorization.
• Monitoring of Municipal Waste Landfill sites of 9 municipal councils.
• Inventorisation/monitoring and characterization of HW generating units in 16 districts.
• Inventorisation/monitoring and characterization of e-waste generating units in 16 districts.
• Water quality monitoring and assessment of rivers, ponds ground water, etc. of Manipur valley.
• Observation of World Environment Day, 2017 in 16 districts and other awareness programme.
• Inspection of Health Care Units in 16 districts.
• Legal Awareness of Environmental Acts and Rules.
• Monitoring/Checking of vehicular emissions in 16 districts and Awareness programme /drive on vehicular pollution & its control.
• Inventorisation and monitoring of plastic industries and enforcement of plastic rules
• Ambient noise pollution monitoring of markets, commercial areas, etc and during festivals in the urban areas
• Ambient noise level monitoring of industries, noise generating units, etc to assess compliance of standards.
• Research/investigation/study as required under CPCB guidelines.
• Inspection and survey of Hotels, Restaurants, Butcher shops, etc.
• Activities related in compliance with the directives of Hon’ble National Green Tribunal Principal Bench, Delhi and Eastern Zone, Kolkata.

Environmental Standards

Monitoring reports, consent to managements, environment protection act.

The Environment (Protection) Act was enacted in 1986 with the objective of providing for the protection and improvement of the environment. It empowers the Central Government to establish authorities [under section 3(3)] charged with the mandate of preventing environmental pollution in all its forms and to tackle specific environmental problems that are peculiar to different parts of the country. The Act was last amended in 1991.

Water Pollution

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was enacted in 1974 to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution, and for the maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water in the country. The Act was amended in 1988. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act was enacted in 1977, to provide for the levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by persons operating and carrying on certain types of industrial activities. This cess is collected with a view to augment the resources of the Central Board and the State Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution constituted under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. The Act was last amended in 2003.

• No.36 of 1977, [7/12/1977] - The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977, amended 1992
• No. 19 of 2003, [17/3/2003] - The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess (Amendment) Act, 2003.

Air Pollution

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was enacted in 1981 and amended in 1987 to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution in India.

• THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981

Noise Pollution

Assessment report, gazette notification.

Essay on Air Pollution for Students and Children

500+ words essay on air pollution.

Essay on Air Pollution – Earlier the air we breathe in use to be pure and fresh. But, due to increasing industrialization and concentration of poisonous gases in the environment the air is getting more and more toxic day by day. Also, these gases are the cause of many respiratory and other diseases . Moreover, the rapidly increasing human activities like the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation is the major cause of air pollution.

How Air Gets Polluted?

The fossil fuel , firewood, and other things that we burn produce oxides of carbons which got released into the atmosphere. Earlier there happens to be a large number of trees which can easily filter the air we breathe in. But with the increase in demand for land, the people started cutting down of trees which caused deforestation. That ultimately reduced the filtering capacity of the tree.

Moreover, during the last few decades, the numbers of fossil fuel burning vehicle increased rapidly which increased the number of pollutants in the air .

Causes Of Air Pollution

Its causes include burning of fossil fuel and firewood, smoke released from factories , volcanic eruptions, forest fires, bombardment, asteroids, CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons), carbon oxides and many more.

Besides, there are some other air pollutants like industrial waste, agricultural waste, power plants, thermal nuclear plants, etc.

Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is also the cause of air pollution because air pollution produces the gases that greenhouse involves. Besides, it increases the temperature of earth surface so much that the polar caps are melting and most of the UV rays are easily penetrating the surface of the earth.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Effects Of Air Pollution On Health

Moreover, it increases the rate of aging of lungs, decreases lungs function, damage cells in the respiratory system.

Ways To Reduce Air Pollution

Although the level of air pollution has reached a critical point. But, there are still ways by which we can reduce the number of air pollutants from the air.

Reforestation- The quality of air can be improved by planting more and more trees as they clean and filter the air.

Policy for industries- Strict policy for industries related to the filter of gases should be introduced in the countries. So, we can minimize the toxins released from factories.

Use of eco-friendly fuel-  We have to adopt the usage of Eco-friendly fuels such as LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas), CNG (Compressed Natural Gas), bio-gas, and other eco-friendly fuels. So, we can reduce the amount of harmful toxic gases.

To sum it up, we can say that the air we breathe is getting more and more polluted day by day. The biggest contribution to the increase in air pollution is of fossil fuels which produce nitric and sulphuric oxides. But, humans have taken this problem seriously and are devotedly working to eradicate the problem that they have created.

Above all, many initiatives like plant trees, use of eco-friendly fuel are promoted worldwide.

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State of air pollutants and related health risk over Haryana India as viewed from satellite platform in COVID-19 lockdown scenario

Dharmendra singh.

Haryana Space Applications Centre (HARSAC), Citizen Resource Information Department, CCS HAU Campus, Hiasr, Haryana 125004 India

Chintan Nanda

Meenakshi dahiya.

COVID-19 driven lockdown has affected air quality worldwide. Changes in air pollutants concentration, Air Quality Index (AQI), and associated Excess Health Risk (ER%) were assessed using satellite data of before (2019), and during (2020) COVID-19 periods in the industrially, agriculturally developed and highly populated area of Haryana in the northern region of Indo-Gangetic Plains. Parameters such as Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD), Particulate matters (PM), Sulphur Di-Oxide (SO 2 ), Nitrogen Di-Oxide (NO 2 ), Carbon Mono-oxide (CO), and Methane (CH 4 ) were derived using satellite data and validated using ground-based observations (n = 23). The coefficient of correlation (r) 0.91, 0.90, 0.95, 0.73, 0.81 and 0.80 were established with AOD, PM 2.5 , PM 10 , SO 2 , NO 2 and CO, respectively. Significant reduction ( p  < 0.005) in the concentration of air pollutants, viz. 38% in AOD, 55% in PM 2.5 , 61% in PM 10 , 31% in SO 2 , 10% in NO 2 , 5% in CO and 1% in CH 4 were observed during lockdown. Significant ( p  < 0.00) improvement in air quality was observed due to a 44% reduction in pollution level, which led to the reduction in ER% by 71%, which is quite significant. AQI and ER% from satellite and ground showed a high r 2 i.e. 0.88 and 0.99 respectively, suggesting the potential application of satellite data for periodic AQI and ER% assessment.

Introduction

Air pollution is a result of intense anthropogenic activities on earth such as transport, industrialization, biomass burning, along with natural causes such as volcanoes and forest fire [ 1 ]. It is reported that the anthropogenic activities contributes approximately 80% increase in the pollution [ 2 ]. Thus reduced human activities would have resulted in a reduced level of air pollutants as observed at the global and regional level during the COVID-19 driven lockdown in 2020 [ 3 – 10 ]. COVID-19 has significantly impacted the socio-economic and environmental conditions of planet earth [ 3 – 23 ]. COVID-19 is a respiratory disorder of viral origin caused by novel coronavirus or SARS CoV-2 with symptoms of fever, dry cough, and breathing difficulty. The first case of COVID-19 was reported from Wuhan city, China in December 2019 and rapidly spread all across the globe. It has been declared as a global pandemic by the World Health Organisation (WHO) [ 24 ] on 11 March 2020, looking at its contagious nature and death severity (> 3,037,398 deaths worldwide till 22 April 2021). This was further taken as a serious note by the Government of India after the detection of the first case on 30 January 2020 from Kerala, India, which resulted in the three-phase lockdown viz. (1) March 24 to April 14, 2020, (2) April 15 to May 3, 2020, and (3) May 4 to May 17, 2020, over the whole country. The first two phases were strict, while the last one was a relaxed lockdown.

The lockdown has significantly reduces the pollutants concentrations and improved Air Quality by reducing the transport, industrial activities, and other anthropogenic activities all across the globe [ 4 , 6 , 11 – 15 , 25 , 26 ]. Wang et al. [ 15 ] observed a reduction of 36–53% in the concentration of Nitrogen Dioxide (NO 2 ) over six megacities of China. Fang et al. [ 16 ] observed a reduction of 18–45%, 17–53%, 47–64%, 9–34%, and 16–52%, respectively for particulate matters 2.5 (PM 2.5 ), particulate matters 10 (PM 10 ), NO 2 , Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2 ) and Carbon Monoxide (CO), over urban agglomerations in China, during lockdown period relative to pre-lockdown period. Mendez-Espinosa et al. [ 17 ] reported a reduction of 60%, 44%, and 40% respectively in the concentration of NO 2 , PM 10 , and PM 2.5 over South America during the strict lockdown amid COVID-19. Siddiqui et al. [ 6 ] reported a total of 46% reduction in average NO 2 values and 27% improvement in (Air Quality Index) AQI values over the eight cities of India due to COVID-19 driven lockdown. However, a complete study on the effect of COVID-19 driven lockdown on air pollutants, AQI, and ER% is lacking particularly for Haryana, India, though required on an urgent basis looking at the lethality of disease (a total of 6% of global deaths in India till 22 April 2021, and Haryana is among the most affected states) possibly due to the consistent high pollution level [ 1 , 6 , 27 – 29 ]. Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) which is a key parameter of air quality (which indicates column integrated particulate matters) gets reduced in response to COVID-driven lockdown [ 26 ]. Similarly AQI is a range of index values that indicates the air quality (Good = 0–50, Satisfactory = 51–100, Moderate = 101–200, Poor = 201–300, Very Poor = 301–400, and Severe = 401–500) of a location or region significantly get reduces during lockdown [ 30 ]. ER% which is the excess health risk associated with the pollutants level excess than the standard concentration [ 5 , 28 ] also gets reduces in response to lockdown. Since the values of air pollutants, AQI, and ER% have been identified as one of the serious threat to human health (9 out of 10 people breathe air containing high levels of pollutants, 7 million deaths annually, and 12.5% of the total deaths worldwide), and environment at global and local scale [ 24 , 31 – 35 ] their reduction may reduce the health risk and improve the environmental quality. It is also reported that the areas with high air pollution levels were found to be affected more with COVID-19 and its severity [ 6 , 29 ]. Thus, it is the need to identify the hotspot of air pollution and take necessary actions to combat it on an urgent basis, so that the risk of COVID-19 like diseases may be reduced in the future [ 17 – 19 , 36 ].

Ground-based monitoring stations provide data for the assessment of pollution level and its hotspot. Setting up ground-based stations with the capability to measure these criteria pollutants require huge maintenance, operating manpower, and a huge amount of money which is not realistic at least in Indian conditions [ 1 ]. Thus, it is required to use low-cost technologies and surrogate variables like AOD from satellite that can provide relevant information about air pollution and pollutant level for further AQI and ER% assessment. Satellite-based assessment of air quality parameters (such as AOD, PM 2.5 , PM 10 , SO 2 , NO 2 , CO, and CH 4 ) is found to be a potential way of regular and cost-effective monitoring of these pollutants at a spatial scale [ 1 , 4 , 6 , 37 – 39 ].

The goal of reducing pollutant levels by 20 to 30% till 2024 (as decided in National Clean Air Programme, NCAP) from its base year 2017 was observed to be a tough task, looking into the requirement of economic growth and industrialization. However, COVID-19 driven lockdown has shown glimpses of reduced air pollution in 2020 worldwide, including India [ 4 , 6 , 11 – 15 , 25 , 26 ]. Though, the assessment of effect of COVID-19 driven lockdown on air quality both at global [ 11 ] and regional [ 4 , 6 , 11 – 15 , 25 , 26 ] scale taking ground [ 5 , 15 ] and satellite-based [ 4 , 6 , 12 ] observations are available, no study reported the satellite-based AQI and ER% assessment over any region of the globe and over the Indian region (Haryana) in particular. Furthermore, there is no reported study for the validations of Sentinel-5P satellite-based pollutant products concerning ground observations which gives novelty to the current work. We compared the satellite-based concentrations of various air pollutants/indicators including AOD, PM 2.5 , PM 10 , SO 2 , NO 2 , CO, and CH 4 in the month of April 2019 (no lockdown) and 2020 (completely falling within the strict lockdown period in India) to understand the effect of lockdown on the concentrations of these pollutants/indicators. The study is taken up with the following key objects: (1) Validation of satellite-derived air pollutants using ground-based observations, (2) Assessment of the state of air pollutants using these validated satellite-based measurements, (3) Utilisation of these measurements for the assessment of AQI and ER%.

The study area (Haryana state) is situated in the northern part of India and bounded within the latitude of 27.64258158 to 30.90568992 and longitude of 74.46724953 to 77.53797611 (Fig.  1 ). The geographical area of the state is 44,212 km 2 with a total population of 25,350,000. Haryana has two major physiographic regions: (a) the flat alluvial plain covering most of the state and (b) a strip of the highly dissected Shiwalik range in the North-East (including the narrow foothill zone). The Haryana state falls in the Indo-Gangetic region which is always high in air pollutant concentration level [ 6 , 31 , 40 – 43 ].

Study Area representing the state of Haryana

Method in brief

For this study, the two phase methodology was adopted. PM estimation is being done (through a regression analysis using Ground-based PM and Satellite-based AOD) in the first phase, and AQI and ER% were generated (over Haryana through the validated Sentinel-5P pollution products including NO 2 , SO 2 , CO, and CH 4 and estimated PM) in the second phase. Two times data (Table ​ (Table1) 1 ) were selected based on COVID-19 driven strict lockdown i.e. during (April 2020) and prior to this (April 2019).

Characteristics of datasets used in the current study

The satellite-based pollutant concentrations were validated with respect to ground-based pollutant concentrations at 23 stations. After confirmation of the accuracy of satellite-derived pollutant parameters, the impact of COVID-19 driven lockdown were assessed taking the % difference into the consideration. Further, AQI were estimated, using these pollutants parameters (PM 2.5 , PM 10 , SO 2 , NO 2 and CO) and a model suggested by CPCB for each cell of 3 × 3 km spatial resolution in ArcGIS 10.6 desktop software. The ER% was also estimated in the same fashion by using existing models [ 5 ]. The impacts of COVID-19 driven lockdown were assessed both for AQI and ER% at the final stage taking % difference into the consideration. Final maps were prepared in ArcGIS 10.6 desktop software. The step-wise method is summarised in Fig.  2 .

Flowchart of the methodology adopted in this study

Satellite data processing and validation

MODIS AOD product was downloaded from National Aeronautic Space Administration (NASA) Earth explorer web site and pre-processed using MODIS MT tool kit. The pre-processed data were used for statistical analysis and comparison before (April, 2019) and during (April, 2020) lockdown period. Differences obtained in AOD due to COVID-19 driven lockdown was tested with t-test (both one and two tailed at p  = 0.05). The validated products of MODIS were used for the prediction of Particulate Matter (PM) concentration.

Sentinel 5P data from TROPOMI were processed using SNAP tool. Data spanning from 1 to 30 April were downloaded for two years i.e. 2019 and 2020 on a daily basis. An average were then made for whole month and compared. Values of satellite-based pollutants (SO 2 , NO 2 and CO) were extracted for each of the ground stations and compared with average values of the ground-based pollutants. Ground data for CH 4 was missing and thus no validation was done for CH 4 .

Satellite data validation

Satellite observations from Sentinel-5P represent an aggregated concentration of pollutants in the tropospheric column [ 44 ]. The major problem in the validation of these pollution parameters is their measurement unit which is in mol/m 2 , whereas ground-based observations are provided in µg/m 3 . Similar units are essentially required for the validation of the satellite-based products from ground-based observations. So unit conversion of the satellite data from mol/m 2 to µg/m 3 is done initially. Firstly, we converted mol/m 2 into the part per billion (ppb), so to get an order of magnitude estimate for the ppb value and further divided the values by the height of the troposphere i.e. 10 km (0.1 mol/m 2 /10 km = > 0.00001 mol/m 3 ). Then we use a gas concentration converter to convert the unit from mol/m 2 to mol/m 3 . The whole concept may be summarised following the arithmetic expressions (Eqs. 1 – 4 ) as suggested by [ 45 , 46 ]:

For tropospheric column we have

From Eqs. ( 1 ) and ( 2 ), we have

Now, further the methods for converting ppb into µg/m 3 [ 45 ]:

where M = molecular mass (SO 2  = 64, NO 2  = 46, CO = 28 and CH 4  = 16), T = Surface Temperature (which is taken on average of April month as 32 °C), So putting above value in Eq.  4 , we have,

The data was further normalised using KNN method as suggested by [ 47 ].

For the ground data, the heterogeneity is quite high for validation purposes. So to regularize the data, first, we have to fill in the missing values, so as to have continuous data. For that KNN method was used with a weighted average of the nearest neighbour values. The Eq. ( 5 ) used for that is mentioned below [ 47 ]:

where y ^  = predicted value for the missing values, y i = real valued target as training data for ith observation, k = KNN scale factor.

After the filling of the missing value, the data was ready for validation. This has also been suggested that a process called scaling may provide more reliable results for validation. Thus, the Scaling was performed using the method suggested by Patro and Sahu [ 48 ] however, the final results were presented with normalized data only to maintain the consistency of the units of the pollution parameters. For the validation we have used correlation method in R software (R 4.0.5 for Windows). Correlation is a bivariate analysis that measures the strength of association between two variables and the direction of the relationship. Ground data from 23 ground stations and relative point value depicted from satellites are taken as input data.

Assessment of impact of COVID-19 on air pollutants

Satellite-based pollutant concentration for PM 2.5 , PM 10 , SO 2 , NO 2 , CO and CH 4 were obtained for the April month for the year 2019 and 2020 at each ground station. Further, the significance of differences obtained in the pollutant concentration at each station were tested using t-significance test in microsoft excel for conforming our null hypothesis. Average of all the locations were then estimated for concluding the over all reduction in the pollutant concentration over the study area due to COVID-19 driven lockdown. District-wise statistics was also estimated for the assessment of impact of COVID-19 driven lockdown on average concentration of pollutants at district-level.

Calculation of air quality index (AQI)

Standard model suggested by CPCB [ 30 ] has been used for the calculation of AQI. The criteria pollutants from satellite based measurements including PM 2.5 , PM 10 , SO 2 , NO 2 and CO were used for AQI estimation. The average pollutant concentration at each location (23 representing districts of the Haryana) were collected from satellite data only and subjected to the criteria set by CPCB for Indian conditions. The AQI of the year 2019 for each station were then compared with the respective AQI of the year 2020 and differences were tested using t-test of significance. The formula used for AQI is presented as Eq.  7 [ 30 ]:

where I HI  = AQI Value Corresponding of the B HI , B HI  = Greater Breakdown Concentration, I LO  = AQI Value Corresponding of the B LO , B LO  = Smaller Breakdown Concentration, C p  = Concentration of Pollutant, 1…n = Pollutants taken.

Similar criteria [i.e. 30 ] were used for the spatial mapping of AQI. The sentinel-5P data were resampled to a grid of 3 × 3 km spatial resolution from its original 7 × 7 km using the nearest neighbour method so that it can be processed with the MODIS-derived PM2.5 and PM10. Each grid of 3 × 3 km for all the criteria parameters (including PM 2.5 , PM 10 , SO 2 , NO 2 , and CO) was then used for the AQI calculation after their conversion to a point feature. The estimated AQI associated with point feature were then converted to a surface of 3 × 3 km spatial resolution using Kriging interpolation techniques as suggested by Saniei et al. [ 49 ].

Calculation of ER%

The ER% is an indicator of health risk and originates due to an increase in air pollution level or increase in the value of AQI. The estimation of ER% is a two-step process, where the first step includes the calculation of relative risk (RR%), and the second step involves the estimation of ER% [ 5 , 31 ] following Eqs.  7 , 8 , and 9 .

where RR i is the Relative Risk of pollutant i , β i is the exposure–response coefficient of additional health risk (Such as mortality) caused by per unit of pollutant i , when it exceeds a threshold concentration (0.038, 0.032, 0.13, 3.7, and 0.081 for PM 2.5 , PM 10 , NO 2 , CO, and SO2 respectively). C i is the concentration of the pollutant i and C i,0 is the threshold concentration ((35, 50, 40, 2, and 50 for PM 2.5 , PM 10 , NO 2 , CO, and SO 2 respectively) of pollutant (when threshold concentration of pollutant is less than the pollutant concentration then the relative risk is greater than 0). ER i is the excess risk for individual pollutants and ER total is the excess risk associated with all the pollutants. The spatial mapping of ER% was done with a similar process as adopted for the AQI in this study.

Results and discussion

Satellite-based air quality assessments in terms of pollutant concentrations, AQI, and ER%, were done using satellite measurements in COVID-19 (April 2020) and NON-COVID (April 2019) scenarios over Haryana, situated in the Northern part of India. The selection of period was done, with the assumption, that the COVID-19 driven lockdown would have resulted in the reduction of pollutant level in the study area as reported for other parts of the world [ 9 , 14 , 15 , 18 , 19 , 25 , 26 ]. Validation showed a high correlation between satellites measured concentration of air pollutants with that of ground-based pollutants (r 2  = > 0.5, p  = 0.00). This indicates the potential of satellite-based products for regular air quality monitoring and ER% assessment. Our findings regarding the reduction in air pollution concentration due to COVID-19 driven lockdown were consistent with Ranja et al. [ 4 ], Sharma et al. [ 5 ], Siddiqui et al. [ 6 ], Sur et al. [ 12 ], and Singh and Nanda [ 27 ], among others. Objective-wise descriptions of results are described in forthcoming sections.

Validation of satellite derived pollutants

The validation results are presented in Fig.  3 a–f and Table ​ Table2 2 respectively, for AOD, PM 2.5 , PM 10 , SO 2 , NO 2 , and CO. Validation for CH 4 could not be done due to the lack of ground data related to CH 4 . Results showed consistently significant agreement between satellite-derived pollutants and ground-based pollutants.

Scatter plots for the validation of satellite derived parameters with ground measurements during April 2019 and 2020: a AOD (2016–2019, Goswami et al., 2020, Red dots presents Amity University, Gurgram and Blue dots presentsGual Pahari, Gurgram Locations), b PM2.5, c PM10, d SO2, e NO2, f CO

Validation of satellite derived pollution parameters

Variation in satellite based air pollutants in response to lockdown

Variations in the concentration of air pollutants are presented in Fig.  4 a–g. State-level statistics for all the Pollutants for 2019 and 2020 are presented in Table ​ Table4 4 and a decrease/increase in the concentrations (as a result of COVID-19 driven lockdown) is presented in Table 5 . Pollutant-wise concentration variations are described in forthcoming sub-sections.

Spatial varition in average conectartion of pollutants during April 2019 (left), and 2020 (right): a AOD, b PM2.5, c PM10, d SO2, e NO2, f CO, g CH4

Statistics of pollutant concentration over Haryana in the month April 2019 and 2020

# All the variable unit is in µg/m 3 except for CO which is measured in mg/m 3

Parameters* = means difference before and during COVID-19 are significant at p  = 0.05, Parameters** = means of before and during COVID-19 are significant at p  = 0.00

Decrease in Air pollutants, AQI and ER% due to COVID-19

AOD variations

AOD is an indicator of air pollution. Industrial activities, transport, and biomass burning along with the natural dusty air current from the desert are the central sources of AOD over the study area. The AOD showed varying patterns over Haryana (Fig.  4 a). The AOD for April month were ranging from 0 to 1.35 for both 2019 to 2020. Relatively high AOD were obtained in the National Capital Region (NCR) districts of Haryana for both years [ 27 ]. However, in the year of lockdown, the AOD concentration was very less as compared to the AOD concentration in 2019 (Fig.  4 a).

The average AOD in the April month of the year 2019 was 0.626 ± 0.07 with a minimum of 0.073 (in Mahendragarh district) and a maximum of 0.947 (in Kaithal district). The average AOD in the same month of the year 2020 during lockdown was 0.386 ± 0.058 with a minimum − 0.05 (in Bhiwani district) and a maximum of 0.651 (in Sonipat district). Both the average and standard deviation (SD) were less during the lockdown period, and the average was significantly reduced ( p  = 0.05), showing the reduced level of pollutant gasses in the atmosphere during the lockdown. A total of 38% decrease was observed in average AOD due to COVID-19 lockdown (Table ​ (Table3 3 ).

State of air pollutants over various stations

High AOD concentration over Haryana is attributed to the contribution of agriculture practices, crop residue burning, vehicular pollution, and natural dusty wind, among others [ 4 , 27 , 28 ]. The range of previous year AOD and mean concentration of last four years (also reported in another study by Goswami and Singh [ 56 ]) were higher than the current year. However, in 2020, the AOD decreased by 38% as compared to the previous year. Similar results have been reported by Ranjan et al. over Indian region [ 4 ]. The low AOD values are attributed due to the COVID-19 driven lockdown. Reduced vehicle movement, reduced agriculture practices, and reduced burning of biomass have created the total decrease in AOD [ 4 , 27 ]. Our findings show consistency with Ranjan et al. [ 4 ], Sharma et al. [ 5 ], and Singh and Nanda [ 27 ].

PM 2.5 and PM 10 variation

The PM 2.5 was ranging from 17.34 to 129.6 µg/m 3 . PM 2.5 concentration was found to be higher during April 2019 as compared to April 2020 (Fig.  4 b). The average concentration of the PM 2.5 for the year 2019 (without lockdown) was 106 ± 4.527 µg/m 3 . At the same time, the PM 2.5  concentration for the year 2020 (during lockdown) was 47.5 ± 1.64 µg/m 3 . This showed a total of 55% reduction in the level of PM 2.5 due to lockdown (Table ​ (Table4). 4 ). Faridabad was found to be with high PM 2.5 concentration.

Satellite-based PM10 showed high agreement with ground-based data, similar to other studies of [ 1 , 29 ]. The PM 10 was ranging from 48.29 to 372.45 µg/m 3 . The PM 10 concentration was found to be higher during April 2019 as compared to the concentration of PM 10 in April 2020 (Fig.  4 c). The average concentration of the PM 10 for the April month of the year 2019 (without lockdown) was 283 ± 8.5 µg/m 3 . At the same time, the PM 10 concentration for the April month of the year 2020 (during lockdown) was 109.5 ± 3.6 µg/m 3 . This showed a total of 61% reduction in the level of PM 10 due to lockdown (Table ​ (Table4). 4 ). The PM 10 concentration was found to be very high over the Faridabad area in the year 2019.

PM 2.5 and PM 10 showed a 55% and 61% decrease in concentration due to lockdown. Similar reduction in the PM 2.5 and PM 10 were observed in Baghdad [ 9 ], Malaysia [ 19 ], South America [ 17 ], and China [ 26 ] among others. The major source of PM 2.5 and PM 10 in this region is the natural dusty wind, vehicle emissions, industrial emissions, and stubble burning [ 10 , 27 , 28 ]. The districts that fall in the NCR region (i.e. Faridabad, Gurugram, Jhajjar, and Sonipat) showed high PM 2.5 values even in the lockdown scenario [ 27 ]. This may be due to the limited movement of vehicles in these regions along with agriculture residue burning which is prevalent during this period in normal years.

SO 2 variation

SO 2 were found to be consistently higher and spatially variable in non-COVID scenario i.e. in the April month of the year 2019, as compared to April 2020 (Fig.  4 d). The effect of COVID-19 driven lockdown on SO 2 concentration was seen in the form of a reduction of 31%. The average SO 2 in the April month of the year 2019 was 23.7 ± 7.85 (µg/m 3 ) and for April 2020 it was 16.5 ± 7.03 (µg/m 3 ).

A significant reduction of 31% ( p  = 0.00) was observed in SO 2 over the region, during COVID-19 scenario. The reduction is attributed to the lockdown as most of the industrial activities, vehicular movements, and Brick cline operations were stopped during COVID-19. Similar reductions (19.51%) in the SO 2 concentration were observed over South and South East Asian region due to lockdown amid COVID-19 [ 20 ].

NO 2 variation

NO 2 was also found to be higher in the non-COVID scenario (Fig.  4 e). The NO 2 values were ranging from 20.02 (µg/m 3 ) to 61.14 (µg/m 3 ) with an average 20.94 ± 3.75 (µg/m 3 ) for April 2019 which get reduced by 10% to reach an average of 18.77 ± 3.93 (µg/m 3 ) for April 2020. The difference in mean concentration was significant ( p  = 0.05).

NO 2 also showed a decrease in concentration and results were following other studies from across the world such as Siddiqui et al. and Sur et al. [ 6 , 12 ] in India, Dantas et al. [ 13 ] in Brazil, Brimblecombe and Lai [ 21 ] in China, and Jephcote et al. [ 22 ] in United Kingdom (UK). Though the decrease in NO 2 concentration was significant ( p  = 0.05), it decreased less as compared to other pollutants (except CO and CH 4 ). This may be attributed due to the vehicle movements in local areas [ 22 ] for the distribution of facilities to the migrants and low-income group peoples.

CO variation

CO mainly originates from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuel. The spatial distribution of CO concentration was found to be decreasing in the year 2020 (Fig.  4 f). Spatial statistics at the district level show a 5% decrease (Tables ​ (Tables4 4 and ​ and5). 5 ). Gurugram, Faridabad, and districts near Yamunanagar were having very high CO concentration in April 2019 which gets reduced in the COVID-19 scenario.

CO showed a decrease in concentration by 5% in the strict lockdown scenario. CO was found to be high in the Faridabad district during April month of the year 2019 which get significantly reduced in the April month of the year 2020 by 15%. A similar decrease was observed in the northern districts (Karnal, Kurukshetra, Ambala, and Yamunanagar) of the state. The industrial operations were closed during the COVID-19 lockdown and thus decrease in the pollution level was observed similar to the others [ 21 ]. The decrease in the CO was actual with high confidence at p  < 0.00. Further, coal burning in the street restaurant and stubble burning in the open field has also reduced due to COVID-19 driven lockdown, which further reduces the CO concentration over these regions.

CH 4 variation

CH 4 concentration was consistent during the lockdown period at the district level statistics. However, spatial distribution showed higher CH 4 concentration in non-COVID scenario i.e. in the year 2019, especially in Gurugram, Faridabad, and Palwal region. Southern portions were found to be with high CH 4 concentration (Fig.  4 g). Only a 1% decrease was observed in CH 4 due to COVID-driven lockdown.

CH 4 concentration was consistent and a minor reduction (1%) was observed. The southern part of the state had shown high CH 4 in both years. The high concentration of CH 4 over southern-districts may be due to emission from higher livestock populations in the southern part of the Haryana, low-lying wet areas, and prevailing wind direction from North (Paddy belt) to South. Small differences in CH 4 during April lockdown may also be attributed to the missing data in the year 2020.

Impact of COVID-19 on AQI and ER%

Significant reduction in the AQI and ER% were observed (Figs.  5 , ​ ,6). 6 ). Impact of COVID-19 on AQI (Fig.  5 a, b) was seen in the form of reduced values and improved air quality in the April month of the year 2020 (Fig.  5 b) as compared to April 2019 (Fig.  5 a). The average AQI was 176 in the April month of the year 2019 while 99 in April 2020. At the district level, the AQI was moderate to unhealthy (for sensitive groups) (Figs.  5 a, b, ​ b,7a). 7 a). However, the AQI was consistently higher (> 150) for all the districts in the non-COVID scenario (year, 2019) and at a low to moderate level, i.e. < 100 during the lockdown phase.

AQI for the month of April, a 2019, and b 2020

ER% for the month of April, a 2019, and b 2020

District-wise, a AQI, and b ER%, for entire Haryana, before (blue bars) and during (red bars) COVID-19 lockdown

All the districts have shown a considerable decrease in the ER% due to lockdown amid COVID-19 (Figs.  6 a, b, ​ b,7b). 7 b). Overall, ER% in the state get significantly reduced ( p  = 0.00). We have also observed a hotspot over the Faridabad district, which is an industrial area. High ER% was also observed for Fatehabad, Mahendragarh, and Yamunanagar districts during April 2019. However, the same was not observed for April 2020.

Interestingly, the areas with industries have shown relatively high ER% during the year 2020. This showed that the industrial operations were not stopped during the lockdown period and these areas serve as a hotspot of pollution during lockdown which was otherwise not clear in the year 2019. The AQI, as well as ER%, have shown a gradual decrease i.e. 44% and 71% respectively during the lockdown phase. As we can see in Fig.  6 , the hotspot was shown in the parts of Faridabad during April 2019 and 2020.

This part has been further visualised in Google Earth and concluded that this area consists heavily of industry, causing a release of the high volume of particulate matter and other pollutants, due to which there is a hotspot of AQI and ER% (Fig.  8 ). But still, during the lockdown, these areas have shown a low scale of AQI and decreased considerably from unhealthy to moderate level.

AQI hotspot visible during lockdown period associated with industries in these areas. The industries showed are only representative and the contribution of other sources/industries is combined

AQI completely based on satellite measured products along with the estimation of ER% is the novelty of the current work. A significant ( p  = 0.00) reduction (44%) in the AQI values was observed due to the reduction in the concentration of criteria pollutants. Our findings were consistent with the [ 5 , 9 , 20 ]. Most of the region comes near to the satisfactory level of AQI as per the Government norms during the lockdown. Improvement in AQI and ER% was observed in all the districts due to reduced industrial operations, agriculture practices like residue burning, and transport activities as a result of COVID-19 driven lockdown enforcement [ 1 , 5 , 6 , 9 , 10 , 14 , 17 ].

This analysis showed the industrial pollution was prevailing during the lockdown and highlighted the places of industrial operations even in lockdown enforcement conditions. The method proposed in this work is having global importance and can be applied for the regular monitoring of satellite-based AQI and ER% as both the parameters are in high agreement with ground-based estimates.

Validation of AQI and ER%

We have also validated satellite-based AQI and ER% with ground-based AQI and ER%. A very high correlation was observed between satellite-based AQI and ground-based AQI. The validation results have shown a very good agreement with r 2  > 0.88 and 0.94 for AQI and ER%. The Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) for AQI was 23.05 and for ER% it was 1.12. The correlation plots are presented in Fig.  9 a, b.

Scatter plot for satellite and ground-based AQI and ER% validation, a AQI and b ER%

Conclusions

Based on the analysis of satellite derived air pollutants, AQI, and ER% for April 2019 (non-COVID) and 2020 (with COVID), over Haryana state, India, some of the key conclusions are drown. Significant differences in the concentration of almost all the pollutants were observed due to COVID-19 driven lockdown measures. Highest decrease was observed in PM 10 followed by PM 2.5 , AOD, SO 2 , NO 2 , CO, and CH 4 . Improved air quality (AQI) and Health Risk (ER%) is also resulted from lockdown measures. Satellite data showed a good agreement with ground observations (r 2  > 0.5 for all the pollutants). We consider AQI and ER% assessment as an important aspect of our work, where we have used only satellite derived parameters. Satellite-based AQI showed high correlation and less error (r 2  = 0.88, and low RMSE of 23.05) with AQI estimated from ground-based data. Significant reduction (44%) in AQI values indicates the improvement of air quality of the study area due to the COVID-19 driven lockdown, which is far better than the decided limit (20–30%) of NCAP target. Simultaneously, the ER% derived from satellite-based data also showed decrease of 71% with respected to the previous year’s ER%. The currently identified ER% from satellite-measured parameters showed a very good agreement with ER% calculated from ground-based data with r 2 0.93 and RMSE 1.12. Satellite-based ER% assessed in this study is a novel work and maybe up-scaled to the global scale. It may be beneficial for the health management of the global population.

Acknowledgements

Authors are thankful to ESA and NASA for satellite data. CPCB is also acknowledged for providing ground/stations data. Director, HARSAC is acknowledged for providing lab facilities. Environment and Climate Change Department, Haryana is acknowledged for funding the research (Programme Code: P-31-1-1-3435-03-800-95-51).

Declarations

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

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Environmental problems of Manipur

2020, The Holistic Approach to Environment

The issue of environment versus human activity has become one of the most common global topics. Global warming, greenhouse effect, air pollution, land and water pollution are all results of human activity. Human behaviour lies at the root of both conservation and environmental damage. The rapid growth of population and economic development are some of the greatest threats to the environment through the expansion and intensification of agriculture, uncontrolled growth of urbanization and industrialization, and the destruction of natural habitats. The paper seeks to study the unique features of Manipur, a pristine land situated in the NorthEast corner of India which is noted for its rich biodiversity, abundance of medicinal plants with various healing properties and yet it is facing the threat of environmental degradation and pollution. It is mainly rapid population growth, unplanned urbanization in urban areas, lack of awareness about environmental issues, poverty and Jhuming cultivation practices in the hills that have led to environmental damage, with its concomitant effects on human development, for it is ultimately the people of the state who have to suffer the effects of environmental damage. The paper gives a broad picture of the abundant green resources and unique fauna of Manipur and the environmental problems that threaten its biodiversity.

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• Essay On Air Pollution 200 Words 500 Words

Essay on Air Pollution

Essay on air pollution is a crucial topic for students from an academic perspective. Moreover, an essay is one of the most effective ways to educate students about the plight of nature and the repercussions of human activities. Creating awareness for future generations is important if we have to undo decades of ignorance and neglect.

Furthermore, air pollution essay helps students to realize the gravity of the scenario and enable them to take action. Some as simple as using public transport or even carpooling will help reduce a significant amount of air pollution. Read on to discover how to write an engaging essay on air pollution.

Essay on Air Pollution – Important Points to Note

Please consider adopting the following points when writing an essay on air pollution. These tips are also helpful for other essay topics as well:

• Always begin with an introductory paragraph about the topic, preferably detailing its origin.
• Unless the topic is technical, try to avoid jargons.
• Present content in bulleted points wherever possible
• Insert factual data, such as important dates, places or name wherever possible.
• Avoid writing the content in a large monotonous block of text. Remember to break up the content into digestible chunks
• Always conclude the essay with a closing paragraph.

Essay on Air Pollution – Sample 1 (200 Words)

Air pollution is a serious issue and a cause for major concern in today’s world. A report published in 2014  by the World Health Organisation states that 4.21 million individuals died prematurely in 2012 as a result of air pollution. Air pollution existed much before humans, in the form of volcanic eruptions and forest fires. However, it became much more prevalent after the Industrial Revolution.

Rapid industrial growth, unregulated emissions and a host of other issues significantly contributed to the rise in air pollution. In some cases, the severity of air pollution reached an extent where government intervention was necessary. The Great Smog of London, 1952, was an extreme case of air pollution where visibility was severely hampered. It also caused a host of illnesses and the consequent deaths of countless civilians. In November 2017, the levels of air pollution in Delhi were ten times above the safe limits. For reference, the healthy air quality index is between 0 to 50, but during that particular time period, the air quality index hit 500+. This event is now called the Great Smog of Delhi.

An air quality index of 500 and above indicates that the air is heavily polluted and will cause irreversible lung damage and a host of other illnesses to everyone who is exposed to it. Therefore, to avoid such situations in the future, relevant actions must be implemented.

Essay on Air Pollution – Sample 2 (500 Words)

Air pollution may seem like the result of anthropological activities, however, it has been around even before humans evolved. Places which are naturally arid and have minimal vegetation are prone to dust storms. When this particulate matter is added to the air, it can cause health issues in animals exposed to the dust storms.

Furthermore, active volcanoes pump extremely large amounts of toxic plumes and particulate matter into the atmosphere. Wildfires also pump large amounts of carbon monoxide into the atmosphere and hamper photosynthesis for plants. Even animals, especially ruminants such as cows contribute to global warming by producing large quantities of methane, a greenhouse gas.

However, air pollution was never a major concern until the industrial revolution. Industries grew rapidly, untreated emissions were pumped into the atmosphere, and the rise of automobiles significantly contributed to air pollution. Such activities continued without any restrictions until they started to cause a wide range of repercussions.

In humans, air polluted with contaminants can cause a wide array of illnesses ranging from asthma and bronchitis the various forms of cancer. Air pollution is not only present outdoors; interior air pollution is also a great concern. Recent research has actually found credible evidence that room fresheners have the many compounds within them, some of which are classified carcinogens. This means some of those compounds present in the aerosol has the potential to cause some forms of cancer. Other sources of air pollution can include gases such as carbon monoxide and radon.

Radon, in particular, is quite alarming. It is an odourless, colourless gas that occurs naturally. It is found in the soil as Uranium, which breaks down and eventually turns into radon gas. Radon has limited repercussions on health if exposed to low concentrations, however, when this gas gets trapped indoor, the higher levels of concentration can have wreak havoc or ultimately be lethal. Radon is also reported to be released from building materials such as granite. Exposure to radon causes no immediate health effects, but long term exposure has the potential to cause lung cancer.

Air pollution not only affects the lungs but the central nervous system too. It has been linked to a lot of diseases such as schizophrenia and autism. A study also implied that it can cause short-term memory losses or distortion of memory.

Historically, air pollution has caused many crises with the worst ever being the Bhopal Disaster in 1984. Fatalities were estimated at 3,800, with at least 600,000 injured. Next in severity was the Great Smog of 1952 which formed over London, killing an estimated 4,000 civilians over the course of four days.

Though measures have been taken to reduce the effects of air pollution, a lot of irreversible damage has been done. For instance, the effects of global warming have drastically increased; this is very apparent with the rise in sea levels and melting glaciers. If the ice caps continue to melt, then we will have to face drastic repercussions. Scientists have proposed a hypothetical scenario where the greenhouse effect becomes “uncontrolled.” Here, greenhouse gases build up and temperatures continue to rise steeply. Oceans will start to evaporate, adding more water vapour into the earth’s atmosphere. This intensifies the effect, reaching a point where temperatures are sufficiently high for rocks start sublimating. Though this scenario is hypothetical, some speculate that this phenomenon already occurred on Venus. The supporters of this theory back this up by claiming Venus has an atmosphere composed primarily of carbon dioxide. The theory also explains why Venus has an extremely high surface temperature of 462 degrees Celcius; which is in fact, the hottest planet in the solar system.

Hence, we need to reduce our impact on the planet and make a conscious effort to reduce air pollution. Explore more essay topics or other fascinating concepts by registering at BYJU’S

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• Air Pollution Essay

Essay on Air Pollution

Environmental changes are caused by the natural or artificial content of harmful pollutants and can cause instability, disturbance, or adverse effects on the ecosystem. Earth and its environment pose a more serious threat due to the increasing pollution of air, water, and soil. Environmental damage is caused by improper resource management or careless human activities. Therefore, any activity that violates the original nature of the environment and leads to degradation is called pollution. We need to understand the origin of these pollutants and find ways to control pollution. This can also be done by raising awareness of the effects of pollutants.

Air pollution is any physical, chemical, or biological change in the air. A certain percentage of the gas is present in the atmosphere. Increasing or decreasing the composition of these gasses is detrimental to survival. This imbalance in gas composition causes an increase in global temperature which is called global warming.

Introduction to air pollution 

The Earth and its environment are facing a serious threat by the increasing pollution of the air, water, and soil—the vital life support systems of the Earth. The damage to the environment is caused by improper management of resources or by careless human activity. Hence any activity that violates the original character of nature and leads to its degradation is called pollution. We need to understand the sources of these pollutants and find ways to control pollution. This can be also done by making people aware of the effects of pollutants. 

Air with 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, and 1% of all other gasses support life on Earth. Various processes take place to sustain the regular percentage of gasses and their composition in general. 

Atmospheric pollution can have natural sources, for example, volcanic eruptions. The gaseous by-products of man-made processes such as energy production, waste incineration, transport, deforestation and agriculture, are the major air pollutants.

Although air is made up of mostly Oxygen and Nitrogen, mankind, through pollution, has increased the levels of many trace gasses, and in some cases, released completely new gasses to the atmosphere. 

Air pollution can result in poor air quality, both in cities and in the countryside. Some air pollutants make people sick, causing breathing problems and increasing the likelihood of cancer. 

Some air pollutants are harmful to plants, animals, and the ecosystems in which they live. Statues, monuments, and buildings are being corroded by the air pollutants in the form of acid rain. It also damages crops and forests, and makes lakes and streams unsuitable for fish and other plant and animal life. 

Air pollution created by man-made resources is also changing the Earth’s atmosphere. It is causing the depletion of the ozone layer and letting in more harmful radiation from the Sun. The greenhouse gasses released into the atmosphere prevents heat from escaping back into space and leads to a rise in global average temperatures. Global warming affects the average sea-level and increases the spread of tropical diseases.

Air pollution occurs when large amounts of gas and tiny particles are released into the air and the ecological balance is disturbed. Each year millions of tons of gasses and particulate matter are emitted into the air. 

Primary air pollutants are pollutants, which are directly released into the air. They are called SPM, i.e., Suspended Particulate Matter. For example, smoke, dust, ash, sulfur oxide, nitrogen oxide, and radioactive compounds, etc.

Secondary Pollutants are pollutants, which are formed due to chemical interactions between the atmospheric components and primary pollutants. For example, Smog (i.e. Smoke and fog), ozone, etc.

Major gaseous air pollutants include Carbon Dioxide, Hydrogen Sulfide, Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Oxide, etc.

Natural sources are volcanic eruptions, forest fires, dust storms, etc. 

Man-made sources include gasses released from the automobiles, industries, burning of garbage and bricks kilns, etc.

Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health

Air pollution has adverse effects on human health. 

Breathing polluted air puts you at higher risk of asthma.

When exposed to ground ozone for 6 to 7 hours, people suffer from respiratory inflammation.

Damages the immune system, endocrine, and reproductive systems.

A high level of air pollution has been associated with higher incidents of heart problems.

The toxic chemicals released into the air are affecting the flora and fauna immensely.

Preventive Measures to Reduce Air Pollution

We can prevent pollution by utilizing raw materials, water energy, and other resources more efficiently. When less harmful substances are substituted for hazardous ones, and when toxic substances are eliminated from the production process, human health can be protected and economic wellbeing can be strengthened. 

There are several measures that can be adopted by people to reduce pollution and to save the environment.

Carpooling.

Promotion of public transport.

No smoking zone.

Restricted use of fossil fuels.

Saving energy.

Encouraging organic farming.

The government has put restrictions on the amount of fossil fuels that can be used as well as restrictions on how much carbon dioxide and other pollutants can be emitted. Although the government is attempting to save our environment from these harmful gasses, it is not sufficient. We as a society need to keep the environment clean by controlling the pollution of air.

FAQs on Air Pollution Essay

1. State the Causes of Air Pollution ?

The following are the causes of air pollution.

Vehicular pollution consisting of Carbon Monoxide causes pollution.

Emission of Nitrogen oxide by a large number of supersonic transport airplanes causes deterioration of the Ozone layer and also causes serious damage to the flora and fauna.

The release of Chlorofluorocarbons into the Stratosphere causes depletion of Ozone, which is a serious concern to animals, microscopic, and aquatic organisms.

Burning garbage causes smoke, which pollutes the atmosphere. This smoke contains harmful gases such as Carbon dioxide and Nitrogen oxides.

In India, brick kilns are used for many purposes and coal is used to burn the bricks. They give out huge quantities of Carbon dioxide and particulate matter such as smoke, dust that are very harmful to people working there and the areas surrounding it. 

Many cleansing agents release poisonous gases such as Ammonia and Chlorine into the atmosphere. 

Radioactive elements emit harmful rays into the air.

Decomposed animals and plants emit Methane and Ammonia gas into the air.

2. What Does Global Warming Mean?

Global warming is the gradual rising average temperature of the Earth's atmosphere due to the concentration of methane in certain toxic gasses such as carbon dioxide. This has a major impact on the world climate. The world is warming. The land and the sea are now warmer than they were at the beginning and temperatures are still rising. This rise in temperature is, in short, global warming. This temperature rise is man-made. The burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere which capture solar heat and raise surface and air temperatures.

3. Name the Alternative Modes of Transport. In What Way Does it Help to Reduce Air Pollution?

Public transport could be an alternative mode of transport. Public transport like trains, buses and trams, can relieve traffic congestion and reduce air pollution from road transport. The use of public transport must be encouraged in order to develop a sustainable transport policy.

4. Mention other means of transportation! How can I help reduce air pollution?

Public transportation can be another mode of transportation. Public transport such as trains, buses and trams can reduce traffic congestion and reduce air pollution from road transport. The use of public transport and to develop sustainable transport policies should be encouraged. While one passenger vehicle has the convenience factor, other modes of transportation reduce travel costs, spend less time, reduce stress, improve health, and reduce energy consumption and parking. Other trips for work include walking/cycling, public transport, hybrid travel and transport.

5. What are the effects of pollution?

Excessive air pollution can increase the risk of heart attack, wheezing, coughing and difficulty breathing, as well as irritation of the eyes, nose and throat. Air pollution can also cause heart problems, asthma, and other lung problems. Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, the composition of the air in the air is disturbed. This causes an increase in global temperature. The damaging ozone layer due to air pollution does not prevent harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun, which cause skin and eye problems in individuals. Air pollution has caused a number of respiratory and heart diseases among people. The incidence of lung cancer has increased in recent decades. Children living in contaminated areas are more likely to develop pneumonia and asthma. Many people die every year due to the direct or indirect effects of air pollution. When burning fossil fuels, harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides are released into the air. Water droplets combine with these pollutants and become acidic and fall as acid rain, which harms human, animal and plant life.

6. What is the solution to air pollution?

Production of renewable fuels and clean energy. The basic solution to air pollution is to get away from fossil fuels and replace them with other energies such as solar, wind and geothermal. The government limits the amount of fossil fuel that can be used and how much carbon dioxide and other pollutants it can emit. While the government is trying to save our environment from this harmful gas, it is not enough. We as a society need to keep the environment clean by controlling air pollution. To more in detail about air pollution and its causes. To learn more about air pollution and its impact on the environment, visit the Vedantu website.

Imphal Air Quality Index (AQI) | India

Real-time PM2.5, PM10 air pollution level Manipur

Last Update: 02 Apr 2024, 11:49am

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The current PM2.5 concentration in Imphal is 2.4 times above the recommended limit given by the WHO 24 hrs air quality guidelines value.

PM2.5 air pollution in Imphal is causing an estimated deaths of lives since January 1, 2021. It has cost the city's economy around US$3.3 billion so far this year. (Source: Greenpeace)

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Quick answers to some commonly asked questions about the air pollution of Imphal.

The real-time air quality in Imphal is 61 (MODERATE) AQI now. This was last updated 7 minutes ago .

The current concentration of PM2.5 in Imphal is 36 (µg/m³). The World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends 15 µg/m³ as the threshold concentration of PM2.5 for 24 hrs mean. Currently, the concentration is 1.44 times the recommended limit.

Generally, the air quality at Imphal starts deteriorating in late October. The winters are the worst-hit season in terms of air pollution.

You should wear a good N95 mask when you go outdoor in Imphal until the AQI is improving upto moderate range.

Office going people should avoid personal vehicles and use public transportations or carpooling.

(i) The primary causes of outdoor air pollution are solid, liquid particles called aerosols & gase from vehicles emissions, construction activities, factories, burning stubble & fossil fuels and wildfire, etc.

(ii) Main causes of indoor air pollution are harmful gases from cooking fuels (such as wood, crop wastes, charcoal, coal and dung), damp, mould smoke, chemicals from cleaning materials, etc.

Indoor air pollution in Imphal is as dangerous as outdoor pollution, because the air pollutants come inside the houses or buildings through doors, windows and ventilation.

In Imphal , you must use an air purifier or fresh air machine at home or office indoor and close all the doors, windows and ventilations when the outdoor air quality index (aqi) in Imphal is very high. Proper ventilation is highly recommended only when outdoor air quality is improving and moderate AQI range.

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State of air pollutants and related health risk over Haryana India as viewed from satellite platform in COVID-19 lockdown scenario

• Published: 21 July 2021
• Volume 30 , pages 47–62, ( 2022 )

Cite this article

• Dharmendra Singh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8528-8637 1 ,
• Chintan Nanda 1 &
• Meenakshi Dahiya 1  

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4 Citations

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COVID-19 driven lockdown has affected air quality worldwide. Changes in air pollutants concentration, Air Quality Index (AQI), and associated Excess Health Risk (ER%) were assessed using satellite data of before (2019), and during (2020) COVID-19 periods in the industrially, agriculturally developed and highly populated area of Haryana in the northern region of Indo-Gangetic Plains. Parameters such as Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD), Particulate matters (PM), Sulphur Di-Oxide (SO 2 ), Nitrogen Di-Oxide (NO 2 ), Carbon Mono-oxide (CO), and Methane (CH 4 ) were derived using satellite data and validated using ground-based observations (n = 23). The coefficient of correlation (r) 0.91, 0.90, 0.95, 0.73, 0.81 and 0.80 were established with AOD, PM 2.5 , PM 10 , SO 2 , NO 2 and CO, respectively. Significant reduction ( p  < 0.005) in the concentration of air pollutants, viz. 38% in AOD, 55% in PM 2.5 , 61% in PM 10 , 31% in SO 2 , 10% in NO 2 , 5% in CO and 1% in CH 4 were observed during lockdown. Significant ( p  < 0.00) improvement in air quality was observed due to a 44% reduction in pollution level, which led to the reduction in ER% by 71%, which is quite significant. AQI and ER% from satellite and ground showed a high r 2 i.e. 0.88 and 0.99 respectively, suggesting the potential application of satellite data for periodic AQI and ER% assessment.

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1 Introduction

Air pollution is a result of intense anthropogenic activities on earth such as transport, industrialization, biomass burning, along with natural causes such as volcanoes and forest fire [ 1 ]. It is reported that the anthropogenic activities contributes approximately 80% increase in the pollution [ 2 ]. Thus reduced human activities would have resulted in a reduced level of air pollutants as observed at the global and regional level during the COVID-19 driven lockdown in 2020 [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. COVID-19 has significantly impacted the socio-economic and environmental conditions of planet earth [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ]. COVID-19 is a respiratory disorder of viral origin caused by novel coronavirus or SARS CoV-2 with symptoms of fever, dry cough, and breathing difficulty. The first case of COVID-19 was reported from Wuhan city, China in December 2019 and rapidly spread all across the globe. It has been declared as a global pandemic by the World Health Organisation (WHO) [ 24 ] on 11 March 2020, looking at its contagious nature and death severity (> 3,037,398 deaths worldwide till 22 April 2021). This was further taken as a serious note by the Government of India after the detection of the first case on 30 January 2020 from Kerala, India, which resulted in the three-phase lockdown viz. (1) March 24 to April 14, 2020, (2) April 15 to May 3, 2020, and (3) May 4 to May 17, 2020, over the whole country. The first two phases were strict, while the last one was a relaxed lockdown.

The lockdown has significantly reduces the pollutants concentrations and improved Air Quality by reducing the transport, industrial activities, and other anthropogenic activities all across the globe [ 4 , 6 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 25 , 26 ]. Wang et al. [ 15 ] observed a reduction of 36–53% in the concentration of Nitrogen Dioxide (NO 2 ) over six megacities of China. Fang et al. [ 16 ] observed a reduction of 18–45%, 17–53%, 47–64%, 9–34%, and 16–52%, respectively for particulate matters 2.5 (PM 2.5 ), particulate matters 10 (PM 10 ), NO 2 , Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2 ) and Carbon Monoxide (CO), over urban agglomerations in China, during lockdown period relative to pre-lockdown period. Mendez-Espinosa et al. [ 17 ] reported a reduction of 60%, 44%, and 40% respectively in the concentration of NO 2 , PM 10 , and PM 2.5 over South America during the strict lockdown amid COVID-19. Siddiqui et al. [ 6 ] reported a total of 46% reduction in average NO 2 values and 27% improvement in (Air Quality Index) AQI values over the eight cities of India due to COVID-19 driven lockdown. However, a complete study on the effect of COVID-19 driven lockdown on air pollutants, AQI, and ER% is lacking particularly for Haryana, India, though required on an urgent basis looking at the lethality of disease (a total of 6% of global deaths in India till 22 April 2021, and Haryana is among the most affected states) possibly due to the consistent high pollution level [ 1 , 6 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]. Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) which is a key parameter of air quality (which indicates column integrated particulate matters) gets reduced in response to COVID-driven lockdown [ 26 ]. Similarly AQI is a range of index values that indicates the air quality (Good = 0–50, Satisfactory = 51–100, Moderate = 101–200, Poor = 201–300, Very Poor = 301–400, and Severe = 401–500) of a location or region significantly get reduces during lockdown [ 30 ]. ER% which is the excess health risk associated with the pollutants level excess than the standard concentration [ 5 , 28 ] also gets reduces in response to lockdown. Since the values of air pollutants, AQI, and ER% have been identified as one of the serious threat to human health (9 out of 10 people breathe air containing high levels of pollutants, 7 million deaths annually, and 12.5% of the total deaths worldwide), and environment at global and local scale [ 24 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 ] their reduction may reduce the health risk and improve the environmental quality. It is also reported that the areas with high air pollution levels were found to be affected more with COVID-19 and its severity [ 6 , 29 ]. Thus, it is the need to identify the hotspot of air pollution and take necessary actions to combat it on an urgent basis, so that the risk of COVID-19 like diseases may be reduced in the future [ 17 , 18 , 19 , 36 ].

Ground-based monitoring stations provide data for the assessment of pollution level and its hotspot. Setting up ground-based stations with the capability to measure these criteria pollutants require huge maintenance, operating manpower, and a huge amount of money which is not realistic at least in Indian conditions [ 1 ]. Thus, it is required to use low-cost technologies and surrogate variables like AOD from satellite that can provide relevant information about air pollution and pollutant level for further AQI and ER% assessment. Satellite-based assessment of air quality parameters (such as AOD, PM 2.5 , PM 10 , SO 2 , NO 2 , CO, and CH 4 ) is found to be a potential way of regular and cost-effective monitoring of these pollutants at a spatial scale [ 1 , 4 , 6 , 37 , 38 , 39 ].

The goal of reducing pollutant levels by 20 to 30% till 2024 (as decided in National Clean Air Programme, NCAP) from its base year 2017 was observed to be a tough task, looking into the requirement of economic growth and industrialization. However, COVID-19 driven lockdown has shown glimpses of reduced air pollution in 2020 worldwide, including India [ 4 , 6 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 25 , 26 ]. Though, the assessment of effect of COVID-19 driven lockdown on air quality both at global [ 11 ] and regional [ 4 , 6 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 25 , 26 ] scale taking ground [ 5 , 15 ] and satellite-based [ 4 , 6 , 12 ] observations are available, no study reported the satellite-based AQI and ER% assessment over any region of the globe and over the Indian region (Haryana) in particular. Furthermore, there is no reported study for the validations of Sentinel-5P satellite-based pollutant products concerning ground observations which gives novelty to the current work. We compared the satellite-based concentrations of various air pollutants/indicators including AOD, PM 2.5 , PM 10 , SO 2 , NO 2 , CO, and CH 4 in the month of April 2019 (no lockdown) and 2020 (completely falling within the strict lockdown period in India) to understand the effect of lockdown on the concentrations of these pollutants/indicators. The study is taken up with the following key objects: (1) Validation of satellite-derived air pollutants using ground-based observations, (2) Assessment of the state of air pollutants using these validated satellite-based measurements, (3) Utilisation of these measurements for the assessment of AQI and ER%.

2.1 Study area

The study area (Haryana state) is situated in the northern part of India and bounded within the latitude of 27.64258158 to 30.90568992 and longitude of 74.46724953 to 77.53797611 (Fig.  1 ). The geographical area of the state is 44,212 km 2 with a total population of 25,350,000. Haryana has two major physiographic regions: (a) the flat alluvial plain covering most of the state and (b) a strip of the highly dissected Shiwalik range in the North-East (including the narrow foothill zone). The Haryana state falls in the Indo-Gangetic region which is always high in air pollutant concentration level [ 6 , 31 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ].

Study Area representing the state of Haryana

2.2 Method in brief

For this study, the two phase methodology was adopted. PM estimation is being done (through a regression analysis using Ground-based PM and Satellite-based AOD) in the first phase, and AQI and ER% were generated (over Haryana through the validated Sentinel-5P pollution products including NO 2 , SO 2 , CO, and CH 4 and estimated PM) in the second phase. Two times data (Table 1 ) were selected based on COVID-19 driven strict lockdown i.e. during (April 2020) and prior to this (April 2019).

The satellite-based pollutant concentrations were validated with respect to ground-based pollutant concentrations at 23 stations. After confirmation of the accuracy of satellite-derived pollutant parameters, the impact of COVID-19 driven lockdown were assessed taking the % difference into the consideration. Further, AQI were estimated, using these pollutants parameters (PM 2.5 , PM 10 , SO 2 , NO 2 and CO) and a model suggested by CPCB for each cell of 3 × 3 km spatial resolution in ArcGIS 10.6 desktop software. The ER% was also estimated in the same fashion by using existing models [ 5 ]. The impacts of COVID-19 driven lockdown were assessed both for AQI and ER% at the final stage taking % difference into the consideration. Final maps were prepared in ArcGIS 10.6 desktop software. The step-wise method is summarised in Fig.  2 .

Flowchart of the methodology adopted in this study

2.2.1 Satellite data processing and validation

2.2.1.1 processing.

MODIS AOD product was downloaded from National Aeronautic Space Administration (NASA) Earth explorer web site and pre-processed using MODIS MT tool kit. The pre-processed data were used for statistical analysis and comparison before (April, 2019) and during (April, 2020) lockdown period. Differences obtained in AOD due to COVID-19 driven lockdown was tested with t-test (both one and two tailed at p  = 0.05). The validated products of MODIS were used for the prediction of Particulate Matter (PM) concentration.

Sentinel 5P data from TROPOMI were processed using SNAP tool. Data spanning from 1 to 30 April were downloaded for two years i.e. 2019 and 2020 on a daily basis. An average were then made for whole month and compared. Values of satellite-based pollutants (SO 2 , NO 2 and CO) were extracted for each of the ground stations and compared with average values of the ground-based pollutants. Ground data for CH 4 was missing and thus no validation was done for CH 4 .

2.2.1.2 Satellite data validation

Satellite observations from Sentinel-5P represent an aggregated concentration of pollutants in the tropospheric column [ 44 ]. The major problem in the validation of these pollution parameters is their measurement unit which is in mol/m 2 , whereas ground-based observations are provided in µg/m 3 . Similar units are essentially required for the validation of the satellite-based products from ground-based observations. So unit conversion of the satellite data from mol/m 2 to µg/m 3 is done initially. Firstly, we converted mol/m 2 into the part per billion (ppb), so to get an order of magnitude estimate for the ppb value and further divided the values by the height of the troposphere i.e. 10 km (0.1 mol/m 2 /10 km = > 0.00001 mol/m 3 ). Then we use a gas concentration converter to convert the unit from mol/m 2 to mol/m 3 . The whole concept may be summarised following the arithmetic expressions (Eqs. 1 – 4 ) as suggested by [ 45 , 46 ]:

For tropospheric column we have

From Eqs. ( 1 ) and ( 2 ), we have

Now, further the methods for converting ppb into µg/m 3 [ 45 ]:

where M = molecular mass (SO 2  = 64, NO 2  = 46, CO = 28 and CH 4  = 16), T = Surface Temperature (which is taken on average of April month as 32 °C), So putting above value in Eq.  4 , we have,

The data was further normalised using KNN method as suggested by [ 47 ].

For the ground data, the heterogeneity is quite high for validation purposes. So to regularize the data, first, we have to fill in the missing values, so as to have continuous data. For that KNN method was used with a weighted average of the nearest neighbour values. The Eq. ( 5 ) used for that is mentioned below [ 47 ]:

where \(\hat{y}\)  = predicted value for the missing values, \({y}_{i}\) = real valued target as training data for ith observation, \(k\) = KNN scale factor.

After the filling of the missing value, the data was ready for validation. This has also been suggested that a process called scaling may provide more reliable results for validation. Thus, the Scaling was performed using the method suggested by Patro and Sahu [ 48 ] however, the final results were presented with normalized data only to maintain the consistency of the units of the pollution parameters. For the validation we have used correlation method in R software (R 4.0.5 for Windows). Correlation is a bivariate analysis that measures the strength of association between two variables and the direction of the relationship. Ground data from 23 ground stations and relative point value depicted from satellites are taken as input data.

2.2.2 Assessment of impact of COVID-19 on air pollutants

Satellite-based pollutant concentration for PM 2.5 , PM 10 , SO 2 , NO 2 , CO and CH 4 were obtained for the April month for the year 2019 and 2020 at each ground station. Further, the significance of differences obtained in the pollutant concentration at each station were tested using t-significance test in microsoft excel for conforming our null hypothesis. Average of all the locations were then estimated for concluding the over all reduction in the pollutant concentration over the study area due to COVID-19 driven lockdown. District-wise statistics was also estimated for the assessment of impact of COVID-19 driven lockdown on average concentration of pollutants at district-level.

2.2.3 Calculation of air quality index (AQI)

Standard model suggested by CPCB [ 30 ] has been used for the calculation of AQI. The criteria pollutants from satellite based measurements including PM 2.5 , PM 10 , SO 2 , NO 2 and CO were used for AQI estimation. The average pollutant concentration at each location (23 representing districts of the Haryana) were collected from satellite data only and subjected to the criteria set by CPCB for Indian conditions. The AQI of the year 2019 for each station were then compared with the respective AQI of the year 2020 and differences were tested using t-test of significance. The formula used for AQI is presented as Eq.  7 [ 30 ]:

where I HI  = AQI Value Corresponding of the B HI , B HI  = Greater Breakdown Concentration, I LO  = AQI Value Corresponding of the B LO , B LO  = Smaller Breakdown Concentration, C p  = Concentration of Pollutant, 1…n = Pollutants taken.

Similar criteria [i.e. 30 ] were used for the spatial mapping of AQI. The sentinel-5P data were resampled to a grid of 3 × 3 km spatial resolution from its original 7 × 7 km using the nearest neighbour method so that it can be processed with the MODIS-derived PM2.5 and PM10. Each grid of 3 × 3 km for all the criteria parameters (including PM 2.5 , PM 10 , SO 2 , NO 2 , and CO) was then used for the AQI calculation after their conversion to a point feature. The estimated AQI associated with point feature were then converted to a surface of 3 × 3 km spatial resolution using Kriging interpolation techniques as suggested by Saniei et al. [ 49 ].

2.2.4 Calculation of ER%

The ER% is an indicator of health risk and originates due to an increase in air pollution level or increase in the value of AQI. The estimation of ER% is a two-step process, where the first step includes the calculation of relative risk (RR%), and the second step involves the estimation of ER% [ 5 , 31 ] following Eqs.  7 , 8 , and 9 .

where RR i is the Relative Risk of pollutant i , β i is the exposure–response coefficient of additional health risk (Such as mortality) caused by per unit of pollutant i , when it exceeds a threshold concentration (0.038, 0.032, 0.13, 3.7, and 0.081 for PM 2.5 , PM 10 , NO 2 , CO, and SO2 respectively). C i is the concentration of the pollutant i and C i,0 is the threshold concentration ((35, 50, 40, 2, and 50 for PM 2.5 , PM 10 , NO 2 , CO, and SO 2 respectively) of pollutant (when threshold concentration of pollutant is less than the pollutant concentration then the relative risk is greater than 0). ER i is the excess risk for individual pollutants and ER total is the excess risk associated with all the pollutants. The spatial mapping of ER% was done with a similar process as adopted for the AQI in this study.

3 Results and discussion

Satellite-based air quality assessments in terms of pollutant concentrations, AQI, and ER%, were done using satellite measurements in COVID-19 (April 2020) and NON-COVID (April 2019) scenarios over Haryana, situated in the Northern part of India. The selection of period was done, with the assumption, that the COVID-19 driven lockdown would have resulted in the reduction of pollutant level in the study area as reported for other parts of the world [ 9 , 14 , 15 , 18 , 19 , 25 , 26 ]. Validation showed a high correlation between satellites measured concentration of air pollutants with that of ground-based pollutants (r 2  = > 0.5, p  = 0.00). This indicates the potential of satellite-based products for regular air quality monitoring and ER% assessment. Our findings regarding the reduction in air pollution concentration due to COVID-19 driven lockdown were consistent with Ranja et al. [ 4 ], Sharma et al. [ 5 ], Siddiqui et al. [ 6 ], Sur et al. [ 12 ], and Singh and Nanda [ 27 ], among others. Objective-wise descriptions of results are described in forthcoming sections.

3.1 Validation of satellite derived pollutants

The validation results are presented in Fig.  3 a–f and Table 2 respectively, for AOD, PM 2.5 , PM 10 , SO 2 , NO 2 , and CO. Validation for CH 4 could not be done due to the lack of ground data related to CH 4 . Results showed consistently significant agreement between satellite-derived pollutants and ground-based pollutants.

Scatter plots for the validation of satellite derived parameters with ground measurements during April 2019 and 2020: a AOD (2016–2019, Goswami et al., 2020, Red dots presents Amity University, Gurgram and Blue dots presentsGual Pahari, Gurgram Locations), b PM2.5, c PM10, d SO2, e NO2, f CO

3.2 Variation in satellite based air pollutants in response to lockdown

Variations in the concentration of air pollutants are presented in Fig.  4 a–g. State-level statistics for all the Pollutants for 2019 and 2020 are presented in Table 4 and a decrease/increase in the concentrations (as a result of COVID-19 driven lockdown) is presented in Table 5 . Pollutant-wise concentration variations are described in forthcoming sub-sections.

Spatial varition in average conectartion of pollutants during April 2019 (left), and 2020 (right): a AOD, b PM2.5, c PM10, d SO2, e NO2, f CO, g CH4

3.2.1 AOD variations

AOD is an indicator of air pollution. Industrial activities, transport, and biomass burning along with the natural dusty air current from the desert are the central sources of AOD over the study area. The AOD showed varying patterns over Haryana (Fig.  4 a). The AOD for April month were ranging from 0 to 1.35 for both 2019 to 2020. Relatively high AOD were obtained in the National Capital Region (NCR) districts of Haryana for both years [ 27 ]. However, in the year of lockdown, the AOD concentration was very less as compared to the AOD concentration in 2019 (Fig.  4 a).

The average AOD in the April month of the year 2019 was 0.626 ± 0.07 with a minimum of 0.073 (in Mahendragarh district) and a maximum of 0.947 (in Kaithal district). The average AOD in the same month of the year 2020 during lockdown was 0.386 ± 0.058 with a minimum − 0.05 (in Bhiwani district) and a maximum of 0.651 (in Sonipat district). Both the average and standard deviation (SD) were less during the lockdown period, and the average was significantly reduced ( p  = 0.05), showing the reduced level of pollutant gasses in the atmosphere during the lockdown. A total of 38% decrease was observed in average AOD due to COVID-19 lockdown (Table 3 ).

High AOD concentration over Haryana is attributed to the contribution of agriculture practices, crop residue burning, vehicular pollution, and natural dusty wind, among others [ 4 , 27 , 28 ]. The range of previous year AOD and mean concentration of last four years (also reported in another study by Goswami and Singh [ 56 ]) were higher than the current year. However, in 2020, the AOD decreased by 38% as compared to the previous year. Similar results have been reported by Ranjan et al. over Indian region [ 4 ]. The low AOD values are attributed due to the COVID-19 driven lockdown. Reduced vehicle movement, reduced agriculture practices, and reduced burning of biomass have created the total decrease in AOD [ 4 , 27 ]. Our findings show consistency with Ranjan et al. [ 4 ], Sharma et al. [ 5 ], and Singh and Nanda [ 27 ].

3.2.2 PM 2.5 and PM 10 variation

The PM 2.5 was ranging from 17.34 to 129.6 µg/m 3 . PM 2.5 concentration was found to be higher during April 2019 as compared to April 2020 (Fig.  4 b). The average concentration of the PM 2.5 for the year 2019 (without lockdown) was 106 ± 4.527 µg/m 3 . At the same time, the PM 2.5  concentration for the year 2020 (during lockdown) was 47.5 ± 1.64 µg/m 3 . This showed a total of 55% reduction in the level of PM 2.5 due to lockdown (Table 4 ). Faridabad was found to be with high PM 2.5 concentration.

Satellite-based PM10 showed high agreement with ground-based data, similar to other studies of [ 1 , 29 ]. The PM 10 was ranging from 48.29 to 372.45 µg/m 3 . The PM 10 concentration was found to be higher during April 2019 as compared to the concentration of PM 10 in April 2020 (Fig.  4 c). The average concentration of the PM 10 for the April month of the year 2019 (without lockdown) was 283 ± 8.5 µg/m 3 . At the same time, the PM 10 concentration for the April month of the year 2020 (during lockdown) was 109.5 ± 3.6 µg/m 3 . This showed a total of 61% reduction in the level of PM 10 due to lockdown (Table 4 ). The PM 10 concentration was found to be very high over the Faridabad area in the year 2019.

PM 2.5 and PM 10 showed a 55% and 61% decrease in concentration due to lockdown. Similar reduction in the PM 2.5 and PM 10 were observed in Baghdad [ 9 ], Malaysia [ 19 ], South America [ 17 ], and China [ 26 ] among others. The major source of PM 2.5 and PM 10 in this region is the natural dusty wind, vehicle emissions, industrial emissions, and stubble burning [ 10 , 27 , 28 ]. The districts that fall in the NCR region (i.e. Faridabad, Gurugram, Jhajjar, and Sonipat) showed high PM 2.5 values even in the lockdown scenario [ 27 ]. This may be due to the limited movement of vehicles in these regions along with agriculture residue burning which is prevalent during this period in normal years.

3.2.3 SO 2 variation

SO 2 were found to be consistently higher and spatially variable in non-COVID scenario i.e. in the April month of the year 2019, as compared to April 2020 (Fig.  4 d). The effect of COVID-19 driven lockdown on SO 2 concentration was seen in the form of a reduction of 31%. The average SO 2 in the April month of the year 2019 was 23.7 ± 7.85 (µg/m 3 ) and for April 2020 it was 16.5 ± 7.03 (µg/m 3 ).

A significant reduction of 31% ( p  = 0.00) was observed in SO 2 over the region, during COVID-19 scenario. The reduction is attributed to the lockdown as most of the industrial activities, vehicular movements, and Brick cline operations were stopped during COVID-19. Similar reductions (19.51%) in the SO 2 concentration were observed over South and South East Asian region due to lockdown amid COVID-19 [ 20 ].

3.2.4 NO 2 variation

NO 2 was also found to be higher in the non-COVID scenario (Fig.  4 e). The NO 2 values were ranging from 20.02 (µg/m 3 ) to 61.14 (µg/m 3 ) with an average 20.94 ± 3.75 (µg/m 3 ) for April 2019 which get reduced by 10% to reach an average of 18.77 ± 3.93 (µg/m 3 ) for April 2020. The difference in mean concentration was significant ( p  = 0.05).

NO 2 also showed a decrease in concentration and results were following other studies from across the world such as Siddiqui et al. and Sur et al. [ 6 , 12 ] in India, Dantas et al. [ 13 ] in Brazil, Brimblecombe and Lai [ 21 ] in China, and Jephcote et al. [ 22 ] in United Kingdom (UK). Though the decrease in NO 2 concentration was significant ( p  = 0.05), it decreased less as compared to other pollutants (except CO and CH 4 ). This may be attributed due to the vehicle movements in local areas [ 22 ] for the distribution of facilities to the migrants and low-income group peoples.

3.2.5 CO variation

CO mainly originates from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuel. The spatial distribution of CO concentration was found to be decreasing in the year 2020 (Fig.  4 f). Spatial statistics at the district level show a 5% decrease (Tables 4 and 5 ). Gurugram, Faridabad, and districts near Yamunanagar were having very high CO concentration in April 2019 which gets reduced in the COVID-19 scenario.

CO showed a decrease in concentration by 5% in the strict lockdown scenario. CO was found to be high in the Faridabad district during April month of the year 2019 which get significantly reduced in the April month of the year 2020 by 15%. A similar decrease was observed in the northern districts (Karnal, Kurukshetra, Ambala, and Yamunanagar) of the state. The industrial operations were closed during the COVID-19 lockdown and thus decrease in the pollution level was observed similar to the others [ 21 ]. The decrease in the CO was actual with high confidence at p  < 0.00. Further, coal burning in the street restaurant and stubble burning in the open field has also reduced due to COVID-19 driven lockdown, which further reduces the CO concentration over these regions.

3.2.6 CH 4 variation

CH 4 concentration was consistent during the lockdown period at the district level statistics. However, spatial distribution showed higher CH 4 concentration in non-COVID scenario i.e. in the year 2019, especially in Gurugram, Faridabad, and Palwal region. Southern portions were found to be with high CH 4 concentration (Fig.  4 g). Only a 1% decrease was observed in CH 4 due to COVID-driven lockdown.

CH 4 concentration was consistent and a minor reduction (1%) was observed. The southern part of the state had shown high CH 4 in both years. The high concentration of CH 4 over southern-districts may be due to emission from higher livestock populations in the southern part of the Haryana, low-lying wet areas, and prevailing wind direction from North (Paddy belt) to South. Small differences in CH 4 during April lockdown may also be attributed to the missing data in the year 2020.

3.3 Impact of COVID-19 on AQI and ER%

Significant reduction in the AQI and ER% were observed (Figs.  5 , 6 ). Impact of COVID-19 on AQI (Fig.  5 a, b) was seen in the form of reduced values and improved air quality in the April month of the year 2020 (Fig.  5 b) as compared to April 2019 (Fig.  5 a). The average AQI was 176 in the April month of the year 2019 while 99 in April 2020. At the district level, the AQI was moderate to unhealthy (for sensitive groups) (Figs.  5 a, b, 7 a). However, the AQI was consistently higher (> 150) for all the districts in the non-COVID scenario (year, 2019) and at a low to moderate level, i.e. < 100 during the lockdown phase.

AQI for the month of April, a 2019, and b 2020

ER% for the month of April, a 2019, and b 2020

District-wise, a AQI, and b ER%, for entire Haryana, before (blue bars) and during (red bars) COVID-19 lockdown

All the districts have shown a considerable decrease in the ER% due to lockdown amid COVID-19 (Figs.  6 a, b, 7 b). Overall, ER% in the state get significantly reduced ( p  = 0.00). We have also observed a hotspot over the Faridabad district, which is an industrial area. High ER% was also observed for Fatehabad, Mahendragarh, and Yamunanagar districts during April 2019. However, the same was not observed for April 2020.

Interestingly, the areas with industries have shown relatively high ER% during the year 2020. This showed that the industrial operations were not stopped during the lockdown period and these areas serve as a hotspot of pollution during lockdown which was otherwise not clear in the year 2019. The AQI, as well as ER%, have shown a gradual decrease i.e. 44% and 71% respectively during the lockdown phase. As we can see in Fig.  6 , the hotspot was shown in the parts of Faridabad during April 2019 and 2020.

This part has been further visualised in Google Earth and concluded that this area consists heavily of industry, causing a release of the high volume of particulate matter and other pollutants, due to which there is a hotspot of AQI and ER% (Fig.  8 ). But still, during the lockdown, these areas have shown a low scale of AQI and decreased considerably from unhealthy to moderate level.

AQI hotspot visible during lockdown period associated with industries in these areas. The industries showed are only representative and the contribution of other sources/industries is combined

AQI completely based on satellite measured products along with the estimation of ER% is the novelty of the current work. A significant ( p  = 0.00) reduction (44%) in the AQI values was observed due to the reduction in the concentration of criteria pollutants. Our findings were consistent with the [ 5 , 9 , 20 ]. Most of the region comes near to the satisfactory level of AQI as per the Government norms during the lockdown. Improvement in AQI and ER% was observed in all the districts due to reduced industrial operations, agriculture practices like residue burning, and transport activities as a result of COVID-19 driven lockdown enforcement [ 1 , 5 , 6 , 9 , 10 , 14 , 17 ].

This analysis showed the industrial pollution was prevailing during the lockdown and highlighted the places of industrial operations even in lockdown enforcement conditions. The method proposed in this work is having global importance and can be applied for the regular monitoring of satellite-based AQI and ER% as both the parameters are in high agreement with ground-based estimates.

3.4 Validation of AQI and ER%

We have also validated satellite-based AQI and ER% with ground-based AQI and ER%. A very high correlation was observed between satellite-based AQI and ground-based AQI. The validation results have shown a very good agreement with r 2  > 0.88 and 0.94 for AQI and ER%. The Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) for AQI was 23.05 and for ER% it was 1.12. The correlation plots are presented in Fig.  9 a, b.

Scatter plot for satellite and ground-based AQI and ER% validation, a AQI and b ER%

4 Conclusions

Based on the analysis of satellite derived air pollutants, AQI, and ER% for April 2019 (non-COVID) and 2020 (with COVID), over Haryana state, India, some of the key conclusions are drown. Significant differences in the concentration of almost all the pollutants were observed due to COVID-19 driven lockdown measures. Highest decrease was observed in PM 10 followed by PM 2.5 , AOD, SO 2 , NO 2 , CO, and CH 4 . Improved air quality (AQI) and Health Risk (ER%) is also resulted from lockdown measures. Satellite data showed a good agreement with ground observations (r 2  > 0.5 for all the pollutants). We consider AQI and ER% assessment as an important aspect of our work, where we have used only satellite derived parameters. Satellite-based AQI showed high correlation and less error (r 2  = 0.88, and low RMSE of 23.05) with AQI estimated from ground-based data. Significant reduction (44%) in AQI values indicates the improvement of air quality of the study area due to the COVID-19 driven lockdown, which is far better than the decided limit (20–30%) of NCAP target. Simultaneously, the ER% derived from satellite-based data also showed decrease of 71% with respected to the previous year’s ER%. The currently identified ER% from satellite-measured parameters showed a very good agreement with ER% calculated from ground-based data with r 2 0.93 and RMSE 1.12. Satellite-based ER% assessed in this study is a novel work and maybe up-scaled to the global scale. It may be beneficial for the health management of the global population.

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Acknowledgements

Authors are thankful to ESA and NASA for satellite data. CPCB is also acknowledged for providing ground/stations data. Director, HARSAC is acknowledged for providing lab facilities. Environment and Climate Change Department, Haryana is acknowledged for funding the research (Programme Code: P-31-1-1-3435-03-800-95-51).

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Singh, D., Nanda, C. & Dahiya, M. State of air pollutants and related health risk over Haryana India as viewed from satellite platform in COVID-19 lockdown scenario. Spat. Inf. Res. 30 , 47–62 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41324-021-00410-9

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Received : 27 December 2020

Revised : 10 June 2021

Accepted : 27 June 2021

Published : 21 July 2021

Issue Date : February 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s41324-021-00410-9

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Essay on Manipur

Students are often asked to write an essay on Manipur in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Manipur

Introduction.

Manipur, a jewel of India, is a state in Northeast India. Known for its diverse culture, it is rich in every sense, be it in the beauty of nature or the culture of the populace.

Manipur is bordered by Nagaland, Mizoram, Assam and Myanmar. It has a unique topography with hills, valleys, forests and several rivers.

The state is a melting pot of culture. It is renowned for its dance forms like Manipuri dance, festivals like Yaoshang, and art forms.

The economy is primarily agrarian, with significant contribution from handicrafts, handlooms and tourism sectors.

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250 Words Essay on Manipur

Manipur, a jewel of India, is a northeastern state known for its diverse culture, rich history, and breathtaking landscapes. It is an epitome of harmony, blending various tribes, communities, and cultures.

Geographical Significance

Nestled amid high ridges, Manipur is surrounded by Nagaland in the north, Mizoram in the south, and Assam in the west. Its eastern frontier borders Myanmar. The state’s topography is unique, with 90% hilly terrain and a central valley, home to Loktak Lake, the largest freshwater lake in northeastern India.

Cultural Diversity

Manipur’s cultural diversity is its hallmark. It is home to various ethnic groups like Meiteis, Nagas, Kukis, and Pangals, each with its distinct traditions, dialects, and art forms. Manipuri dance, also known as ‘Ras Lila’, is a classical Indian dance form recognized globally.

Economic Aspects

Manipur’s economy primarily relies on agriculture, handicrafts, and handloom. The state’s sericulture industry is notable, producing a unique variety of silk, Moirang Phee. However, the state’s economic potential remains untapped due to infrastructural challenges and geographical isolation.

Manipur, the ‘Switzerland of India’, is a state of immense potential. Its geographical beauty, cultural richness, and unique biodiversity make it a treasure trove. However, it requires focused efforts to overcome its economic and infrastructural challenges to fully harness its potential.

500 Words Essay on Manipur

Manipur, often referred to as the “Jewel of India”, is a state in Northeast India that boasts a rich cultural heritage, unique traditions, and breathtaking natural beauty. The state is a melting pot of cultures, with over 29 different ethnic groups cohabiting in harmony.

Nestled amidst verdant hills, Manipur is bordered by Nagaland to the north, Mizoram to the south, and Assam to the west, while sharing an international border with Myanmar to the east. The state’s topography is characterized by a central valley surrounded by mountain ranges, with the Barak River being a significant water body. The unique Loktak Lake, the largest freshwater lake in Northeast India, is a significant geographical feature of Manipur, housing the only floating national park in the world – Keibul Lamjao National Park.

Manipur is a mosaic of traditions and cultures. The majority of the state’s population comprises the Meitei, who follow Sanamahism, a form of animism, alongside Hinduism. Other ethnic groups include the Nagas, Kukis, and Pangals (Manipuri Muslims), each with their unique customs and traditions. The state’s rich cultural tapestry is reflected in its traditional dance forms like Manipuri Raas Leela and martial arts like Thang-Ta.

Economy and Development

Agriculture is the backbone of Manipur’s economy, with around 70% of the population engaged in it. The state is also known for its handloom and handicrafts industries, producing exquisite textiles and bamboo products. However, Manipur faces numerous developmental challenges, including a lack of infrastructure, political instability, and armed conflicts. Despite these, the state has shown resilience and is steadily moving towards progress with increased focus on sectors like tourism and information technology.

Manipur’s Role in Indian History

Manipur played a significant role in India’s freedom struggle and World War II. The Battle of Imphal, fought in Manipur, was a turning point in World War II. Manipur was also a princely state during the British Raj and merged with the Indian Union in 1949.

Manipur, with its diverse cultures, rich history, and scenic beauty, is a microcosm of India’s diversity and resilience. The state, despite its challenges, continues to contribute significantly to India’s socio-cultural fabric and economic growth. Its unique blend of tradition and modernity serves as a beacon of cultural preservation and progressive change. As such, understanding Manipur is crucial for comprehending the complexities of India’s Northeast and its role in shaping the country’s identity.

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Essay on Air Pollution – Causes, Effects, Solutions, Conclusion

Category: Essays and Paragraphs On November 20, 2018 By Aparna

Air Pollution

The whole world has been suffering from lots of problems since its existence, and the problems are getting bigger and bigger day by days.

One of the biggest problems that the entire planet faces is the amount of pollution on the planet. Pollution is of several kinds, but the pollution that affects the most to our nature and environment is Air pollution .

Air pollution is the pollution in which the pollutants get released in the air, and those pollutants then pollute the air which affects the health of a human being.

Air pollution is the pollution when the dirt, dirt particles and other kinds of pollutants get mixed to air and make the air polluted.

Today, every city in the world is suffering from air pollution , and that is why a lot of people and organizations in the world are trying their best to save the world from air pollution.

Air Pollution in India

Indian cities are much polluted and that can get seen from various visuals. Land and air pollution are connected directly as if the land is dirty, after a few days, that dirty land will lead to air pollution. In India, there are only a few surfaces where the pollution level is less. For example, the pollution level in Chandigarh city is lesser than a lot of cities in India. However, the pollution level in various cities of NCR, UP and Bihar is way higher than a lot of cities in India. The air pollution in India is getting increased day by day. But, the good news is that the people who had no interest in cleaning their country before, are now getting involved in schemes like Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, etc.

There are lots of causes of air pollution in the world and here are a few of those causes:

• The burning of fossil fuels is the biggest cause of air pollution, and that is why it has been prohibited at a lot of places in the world.
• Cars, buses, motorbikes are another big cause of air pollution because they emit a lot of pollution also.
• Volcano eruptions are another big cause of air pollution.
• When we cook at home, sometimes we need wood and charcoal for it, and these materials cause a huge amount of air pollution.
• People smoking cigarettes is another big cause of air pollution.
• If due to some reason a forest catches fire , then it becomes one of the biggest reasons for air pollution.

These are a few effects on human beings, plants, and animals due to air pollution:

• The rainwater flows through the surface and ends in the river, and when the surface gets polluted, all the rainwater will take the polluted surface particles with itself which will not only pollute the river, but it will also pollute the land through which the water flows .
• A lot of people suffer from allergies which are a side effect of living in an air-polluted
• Air pollution can also lead to severe diseases like cancer, heart diseases, and other respiratory problems, etc.
• One should restrict the use of charcoal , wood, thus the pollution caused by these resources would not be there in the world.
• A restriction should be there on industries to use the kind of materials which causes zero to no air pollution at all.
• The cities which have the maximum air pollution should get asked as to how they will reduce the air pollution and what are their plans for it.

Air pollution is a huge problem not only in India but the whole world, various organizations do their bit to make sure that plans are made to restrict air pollution , but unfortunately those plans never get executed rightly. That is why even after knowing that the air is getting polluted every day, the organizations around the world are unable to provide a good solution to it. As a human being, we must contribute, that is why, we need to gather and make sure that all the places, suffering from air pollution, should get organized in a manner so that air pollution should not exist. Everyone should participate in schemes like Swachh Bharat Abhiyan which will not only reduce the air pollution in the country but will also reduce various other kinds of pollution.

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Environmental Factor

Your online source for niehs news, papers of the month.

Intramural By Janelle Weaver and Meklit Daniel

Standardizing zebrafish studies for toxicology testing

Zebrafish experiments across different laboratories produce generally consistent results regarding test substances’ activity, but not their potencies, according to researchers from the Division of Translational Toxicology.

Embryonic zebrafish represent a useful test system to screen substances based on their ability to perturb development. However, the exposure scenarios, endpoints captured, and data analyses vary among the laboratories that conduct screening. A lack of harmonization impedes the comparison of substance potency and toxicity outcomes across laboratories and may hinder the broader adoption of this model for regulatory use.

To address this problem, the researchers developed the Systematic Evaluation of the Application of Zebrafish in Toxicology (SEAZIT) initiative to investigate the sources of variability in toxicity testing. This initiative involved an interlaboratory study to determine whether experimental parameters altered the developmental toxicity of a set of 42 substances in three diverse laboratories.

The researchers observed reasonable agreement across the three laboratories as 33 of 42 test substances (78.6%) had the same activity call (i.e., a test substance generated a response [active] vs. no response [inactive]). However, the differences in potency seen using variable in-house protocols emphasize the importance of harmonizing exposure variables under evaluation. According to the authors, the lessons learned from the study emphasize the potential benefits of standardized testing protocols for the zebrafish research community interested in toxicology testing. (JW)

Citation : Hamm JT, Hsieh JH, Roberts GK, Collins B, Gorospe J, Sparrow B, Walker NJ, Truong L, Tanguay RL, Dyballa S, Miñana R, Schiavone V, Terriente J, Weiner A, Muriana A, Quevedo C, Ryan KR. 2024. Interlaboratory study on zebrafish in toxicology: Systematic Evaluation of the Application of Zebrafish in Toxicology's (SEAZIT's) evaluation of developmental toxicity. Toxics 12(1):93.

Personal care product use during puberty may affect breast cancer risk

Frequent use of personal care products (PCPs) during puberty may lead to increased breast cancer rates later in life, according to NIEHS researchers. The study is the first to investigate the use of “everyday” PCPs, such as makeup and skincare products, around the time of puberty in relation to breast cancer incidence.

Many PCPs contain endocrine-disrupting chemicals that may affect breast cancer risk. Racial and ethnic differences in PCP use patterns and the chemicals in products marketed to specific groups may contribute to breast cancer disparities. Breast tissue undergoes rapid changes during puberty and may be vulnerable to the effects of chemicals in PCPs.

To examine how use of 37 everyday PCPs during puberty may affect breast cancer incidence, the researchers analyzed self-reported data from 4,049 Black, 2,104 Hispanic, and 39,312 White women in the Sister Study. PCP use patterns at ages 10-13 years were not clearly linked with breast cancer diagnosis. However, breast cancer rates were elevated among Black women who reported frequent nail and perfume product use during puberty and among Black and Hispanic women who reported frequent hair product use during the same period.

According to the authors, these findings provide some evidence that frequent PCP use during puberty is associated with increased breast cancer risk, especially among racially and ethnically minoritized groups. More research is needed to determine whether reducing PCP use during this critical developmental window may reduce breast cancer risk.

Citation : Goldberg M, Chang CJ, Ogunsina K, O'Brien KM, Taylor KW, White AJ, Sandler DP. 2024. Personal care product use during puberty and incident breast cancer among Black, Hispanic/Latina, and White women in a prospective US-wide cohort . Environ Health Perspect 132(2):27001. (MD)

Autoantibodies signal poor prognosis for inflammatory condition

Myositis-associated autoantibodies (MAAs) are a prevalent marker of poor prognosis for patients with juvenile myositis, according to NIEHS researchers and their collaborators.

Myositis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation affecting the muscles. The manifestations of this condition may include skin issues, muscle weakness, and the potential involvement of other organs. MAAs are immune system proteins that are directed against one or more of the individual's own proteins. They are present in patients with myositis and other autoimmune connective tissue diseases. Overall, MAAs remain largely uncharacterized in juvenile-onset myositis. Moreover, it is unknown whether the number of MAAs is associated with disease severity.

To this end, the researchers characterized the prevalence, clinical features, and outcomes associated with MAAs in a large North American cohort of patients with juvenile-onset myositis. Among 551 patients, 36% had an MAA and 13% had more than one MAA.

MAA positivity was associated with certain clinical features, including Raynaud phenomenon and interstitial lung disease, as well as a chronic disease course and mortality. The number of MAAs also was associated with mortality. According to the authors, prospective studies are needed to determine whether early detection of MAAs may lead to improved outcomes for patients with juvenile myositis. (JW)

Citation : Sherman MA, Noroozi Farhadi P, Pak K, Trieu EP, Sarkar K, Targoff IN, Neely ML, Mammen AL, Rider LG; Childhood Myositis Heterogeneity Collaborative Study Group. 2024. Myositis-associated autoantibodies in juvenile myositis are associated with refractory disease and mortality . Arthritis Rheumatol; doi: 10.1002/art.42813. [Online ahead of print 25 Jan. 2024].

How smoking affects DNA methylation

Thousands of DNA methylation patterns have been linked to smoking, and most revert to normal within one year of quitting, according to NIEHS researchers and their collaborators.

Smoking causes adverse health outcomes throughout life as well as alterations in DNA methylation — a biological process by which methyl groups are added to the DNA molecule. Although it is well established that smoking leads to changes in DNA methylation at specific CpG sites, several important research gaps remain.

To address these knowledge gaps, the researchers analyzed data from 15,014 adults from four studies. They identified several thousand CpGs linked to smoking. The results also showed that the effects of smoking on DNA methylation can be largely reversed within one year of quitting. However, 25% of CpGs did not attenuate within one year. Smoking-related methylation at some CpG sites may differ by sex or dietary factors. In addition, exposure to smoking during pregnancy alters DNA methylation with effects that last into adulthood.

Taken together, the results address important gaps regarding impacts of smoking on methylation with potential insights into smoking-related health outcomes, many of which persist after quitting. Moreover, the findings demonstrate that pregnancy is a vulnerable window of susceptibility that can alter DNA methylation throughout life. (JW)

Citation : Hoang TT, Lee Y, McCartney DL, Kersten ETG, Page CM, Hulls PM, Lee M, Walker RM, Breeze CE, Bennett BD, Burkholder AB, Ward J, Brantsæter AL, Caspersen IH, Motsinger-Reif AA, Richards M, White JD, Zhao S, Richmond RC, Magnus MC; BIOS Consortium; Koppelman GH, Evans KL, Marioni RE, Håberg SE, London SJ. 2024. Comprehensive evaluation of smoking exposures and their interactions on DNA methylation . EBioMedicine 100:104956.

Outdoor air pollution may be linked to uterine cancer in U.S. women

Residential exposure to nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a possible proxy for vehicular traffic-related pollution, is associated with a higher incidence of uterine cancer among U.S. women, according to NIEHS researchers and their collaborators.

Outdoor air pollution consists of a heterogenous mixture of compounds, some of which may function as endocrine disruptors and therefore may be particularly relevant to hormone-related health conditions. For example, NO2 has been consistently associated with a higher risk of breast cancer. However, few studies have examined the relationship between ambient air pollution and uterine cancer.

To address this gap, the researchers investigated whether residential exposure to outdoor air pollution — specifically NO2 and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) — was associated with uterine cancer incidence among 33,417 women in the NIEHS Sister Study cohort. Although no association was observed for PM2.5, a five parts-per-billion increase in NO2 was associated with a 20% higher incidence of uterine cancer. This association for NO2 was also particularly apparent in women living in urban areas, but not those in rural or suburban areas.

These findings suggest a relationship between traffic-related emissions and uterine cancer, thus expanding the scope of health effects associated with outdoor air pollution and highlighting the need for policy and other interventions to reduce air pollutant levels.

Citation : Brown JA, Ish JL, Chang CJ, Bookwalter DB, O'Brien KM, Jones RR, Kaufman JD, Sandler DP, White AJ. 2024. Outdoor air pollution exposure and uterine cancer incidence in the Sister Study . J Natl Cancer Inst djae031. (MD)

(Janelle Weaver, Ph.D., is a contract writer for the NIEHS Office of Communications and Public Liaison, and Meklit Daniel is a fellow in the NIEHS Environment and Cancer Epidemiology Group.)