air pollution project work methodology class 12

Search This Blog

True Talks by Meet Gandhi

Class 12th maharashtra board (hsc) evs project: air pollution.

CLASS 12th MAHARASHTRA BOARD (HSC) EVS PROJECT: AIR POLLUTION

SELECTION OF PROJECT TOPIC (INTRODUCTION):

Air pollution is the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials. There are different types of air pollutants, such as gases (such as ammonia, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxides, methane and chlorofluorocarbons), particulates (both organic and inorganic), and biological molecules. Air pollution may cause diseases, allergies and even death to humans; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops, and may damage the natural environment (for example, climate change, ozone depletion or habitat degradation) or built environment (for example, acid rain). Both human activity and natural processes can generate air pollution. Air pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of pollution-related diseases, including respiratory infections, heart disease, COPD, stroke and lung cancer. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics. Indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the world's worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report. Outdoor air pollution alone causes 2.1 to 4.21 million deaths annually. Overall, air pollution causes the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide each year, and is the world's largest single environmental health risk. Productivity losses and degraded quality of life caused by air pollution are estimated to cost the world economy $5 trillion per year. Various pollution control technologies and strategies are available to reduce air pollution.

IMPORTANCE OF THE TOPIC:

Air pollution inflicts a massive toll on the Indian economy. Its scale, complexity and urgency necessitate a strong, coherent and coordinated fiscal response by the government. However, recent relief and stimulus spending in response to the COVID-19 pandemic has crippled the Indian economy and led to a massive spike[10] in public debt. With limited room available for fiscal manoeuver, the government faces the massive challenge of financing measures to improve air quality. The imperative is to create a financial architecture that can mobilize private finance for clean-air solutions in India. Green sectors such as clean energy and e-mobility are likely to be the driving force for developing and implementing tangible solutions to improve air quality. An investment fund with a dedicated green focus could play an instrumental role in catalysing growth of such green industries and simultaneously addressing the twin problems of air pollution and climate change. A Green Super-Fund would combine a returns-driven strategy with the sustainability imperative and accelerate investment in green industries. The Triple Bottom-line framework, with an emphasis on profit, people and the planet, will be at the heart of the Super-Fund’s performance management strategy. It would raise capital from institutional investors such as multilateral organizations, sovereign wealth funds, and development financial institutes. Since 2014, more than 40 environmental startups have been set up in India with the singular goal of combatting the air pollution crisis. The Super-Fund would play a pivotal role in harnessing the economic and environmental potential of these startups and financing other high-impact ventures. There are several other channels through which the private sector can contribute to cleaner air and demonstrate that economic development and air pollution abatement are not mutually exclusive.

OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT WORK:

To reduce the impacts of air pollution, both international and national legislation and regulation have been implemented to regulate air pollution. Local laws where well enforced in cities have lead to strong public health improvements. At the international level some of these efforts have been successful, for example the Montreal Protocol which successful at reducing release of harmful ozone depleting chemicals or 1985 Helsinki Protocol which reduced sulfur emissions, while other attempts have been less rapid in implementation, such as international action on climate change. To Setting up of a state-of-the-art advanced and integrated air pollution model system from hemispheric scale, European scale, and national scale, for calculation and assessment of high resolution (down to 1 km x 1 km resolution) air pollution levels and human exposure, including assessing the contribution related to different emission sectors and regions. This work is carried out in WP2. To Investigate the potential causal impact of individual chemical air pollutants as well as mixtures of air pollutants on health outcomes. In pursuing this aim, we utilize the unique Nordic population-based registers allowing linkage between historical residential address, air pollutants over decades and later health outcomes. By linking the exposure to health outcomes, new exposure-response relationships are determined of health effects for different population Groups To quantify the overall negative health outcomes of air pollution in terms of premature deaths, hospital admissions, days of reduced activity, respiratory diseases, mental disorders, etc. on high resolution down to 1 km x 1 km in the Nordic countries for the different population groups, using the integrated model system EVA, based on the impact pathway chain.

PROJECT WORK METHODOLOGY:

According to the WHO, air pollution is the fifth largest killer in India. There are a variety of ways in which the air pollution of an area can be measured. One of the ways is the measurement of particulate matter in air. Particulate matter is a mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplets like acids, chemicals, gas, water, metals, soil dust particles, etc. These particles cause major health hazard in India. The changing temperature and slowing winds trap soot, dust and fine particulate matter. The particulate matter is present in a variety of sizes ranging from coarse, fine, to ultrafine.

According to the Ambient Air Pollution (AAP) report for the year 2018, Delhi had one of the highest pollution levels in the world. This result was based on the monitoring of PM measurement of outdoor air pollution from almost 1,600 cities in 91 countries. Last year, a public health emergency was declared in Delhi as pollution levels crossed 70 times the safe limit.

The methodology required for quantifying the health effects of air pollution is derived from the Health and Air Pollution in study, a joint initiative from the Health Research Council, the Ministry for the Environment and the Ministry of Transport (Fisher et al, 2007). This study represents the most comprehensive analysis of air pollution, its health implications, and the resulting societal costs conducted in New Zealand. The research evaluated the effects of specific source categories of emissions from vehicles (including private petrol cars, diesel cars, and diesel trucks), industry, domestic and total sources in New Zealand.

The research encompassed five interconnected components:

 air quality, meteorology and emissions data analysis

 air pollution exposure assessment

 health impact assessment

 economic impact assessment

 preventative policy assessment.

Air quality is a measure of how clean or polluted the air is. Monitoring air quality is important because polluted air can be bad for our health— and the health of the environment. Air quality is measured with the Air Quality Index, or AQI. The AQI works sort of like a thermometer that runs from 0 to 500 degrees.

Basically, there are two general approaches to air pollution exposure assessment:

(1) air monitoring, which depends on either direct measurements (personal monitors) or indirect measurements (fixed-site monitors combined with data on time-activity patterns), and

(2) biological measurements that use biological markers.

WHO defines HIA as “a combination of procedures, methods and tools by which a policy, programe or project may be judged as to its potential effects on the health of a population, and the distribution of those effects within the population”.

The purpose of an economic impact assessment is to estimate the changes in employment, income, and levels of business activity (typically measured by gross receipts or value added) that may result from a proposed project or program.

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, aims to enable the “preservation of the quality of air and control of air pollution.” It was enacted to fulfil India's commitments at the 1972 United Nations environment conference

OBSERVATION:

Air pollution problems of a scale larger than the point monitoring problem lend themselves to space observational techniques. Examples of these large scale problems are those associated with changes in the global background of gases and aerosols; potential stratospheric pollution resulting from SST operations; regional sources, pollution episodes, and large scale diffusion; and effects of pollutants on climate. These problems are discussed and observational requirements are specified. Possible remote sensing techniques for satellite monitoring are described. These include monitoring of pollutant gases and particulates by means of their absorption and scattering of radiation in both the solar spectrum range and terrestrial emission spectrum range. A discussion of potential difficulties includes the atmospheric and surface background problems, the temperature sensitivity problem in the terrestrial spectrum range, the band overlap problem, and the cloud interference problem. Recent observations from satellites and balloons are reviewed. It appears that except for H2O, and, perhaps, O3 , measurements of the vertical profiles of atmospheric pollutant gases and aerosols from satellites will be extremely difficult. On the other hand, measurements of the total amounts (in a vertical column) of pollutant gases and aerosols do appear feasible.

ANALYSIS OF DATA:

Many studies suggest the quality of air has been significantly improving in the last years in the majority of the world regions. However, air quality still creates a significant problem in Europe, especially in some densely populated urban areas and during certain weather conditions. Several reports observe the serious impact of the air pollution on the people’s health and many analysis and models have been tested to understand and finally reduce the problem. The air pollution primarily results from:

 Natural processes (soil erosion, volcano eruptions)

 Human activity,

which includes three major sources:

o Industry pollution

o Traffic pollution (air exhaust, brake and tire wear, dust resuspension from roads, air and sea traffic)

o House heating

In addition to the increasing level of certain chemical compounds (CO, SO2, NOx, BC, etc.) in the air, a dangerous type of pollution are small particles suspended in the atmosphere generated by a variety of human activities – Particulate Matter (PM) or Particulates. PM is a type of air pollution that can travel long distances in the atmosphere and causes a wide range of diseases and a significant reduction of life expectancy in most of the population of Europe There is a predictability to the narrative around North India’s air pollution. Air that is unhealthy all year-round becomes unbreathable during winter, largely due to particulate matter in emissions from farm fires in Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh. This contributes to the portrayal of farmers as the primary architects of Delhi’s air pollution crisis, and short-term solutions sustain only till the skies clear up. There is no denying that the effects of seasonal paddy stubble burning are severe—it causes an estimated loss of 150,000 years of healthy life annually.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS:

Indoor environment is a complex issue in terms of toxicology and health risk assessment. There are many different types of pollutants which may give 11 rise to combined effects. The exposed population is the general public including vulnerable groups.

Many different factors influence air quality, e.g. ventilation, cleaning conditions, properties of buildings, products used in house-holds, cultural habits, climate, outdoor air etc. Thus, large variations in indoor environments can be expected across the EU.

The SCHER considers that the health risk assessment of the pollutants in indoor environments should be done according to the principles used in the EU for risk assessment of chemicals as this is an evidence based approach. Those principles should be applied on the data available and the specific features related to indoor environment taken into account. The risk assessment paradigm should be used flexibly, taking into account that complaints and diseases related to indoor exposures may have a complex cause-effect relationship.

The SCHER considers that the data base for indoor air risk assessment is in general limited. Frequently, there are more data available for risk assessment of “classical” indoor air pollutants such, as organic pollutants as compared to particles and microbes. Especially, more data on exposure, in quantitative terms, are required. Available dose-response data seldom cover vulnerable groups.

The SCHER has identified several gaps of knowledge, presented in answer to Question 2, which should be addressed by European-wide multidisciplinary research. As to single known compounds, SCHER considers carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, benzene, nitrogen oxides and naphthalene to be compounds of concern because they have caused adverse health effects as indoor pollutants or have a high potential to cause them.

Environmental tobacco smoke, radon, lead and organophosphates are also of concern. For most other pollutants the data available are yet limited for risk assessment as indoor air pollutants.

Consumer products, one source of chemicals in indoor environment, emit mostly volatile organic compounds. Lack of data on true exposure for emissions in consumer products has hampered evaluation of the associations with possible health effects most of which are also caused by other factors. The recent data suggest that some of the emitted products may react further in air and on surfaces producing secondary products, including fine and ultrafine particles. The health effects of those reaction products are poorly known.

Indoor air may contain over 900 chemicals, particles, and biological materials with potential health effects. Since their concentrations are usually higher than outdoors and people spend more time indoors than outdoors, the SCHER recommends that any studies to correlate outdoor air concentration with health effects need to consider the impact of indoor exposure.

The composition and concentrations of the different components in indoor air vary widely and are influenced by human activities. Since it is not feasible to regulate all possible scenarios, prevention from possible health effects and protection of sensitive populations is best achieved by reducing exposure. As a consequence the SCHER recommends that all relevant sources that are known to contribute should be evaluated. Such sources include tobacco smoke, any open fires including candles, building materials, furniture, pets and pests, use of household products, as well as conditions that lead to the growth of moulds. Constructers, maintenance personnel and inhabitants should also be aware that appropriate humidity avoids annoyances and sufficient air exchange reduces accumulation of pollutants.

MOTIVATIONAL THOUGHTS

Skip to primary navigation
Skip to main content
Skip to primary sidebar
Skip to footer

Study Mumbai

ICSE, CBSE study notes & home schooling, management notes, solved assignments

EVS Project (Class 12 ICSE): SYJC

December 26, 2021 by studymumbai Leave a Comment

EVS Project (ICSE Class 12) – SYJC (30 Marks)

Steps to Conduct the Project

Here are the steps for conducting the project work.

GET INSTANT HELP FROM EXPERTS!

Hire us as project guide/assistant . Contact us for more information

Introduction of the project – (2 marks-1 page- back to back) Background of the subject, Justification of choosing the topic

Importance of the project – (2 marks-1 side page) Why particular project is important

Objectives of the project – (2 marks-1 side page) what is that you will find out in the project (Should Start with “To”)

Methodology of the project –(4 marks-2 pages- back to back) Methods those will be used in data collection (siting the sources, survey, interviews etc.)

Observations – (4 marks-2 pages – back to back) Data/ information collection

Analysis – (4 marks-2 pages- back to back) on analysis of data- discuss ‘why’ of data

Results and Conclusion –(2 marks-1 page- back to back) what is the project outcome, what were the learnings from the project- did you fulfil objectives of project…

How to approach the Project

Selecting a topic

What topic should I research?

Keep your eyes and ears open..
Observe……..
Be inquisitive……
Ask why?????

Think big but Start small.

Should reflect what you will do.. Should not be vague, too general.

Aim and Objectives

What is that you want to find out…Write down the objectives of the project. Whether you already have little information and you want to find out further. Read relevant material.

Planning theresearch

Once you have identified the problem you want to work on – discuss with experts, Try to read some material on the subject (google is a good place to start..)

Finalise your methodology

How are you going to collect your data?

This depends on what you are going to explore

Questionnaire, semi structured interviews, observations, sample collection, lab analytical techniques.

Spend time on this aspect.

It is the most important part of your work. Do a sample first to test.

Analysing your data

Use graphs (bar graphs, pie diagram)

This will help you to understand patterns in your data.

Interpreting the data

What do the patterns in the analysis mean?

EVS Project Topics (ICSE Class 12)

Climate action plan dedicated to mumbai keeping in tune with climate adaptation, mitigation and resilience.

Intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc) report – 2021 on global warming with a focus on mumbai and maharashtra.

Ramsar sites in india – conservation of wetlands.

Survey the local rainwater harvesting installations if any in your locality. List down how it has benefitted the area.

Vehicular pollution – biggest contributor to city’s air pollution.

Study the local or nearby dam and write down the environmental issues concerning the dam and the locality.

Ecosystem restoration – Conservation of Aarey which acts as drainage basin and restoration of mangroves for creating carbon sink.

Biofuels – Production of biofuels (b10-ethanol etc.) in India.

Visit a local industry and study the environmental impacts of it in the surrounding area. Carry out interviews of local people about their views on the industry.

Study population status of your village/town /city for past 20 years ( since census is conducted every ten years) available on the indian national website (http//:censusindia.gov.in). Make a graphical representation of the changes seen and discuss the changes.

Report the weather changes experienced by you and other people in your area in the previous year. Make a report on how it is afffecting your own local environment.

Use sound level app to study the sound pollution in the area. Measure the noise levels at the market place, school, hospital, traffic signal. Prepare a detail report on it. Prepare a poster suggesting measures to reduce noise levels and its harmful effects.

Visit (or one on one video call/ phone call) the nearest hospital / doctor in your locality. Prepare a questionnaire to talk to the doctor on the increase or decrease in the patients and the types of diseases reported. Write the report what are the causes of diseases and preventive measures which can be taken. Make a report of the same.

Conduct a project in your locality to find out solid waste disposal in your locality. Make a poster to reduce the waste management in the community.

Utilisation of renewable enrgy sources in india. 16. Causes, impact, mitigation measures of tropical storms and cyclones like nisarg (2020) and tauktae (2021) in mumbai city.

Wildlife conservation – protection of natural habitat.

Hi-tech project to clean Mithi river in Mumbai.

The ground water levels have gone down due to increase in use of water by people.

A number of animal species have become extinct due to excessive disturbance of the natural environment by humans.

A number of plant species have become extinct due to excessive disturbance of the natural environment by humans.

There are new patterns of disease and pest attack with changes in rainfall pattern.

Organic farming or agriculture.

Biogas: source of renewable energy

Waste water treatment

Vermi-composting

Importance of mangrove cover

Water pollution due to oil spillage.

E-waste management

Mobile towers: Effects on environment

Mobile towers: Effects on human health

Extinctions of animals or plants (take one specific animal or plant)

The Sparrow: Concerns and conservation

Vanishing vultures: too late or is there hope?

Animal testing : is it ethical?

3 R mantra: for solid waste management

Ecofriendly celebration of festivals (take one specific festival)

Red Munia birds (Sample EVS Project)

Title: To study and do the assessment of Red Munia birds ( Red Avadavat) in Shindewadi village.

Introduction

Importance of study

Study will help to understand if there is illegal trade of birds in the area. Survey of these birds will help to identify the threats to this species. Study will throw light on the species distribution and identify the areas of occurrence. Awareness created among locals will help in protecting the species.

1. To study the distribution of red munias

2. To Study the abundance of the species (population of species)

3. To understand the threats of the species

Methodology

Write about study area – location, district, population of village, major occupation of people.

Field observations- visit the areas where munias are seen on every Sunday from 8 am to 10 am from January to July ( example- will change according to the project).

Count the number of individuals seen.

Document the activity- feeding, preening, nesting .

Write down plants on which they feed. Survey of people in village about the munias – prepare a questionnaire.

Observations

Table showing month wise data of population of red munias in the study area.

They are seen in small flocks 15 to 20 of them together. Only one flock was observed which increased in january.

List of plants on which they are seen feeding.

They mostly feed on grass seeds and seen in jowar field.

They are seen chirping all the time and very agile.

Observations and analysis – monthwise population

Population of munias change monthwise in the study area as shown in fig.

In January or winter more individuals of birds are seen which keep on decreasing by summer.

Local people interviews say that they are not to be seen so commonly in recent years.

11% people informed that they have seen people catching the area.

Results and conclusion

The red munias are seen in Shindewadi and nearby villages. Their numbers increase in January as maybe some local migration of birds happen inthe area. The threat to species is there is catching of birds is seen by very few (11%)local people. Another threat is also the changing crop pattern in the area. Instead of jowar – bajra people grow sugarcane or anjir, pomgranades (dalimb).

The red munias are seen in the village fields near the flowing stream. There number is decreasing and there are no large flocks seen. The birds are caught and local people have no idea why they are caught. The people who catch them are not from village.

CISCE Class 12 Environmental Science (EVS) Syllabus

CISCE Class 12 Environmental Science (EVS) Syllabus Topics

Modern Schools of Ecological Thought. Deep Ecology (Gary Snyder, Earth First) Vs. Shallow Ecology. Stewardship of Land (E.G. Wendell Berry).
Social Ecology [Marxist Environmentalism and Socialist Ecology (Barry Commoner)]. Feminism. Green Politics (E.g. Germany and England). Sustainable Development
Population and Conservation Ecology: Population and Conservation Ecology. Human Populations. Population Regulation. Human Population Control. Threats to the Ecosystem. Conservation
Monitoring Pollution: Pollution Monitoring. Monitoring the Atmosphere: Techniques. International and National Air Quality Standards. Water Testing. Soil Testing
Third World Development: Urban-rural Divide. A Critical Appraisal of Conventional Paradigm of Development from the Viewpoints of Sustainability, Environmental Impact and Equity. A Case Study of Gandhian Approach in Terms of Its Aims and Processes. Urban Environmental Planning and Management
Sustainable Agriculture: Traditional Agriculture in India. Food Environmental and Natural Resource Economics: Definition: Resources; Scarcity and Growth; Natural Resource Accounting. Gnp Vs. Other Forms of Measuring Income. Economic Status and Welfare (Net Economic Welfare, Nature Capital, Ecological Capital, Etc.). Externalities: Cost Benefit Analysis (Social, Ecological). Natural Capital Regeneration
International Relations and the Environment: Trans-national Characteristics of Environmental Issues Using Case Study of Amazonia, Trade in Wild Life and Ozone Depletion. Impact of International Politics, National Sovereignty and Interest. International Trade. International Aid

StudyMumbai.com is an educational resource for students, parents, and teachers, with special focus on Mumbai. Our staff includes educators with several years of experience. Our mission is to simplify learning and to provide free education. Read more about us .

EVS Project (Class 11 ICSE): FYJC
Environmental Science (EVS) Projects & Notes for…
EVS Project for Class 9 Students: Topics and Sample Projects
'Machines' Physics Project (ICSE Class X)
Nazi Concentration Camps: ICSE Class X Project

Reader Interactions

ICSE CLASS NOTES

ICSE Class 10 . ICSE Class 9
ICSE Class 8 . ICSE Class 7
ICSE Class 6 . ICSE Class 5
ICSE Class 4 . ICSE Class 2
ICSE Class 2 . ICSE Class 1

ACADEMIC HELP

Essay Writing
Assignment Writing
Dissertation Writing
Thesis Writing
Homework Help for Parents
M.Com Project
BMM Projects
Engineering Writing
Capstone Projects
BBA Projects
MBA Projects / Assignments
Writing Services
Book Review
Ghost Writing
Make Resume/CV
Create Website
Digital Marketing

STUDY GUIDES

Useful links.

Referencing Guides
Best Academic Websites
FREE Public Domain Books

Biology Article

Air Pollution Control

Air pollution & its control, air pollution definition.

“Air Pollution is the release of pollutants such as gases, particles, biological molecules, etc. into the air that is harmful to human health and the environment.”

Air Pollution Diagram

Table of Contents

What is Air Pollution?

Types of air pollutants, primary pollutants, secondary pollutants, causes of air pollution.

Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and humans drastically.

There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An increase or decrease in the composition of these gases is harmful to survival. This imbalance in the gaseous composition has resulted in an increase in earth’s temperature, which is known as global warming.

There are two types of air pollutants:

The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants. Sulphur-dioxide emitted from factories is a primary pollutant.

The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are known as secondary pollutants. Smog, formed by the intermingling of smoke and fog, is a secondary pollutant.

Burning of Fossil Fuels

The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of sulphur dioxide. Carbon monoxide released by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels also results in air pollution.

Automobiles

The gases emitted from vehicles such as jeeps, trucks, cars, buses, etc. pollute the environment. These are the major sources of greenhouse gases and also result in diseases among individuals.

Agricultural Activities

Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during agricultural activities. The insecticides, pesticides and fertilisers emit harmful chemicals in the atmosphere and contaminate it.

Factories and Industries

Factories and industries are the main source of carbon monoxide, organic compounds, hydrocarbons and chemicals. These are released into the air, degrading its quality.

Mining Activities

In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted using large pieces of equipment. The dust and chemicals released during the process not only pollute the air, but also deteriorate the health of the workers and people living in the nearby areas.

Domestic Sources

The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic chemicals that are released in the air. The smell from the newly painted walls is the smell of the chemicals present in the paints. It not only pollutes the air but also affects breathing.

Effects of Air Pollution

The hazardous effects of air pollution on the environment include:

Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart diseases among humans. The cases of lung cancer have increased in the last few decades. Children living near polluted areas are more prone to pneumonia and asthma. Many people die every year due to the direct or indirect effects of air pollution.

Global Warming

Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in the gaseous composition of the air. This has led to an increase in the temperature of the earth. This increase in earth’s temperature is known as global warming . This has resulted in the melting of glaciers and an increase in sea levels. Many areas are submerged underwater.

The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides in the air. The water droplets combine with these pollutants, become acidic and fall as acid rain which damages human, animal and plant life.

Ozone Layer Depletion

The release of chlorofluorocarbons, halons, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is the major cause of depletion of the ozone layer. The depleting ozone layer does not prevent the harmful ultraviolet rays coming from the sun and causes skin diseases and eye problems among individuals. Also Read: Ozone Layer Depletion

Effect on Animals

The air pollutants suspend in the water bodies and affect aquatic life. Pollution also compels the animals to leave their habitat and shift to a new place. This renders them stray and has also led to the extinction of a large number of animal species.

Following are the measures one should adopt, to control air pollution:

Avoid Using Vehicles

People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances. Rather, they should prefer public modes of transport to travel from one place to another. This not only prevents pollution, but also conserves energy.

Energy Conservation

A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. Therefore, do not forget to switch off the electrical appliances when not in use. Thus, you can save the environment at the individual level. Use of energy-efficient devices such as CFLs also controls pollution to a greater level.

Use of Clean Energy Resources

The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a larger level. Various countries, including India, have implemented the use of these resources as a step towards a cleaner environment.

Other air pollution control measures include:

By minimising and reducing the use of fire and fire products.
Since industrial emissions are one of the major causes of air pollution, the pollutants can be controlled or treated at the source itself to reduce its effects. For example, if the reactions of a certain raw material yield a pollutant, then the raw materials can be substituted with other less polluting materials.
Fuel substitution is another way of controlling air pollution. In many parts of India, petrol and diesel are being replaced by CNG – Compressed Natural Gas fueled vehicles. These are mostly adopted by vehicles that aren’t fully operating with ideal emission engines.
Although there are many practices in India, which focus on repairing the quality of air, most of them are either forgotten or not being enforced properly. There are still a lot of vehicles on roads which haven’t been tested for vehicle emissions.
Another way of controlling air pollution caused by industries is to modify and maintain existing pieces of equipment so that the emission of pollutants is minimised.
Sometimes controlling pollutants at the source is not possible. In that case, we can have process control equipment to control the pollution.
A very effective way of controlling air pollution is by diluting the air pollutants.
The last and the best way of reducing the ill effects of air pollution is tree plantation. Plants and trees reduce a large number of pollutants in the air. Ideally, planting trees in areas of high pollution levels will be extremely effective.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the major cause of air pollution, how air pollution causes global warming, what is acid rain name the gases responsible for acid rain., deforestation is a major reason for air pollution. explain..

Put your understanding of this concept to test by answering a few MCQs. Click ‘Start Quiz’ to begin!

Select the correct answer and click on the “Finish” button Check your score and answers at the end of the quiz

Visit BYJU’S for all Biology related queries and study materials

Your result is as below

Request OTP on Voice Call

Air Pollution Definition, Project, Information, Meaning, Assignment, Causes

Air Pollution Definition, Project, Information, Meaning, Causes is discussed here. Air pollution is now considered to be the world’s largest environmental health threat.

Table of Contents

Air Pollution Definition

A combination of gases and solid particles in the air cause air pollution. Particles that may be suspended include factory chemicals, dust, pollen, and mould spores. A significant source of ozone pollution in cities is a gas. Smog is the name for the air pollutions that results from ozone.

Air Pollution Meaning

Any physical, chemical, or biological alteration in the air is referred to as air pollutions. The major impact of air pollution on plants, animals, and people is caused by noxious gases, dust, and smoke.

The atmosphere contains a specific proportion of gases. It is detrimental to survival if the content of these gases increases or decreases. Global warming is the term used to describe the increase in the earth’s temperature caused by this imbalance in the gaseous composition.

Air Pollution Pictures for School Project Assignment

Air pollution pictures and Images for the school project are given below.

Air Pollution Information

Air pollution information refers to the presence of harmful or undesirable substances in the Earth’s atmosphere, which can have adverse effects on the environment, human health, and the well-being of other living organisms. These pollutants can be in the form of gases, particulate matter (tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in the air), or other compounds that, when present in high concentrations, can degrade air quality.

Air Pollution Information regarding Common air pollutants:

Particulate Matter (PM): Tiny particles or droplets in the air that can be inhaled into the lungs. PM can be of various sizes, with PM2.5 (particles with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers or smaller) and PM10 (particles with a diameter of 10 micrometers or smaller) being particularly concerning for human health.

Ground-Level Ozone (O3): Formed when pollutants from vehicles, industrial facilities, and other sources react in the presence of sunlight. Ground-level ozone can irritate the respiratory system and cause other health problems.

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Gases produced by combustion processes, mainly from vehicles and industrial sources. They contribute to the formation of smog and can have adverse effects on respiratory health.

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): A gas produced by burning fossil fuels containing sulfur, primarily in industrial processes and power plants. It can irritate the respiratory system and contribute to acid rain.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Organic chemicals that can easily evaporate into the air, coming from sources like gasoline, industrial processes, and some household products. VOCs can contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone and smog.

Carbon Monoxide (CO): A colorless, odorless gas produced by incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels. It can be harmful when inhaled in high concentrations, interfering with oxygen delivery to the body’s cells.

Heavy Metals: Elements such as lead, mercury, and cadmium can become airborne through industrial processes and have toxic effects on both the environment and human health.

Air pollution can result from various human activities, including transportation, industrial processes, energy production, agriculture, and even natural sources like wildfires and volcanic eruptions. It poses significant health risks, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, and can also harm ecosystems, damage buildings and infrastructure, and contribute to climate change when it involves greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). Efforts to reduce and control air pollution are crucial for protecting both human health and the environment.

Also read: Environmental Pollution Essay in English 1000 words

Air Pollution Causes

Following are the causes of Air Pollution

Causes 1: Burning of Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuel combustion releases a lot of sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere. Air pollution is also caused by carbon monoxide, which is generated when fossil fuels are burned inefficiently.

Causes 2: Automobiles

Vehicle emissions, including those from trucks, cars, buses, and jeeps, harm the environment. These are the main producers of greenhouse gases, and they also make people sick.

Causes 3: Agricultural Activities

One of the most dangerous gases released during agricultural operations is ammonia. Insecticides, pesticides, and fertilizers contaminate the atmosphere by emitting dangerous chemicals.

Causes 4: Factories and Industries

The primary source of carbon monoxide, organic compounds, hydrocarbons, and chemicals is industry and manufacturing. These are dispersed into the atmosphere, lowering the quality of it.

Causes 5: Mining Activities

The dust and chemicals released during the process of mining not only pollute the air but also affect the health of workers and people living in nearby places.

Causes 6: Domestic Sources

Some household products and cleaning chemicals contain toxic chemicals that are released in the air during their usage those. The smell and chemicals of that toxic product present in the air not only pollutes the air but increase breathing problem also.

Air Pollution Effects

Some common effects of air pollution are discussed below

Humans have developed a number of respiratory conditions and heart ailments as a result of air pollution. Over the past few decades, there has been an upsurge in lung cancer cases. Children who live close to polluted environments are more likely to get asthma and pneumonia. Each year, many individuals pass away as a result of air pollution, either directly or indirectly.

Global Warming

There is an imbalance in the gaseous composition of the air as a result of the release of greenhouse gases. The earth’s temperature has risen as a result of this. Global warming is the term used to describe this rise in earth’s temperature. As a result, glaciers are melting and the sea level is rising. There are many places that are underwater.

Must read : Global Warming- Definition, Causes and Effects

When fossil fuels are burned, dangerous chemicals like sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere. When water droplets interact with these contaminants, they turn acidic and release rain that harms both people and animals as well as plants.

Ozone Layer Depletion

The main factor contributing to the ozone layer’s depletion is the emission of hydrochlorofluorocarbons, halons, and chlorofluorocarbons into the atmosphere. People develop skin ailments and eye issues as a result of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays, which the ozone layer’s loss cannot stop.

Effects on Animals

Aquatic life is impacted by the air contaminants that suspend in water bodies. Additionally, pollution forces animals to relocate from their natural environment. This makes them stray and has caused a great deal of animal species to go extinct.

Air Pollution Project

Creating a project on air pollution is a great way to raise awareness about this important environmental issue and explore potential solutions. Here’s a step-by-step guide to help you plan and execute your air pollution project:

Step 1: Define the Purpose and Scope

Start by clearly defining the purpose of your project. What do you hope to achieve with it? Are you aiming to raise awareness, propose solutions, or both?
Determine the scope of your project. Will you focus on a specific aspect of air pollution, such as its sources, health effects, or solutions?

Step 2: Research and Gather Information

Research the causes and effects of air pollution. Use credible sources such as government agencies, scientific journals, and environmental organizations.
Collect data on air quality in your area, if possible. You can use air quality monitoring stations or portable air quality sensors.

Step 3: Create a Project Plan

Develop a project plan that outlines your goals, timeline, and resources needed.
Decide on the format of your project. Will it be a presentation, a report, a website, a video, or a combination of these?

Step 4: Raise Awareness

Design eye-catching visuals and materials to raise awareness about air pollution. This could include posters, infographics, or social media posts.
Organize events or activities to engage your community, such as workshops, webinars, or clean-up campaigns.

Step 5: Propose Solutions

Research and present solutions to mitigate air pollution. This may include government policies, technological innovations, lifestyle changes, and community initiatives.
Highlight the importance of individual actions in reducing air pollution, such as using public transportation, reducing energy consumption, and supporting clean energy sources.

Step 6: Communicate Findings

Create a compelling presentation or report summarizing your research, findings, and proposed solutions.
If relevant, share your project with local government officials, community leaders, or environmental organizations to garner support for your ideas.

Step 7: Take Action

Encourage your audience to take action. Provide practical tips and resources for individuals and communities to reduce air pollution.
Consider collaborating with local organizations or activists working on air quality improvement projects.

Step 8: Evaluate and Reflect

Assess the impact of your project. Did it raise awareness? Did it inspire people to take action?
Reflect on the challenges you encountered and what you learned during the project.

Step 9: Share Your Project

Share your project with a wider audience through social media, local news outlets, and online platforms to reach as many people as possible.

Step 10: Stay Involved

Continue to stay involved in environmental advocacy and stay informed about air quality issues.
Consider participating in ongoing initiatives or starting new projects to address air pollution.

Remember to document your project thoroughly, both for your own learning and to share your experience with others. Engaging with your community and raising awareness about air pollution can have a positive impact on the environment and public health.

Air Pollution: Ways to Stop

Here, we are discussing some ways to control air pollution

Avoid using vehicles for nearby places.
Since industrial emissions are one of the main contributors to air pollution, the pollutants can be reduced at the source by controlling or treating them. For instance, if a certain raw material reacts in a way that produces a pollutant, the raw material can be replaced with one that produces less pollution.
Use CNG in the place of diesel or petrol.
Maintain and modify pollution control equipment from time to time so that these can work properly.
The last but important way to reduce air pollution is to plant more and more trees in your surroundings.

There are two types of air pollutants

Primary Pollutants

Secondary pollutants.

The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as Primary Pollutants. Sulfur dioxide emitted from factories directly is an example of a Primary Pollutant.

Secondary pollutants are those that are created when primary pollutants mix and react with one another. Smog is a secondary pollutant that is created when smoke and fog mix.

Air Pollution Assignment

the whole process of working on an air pollution project assignment. Here’s a step-by-step outline of what you can do:

Decide on a specific aspect of air pollution that you want to focus on. For example, you could explore the causes, effects, solutions, or a specific pollutant like PM2.5 or CO2 emissions.
Collect data and information related to your chosen topic. Use reliable sources such as scientific journals, government reports, and environmental organizations’ websites.
Based on your research, create a set of research questions that you aim to answer in your project. These questions should be clear and specific.
Question 1: What is a common health effect of long-term exposure to air pollution? a) Headaches b) Respiratory problems c) Skin rashes d) Obesity Correct Answer: b) Respiratory problems
Use the data you’ve gathered to support the answers to your research questions. Include charts, graphs, and statistics to illustrate your findings.
For each multiple-choice question you’ve created, provide detailed explanations or solutions. Explain why the correct answer is correct and why the other options are incorrect. This helps in enhancing understanding.
Organize your project assignment in a clear and logical manner. Include an introduction, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion sections. Make sure to cite your sources properly.
Carefully proofread your assignment to eliminate errors in grammar, spelling, and formatting.
Follow the submission guidelines provided by your instructor or institution.
If your assignment includes a presentation, create slides that summarize your project’s key points and findings.

Sharing is caring!

What is air pollution?

Any physical, chemical or biological alteration in the air is referred to as air pollution.

What are the 5 main effects of air pollution?

Long-term health effects from air pollution include heart disease, lung cancer, and respiratory diseases such as emphysema.

How do we control air pollution?

Some steps to control air pollution are lant more trees, reduce the usage of vehicles, use pollution control equipments.

Why is pollution a problem?

Pollution stunts economic growth, exacerbates poverty and inequality in both urban and rural areas and significantly contributes to climate change.

What is acid rain? Name the gases responsible for acid rain.

Acid rain is an acidic precipitation falls as rain. By burning fossil fuels, dangerous chemicals like nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides are discharged into the environment. Acid rain results from the reaction of these pollutants with rainwater.

CBSE Board Exam 2024

CBSE Class 10 Syllabus 2024
CBSE Class 12 Syllabus 2024
CBSE Previous Year Papers
CUET Syllabus
CUET Previous Year paper
CUET Participating College & Universities
JEE Main 2024
JEE Main Syllabus 2024
JEE Main Exam Analysis 2023
NEET 2024
NEET Syllabus 2024
NEET State wise Cut off
NEET Rank Predictor
NEET OMR Sheet
NEET College Predictor

NCERT Books

School syllabus.

CBSE Class 12
CBSE Class 11
CBSE Class 10
CBSE Class 9
JEE Mains 2024

Our Other Websites

Teachers Adda
Bankers Adda
Adda Malayalam
Adda Punjab
Current Affairs
Defence Adda
Adda Bengali
Engineers Adda
Adda Marathi
Adda School

Get all your queries solved in one single place. We at Adda247 school strive each day to provide you the best material across the online education industry. We consider your struggle as our motivation to work each day.

Download Adda247 App

Follow us on

Responsible Disclosure Program
Cancellation & Refunds
Terms & Conditions
Privacy Policy

CRE: An R package for interpretable discovery and inference of heterogeneous treatment effects Read More

Air Pollution and Mortality at the Intersection of Race and Social Class Read More

Mortality risk from United States coal electricity generation Read the Study

NSAPH Air Quality Disparities Mapper Click Here

National studies on air pollution and health.

The National Studies on Air Pollution and Health (NSAPH) is a group of faculty, research scientists, post-doctoral fellows, graduate students, and college students studying data science methodologies in the context of climate change, environmental impacts on health outcomes, and regulatory policy. Our group’s research ranges between statistical methodology, causal inference, machine learning, measures of the environment on cardiovascular, respiratory, and neuro-cognitive health outcomes, environmental justice, and data visualization. The NSAPH group is based at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health with various institutional collaborations nationwide and internationally.

The NSAPH team has established an extensive one-of-a-kind data platform, which is the result of nearly a decade of work acquiring, curating, and linking many massive data sources including Medicaid and Medicare health data, as well as air pollution data, and other climate change exposure data. The platform was created primarily to enable multi-decade, nationwide US studies of air pollution and health. Research enabled by the platform has been explicitly cited as evidence supporting new policies to reduce air pollution exposure and improve health in the U.S.

air pollution project work methodology class 12

Opportunities

In the News

Publications

Learn about our members!

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Publications
Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

Advanced Search
Journal List
HHS Author Manuscripts

Methodological issues in studies of air pollution and reproductive health ☆

Tracey j. woodruff.

a Program on Reproductive Health and the Environment, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA

Jennifer D. Parker

b National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Hyattsville, MD, USA

Lyndsey A. Darrow

c Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA

Rémy Slama

d Team “Environmental Epidemiology Applied to Fecundity and Reproduction”, Inserm, U823, Grenoble, France

e University J. Fourrier Grenoble, Medical Faculty, F-38000 Grenoble, France

Michelle L. Bell

f Yale University, New Haven, CT, US

Hyunok Choi

g Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA

Svetlana Glinianaia

h Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

Katherine J. Hoggatt

i Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Catherine J. Karr

j Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA

Danelle T. Lobdell

k National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, US Environmental Protection Agency, USA

Michelle Wilhelm

l Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA

In the past decade there have been an increasing number of scientific studies describing possible effects of air pollution on perinatal health. These papers have mostly focused on commonly monitored air pollutants, primarily ozone (O 3 ), particulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), and various indices of perinatal health, including fetal growth, pregnancy duration, and infant mortality. While most published studies have found some marker of air pollution related to some types of perinatal outcomes, variability exists in the nature of the pollutants and outcomes associated. Synthesis of the findings has been difficult for various reasons, including differences in study design and analysis. A workshop was held in September 2007 to discuss methodological differences in the published studies as a basis for understanding differences in study findings and to identify priorities for future research, including novel approaches for existing data. Four broad topic areas were considered: confounding and effect modification, spatial and temporal exposure variations, vulnerable windows of exposure, and multiple pollutants. Here we present a synopsis of the methodological issues and challenges in each area and make recommendations for future study. Two key recommendations include: (1) parallel analyses of existing data sets using a standardized methodological approach to disentangle true differences in associations from methodological differences among studies; and (2) identification of animal studies to inform important mechanistic research gaps. This work is of critical public health importance because of widespread exposure and because perinatal outcomes are important markers of future child and adult health.

1. Introduction

In the past decade, there has been a sharp increase in the number of research articles published describing possible effects of air pollution on perinatal health, including fetal growth and preterm delivery. These papers have examined various indicators of air pollution, mostly focused on commonly monitored air pollutants (ozone (O 3 ), particulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 or oxide (NO x )) and various indices of perinatal health, including fetal growth, pregnancy duration, and infant mortality. This work is of critical public health importance because the exposure is widespread and perinatal outcomes are important markers of future child and adult health (e.g., Gillman, 2005 ). In 2004 and 2005, reviews of the preceding literature were published, generally concluding that the evidence was difficult to synthesize but was suggestive of small effects of air pollution on fetal and infant development ( Lacasana et al., 2005 ; Glinianaia et al., 2004 ; Maisonet et al., 2004 ; Sram et al., 2005 ; Tong and Colditz, 2004 ). Many recent research articles have attempted to fill in the gaps mentioned in the reviews, but the results remain difficult to synthesize.

This relatively new combination of air pollution epidemiology with perinatal epidemiology faces the challenges of both disciplines. These challenges include air pollution exposure assessment, the identification of important exposure windows during pregnancy, adequate control for potential confounding factors, and identification of effect-measure modification. One important advantage to evaluating effects of air pollution exposure during pregnancy is that time spans of exposure are relatively short, up to 9 months (assuming pre-conceptional exposures have no effect), compared to time spans from studies of chronic exposure to air pollution in children and adults, which can be years. The shorter exposure windows in pregnancy studies (typically 9 months) can make it easier to better evaluate the exposures of interest compared to longer exposures in adult studies, as it can decrease the possibility of other risk factors, both environmental and other, influencing the outcomes.

Heterogeneity in the published findings may arise from differences in many aspects of the study designs and available data. For example, studies vary in the set of pollutants considered and the methods of assigning exposure. Most studies have examined particulate matter, although the measured component varies from total suspended particulates (TSP) in earlier studies (e.g., Wang et al., 1997 ) to particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter smaller than 10μm (PM 10 ) ( Hansen et al., 2008 ; Ritz et al., 2000 ; Sagiv et al., 2005 ) and finer particles, smaller than 2.5 μm (PM 2.5 ) in later studies (e.g., Slama et al., 2007 ; Huynh et al., 2006 ). Other pollutants examined in one or more studies include CO, O 3 , SO 2 , and NO 2 though not consistently from study to study. Further, some studies consider exposure to pollutants separately, while others consider the exposures simultaneously in an attempt to disentangle effects of specific pollutants. Multipollutant analyses have been hindered by strong between-pollutant correlations, air pollution data availability and heterogeneous degrees of spatial resolution for various pollutants. Regional and demographic differences in study populations also may contribute to the disparate findings; pollution components and mixtures can vary regionally and variation in underlying factors can contribute to population differences (such as access to care and susceptibility) and could contribute to the variations in study conclusions ( Parker and Woodruff, 2008 ).

Another challenge toward synthesis is variability in the findings by exposure windows. Of the studies that examined trimester of exposure, some found stronger effects earlier in pregnancy, others identified later exposures as more harmful and still others did not single out a particular period of pregnancy for adverse outcomes. While the method for defining the exposure windows does not vary significantly, other contributing factors, even random variation, lead to variability in findings ( Table 1 ).

Twelve studies a examining fetal growth and air pollution: number of studies examining a particular pollutant and, of these, the number of studies reporting associations between fetal growth and trimester-specific exposure, 2004–2007.

The need to better understand the unique concerns of perinatal air pollution epidemiology, to assess how methodological differences could contribute to differences in findings, and to identify important areas for future research led to two workshops in 2007, held in Munich, Germany in May ( Slama et al., 2008a ) and in Mexico City in September. The report of the Munich workshop ( Slama et al., 2008a ) covers the effects of air pollution on a wider variety of reproductive outcomes, such as fecundity and sperm quality, discusses potential biological mechanisms, methods, and recommendations for future areas of research.

The findings presented in this paper are from the Mexico City workshop. The primary goal of the Mexico City workshop was to identify differences in methodologies used among the epidemiologic studies of air pollution and perinatal outcomes as a possible explanation for the array of findings in the literature. The discussion specifically focused on studies of fetal growth and preterm birth. This paper describes the four key methodological areas focused within the workshop. These four areas were selected by the Mexico City workshop planning committee because they were thought more likely to contribute to the variation in the findings in the epidemiologic literature. Specific recommendations from the workshop to improve future studies focused on the effects of air pollution on perinatal health are then provided.

2. Objectives

The overall objectives of the workshop were to: (1) review and discuss four methodological issues that may affect findings from perinatal air pollution studies; and (2) identify priorities for future research including practical suggestions for working with existing and future data. The four methodological issues discussed were: confounding and effect-measure modification; defining exposures: spatial and temporal exposure assessment; windows of vulnerability; and multiple pollutants.

An underlying theme throughout the discussion of the four methodological areas was how to best identify the outcomes of interest, and this is briefly reviewed (for further discussion see Slama et al. (2008a) . The main findings from each of the four areas follow. We conclude this report by summarizing the key recommendations for future research to improve our understanding of the effects of air pollution on human pregnancy outcomes.

3. Identifying the outcome of interest

The majority of published air pollution and perinatal outcome studies have evaluated relationships between air pollution and different measures of fetal growth and preterm delivery ( Glinianaia et al, 2004 ; Lacasana et al, 2005 ; Maisonet et al., 2004 ; Sram et al., 2005 ). There are some studies that have evaluated other adverse pregnancy outcomes, including birth defects, spontaneous abortions or stillbirths, and infant mortality. The Mexico City workshop discussion primarily focused on air pollution effects on fetal growth and preterm delivery, consistent with the majority of the scientific studies. Studies have evaluated a number of different metrics to describe potential effects on fetal growth, including reduction in birthweight (continuous variable), low birthweight (defined as <2500g), very low birthweight (<1500g), and intrauterine growth retardation (often measured as low birthweight in full-term infants or small for gestational age, which has been defined as birthweight below the 10th percentile of the birthweight distribution for a specific gestational age and sex based on national standards for livebirths) ( Glinianaia et al., 2004 ). Most of the studies acknowledge the potentially different etiology of growth restriction (as compared to preterm birth) by assessing birthweight at term, and/or accounting for gestational age in the models. A number of studies have also evaluated preterm delivery, which is most often measured across the studies as birth at less than 37 completed weeks of gestation. Although the dating of gestational age can vary by study, many studies use the woman’s recall of date of last menstrual period (LMP).

While participants noted difficulties in identifying appropriate pregnancy endpoints, these problems are not unique to studies of air pollution. Birthweight, for example, is a sensitive but not very specific endpoint for studies of exposure. Birthweight distributions for healthy infants can differ by subgroups characterized by a variety of factors (e.g., race or gender); and the consequences of low birthweight (and other fetal growth outcomes) can also differ among factors, including different exposures, hypothesized to be responsible for inadequate growth. Another problem common to perinatal epidemiology that affects studies of air pollution is distinguishing between reduced birthweight resulted from fetal growth restriction or from preterm delivery, or both. A recent study has used ultrasound images during mid-gestation to evaluate the relationship between fetal growth and air pollution ( Hansen et al., 2008 ), which is one approach to distinguishing fetal growth effects from preterm delivery effects. Hansen et al. (2008) study accounted for gestational age in the model using a validated measure of last menstrual period which was not based on ultrasound data. Accounting for gestational age when using single ultrasound measurements in these types of studies is important because ultrasound is also used to establish gestational age, and smaller infants may be mistaken for younger gestational age, rather than as growth retarded ( Slama et al., 2008b ).

4. Confounding, effect-measure modification, and selection bias

The role of air pollution in perinatal outcomes and the potential for confounding can be considered by the following question: “Is the association of air pollution and birth outcome confounded by personal characteristics or is air pollution one explanation for the association of personal characteristics with birth outcome?” The intersection of air pollution epidemiology and perinatal epidemiology is not particularly straightforward. Air pollution epidemiology, on the one hand, has often relied on time-series analyses relating daily pollution levels to daily counts of health events, usually with a lag of a few days; in this setting there is concern for weather-related confounders such as temperature and less concern about confounding from personal characteristics constant over time which are controlled for by the study design. On the other hand, perinatal studies often use binomial regression models (e.g., logistic) to obtain risk ratios or odds ratios and often compare populations from different geographic areas. In this type of study, in addition to confounding due to seasonally varying factors, concerns arise about potential confounding by maternal characteristics such as age, race/ethnicity, body mass index, socioeconomic status, and behaviors, particularly smoking, which are usually not controlled by study design. The availability, quality, and impact of these potentially confounding factors can vary by study, though most published studies used covariate data collected from birth certificates.

Much of the research on air pollution and birth outcomes is based on data sets formed by combining individual information from birth records with measures of ambient air quality, typically from outdoor stationary monitors. While the birth records typically contain information related to birth outcomes, such as maternal age, educational attainment, and parity, there is concern that unmeasured individual-level characteristics, not available on the birth record, may confound observed relationships. Confounders were primarily considered as covariates that may distort the association between the pregnancy outcome and the air pollution exposure; more detailed definitions of confounding, excluding factors that are potential consequences of either exposure or outcome, can be found (e.g., Rothman et al., 2008 ; Jewell, 2004 ; Selvin, 1991 ). Social class indicators are thought to be important confounders, for example, because lower socioeconomic status women are at increased risk of poor birth outcomes and, at least in some countries, are more likely to live in polluted areas. Importantly, some covariates may have a different relationship in an analysis. If air pollution affects a birth outcome through its effect on one or more covariates, these covariates are not considered confounders. In studies of air pollution and perinatal outcomes, potential confounders which may be either poorly measured or absent in analyses include socioeconomic status indicators beyond those collected on the birth certificate, such as family income and behavioral variables, such as substance use. Confounding was discussed separately from effect-measure modification, which for specific statistical models could allow identification of subgroups more vulnerable to effects of air pollution. For example, there is speculation that associations may be stronger for male than female infants ( Ghosh et al., 2007 ), and could be stronger for mothers in poorer neighborhoods compared to those in wealthier neighborhoods ( Ponce et al., 2005 ), though another study suggests associations could be stronger for women in wealthier neighborhoods ( Genereux et al., 2008 ). The same variables can be confounder or effect modifiers depending on the characteristics of the study population, or the underlying hypothesis. Associations between socioeconomic status and pollution exposure may vary geographically or according to the spatial resolution of the exposure model and could contribute to differing relationships with birth outcomes.

Recent results from a nested two-phase study provide insights into the potential influence of confounding ( Ritz et al., 2007 ). Information from birth records was augmented with information from a detailed interview survey for a subset of the overall study population to examine whether factors not included on the birth certificate affected the air pollution - preterm delivery relationship. The authors reported that many initially hypothesized confounders, such as smoking or body mass index (BMI), did not have a large effect on the air pollution/preterm delivery relationship in their cohort and that existing variables on the birth certificate were apparently sufficient to control for potential confounding by these factors. However, they did note that other factors being more closely examined in future studies (time activity patterns) may have a larger impact on the effect estimates, either as confounders or as inputs into more precise exposure measures. A study from Germany reported that the covariates of maternal height, education, and gestational age had the largest effects on the estimated relationship between air pollution and birthweight based on comparison of adjusted and unadjusted models ( Slama et al., 2007 ). A study of the potential confounding effects of smoking found that while maternal smoking was a risk factor for respiratory-related infant mortality, it did not confound the PM and infant mortality relationship ( Darrow et al., 2006 ).

Confounding from unmeasured factors could depend upon the (spatial or temporal) resolution of the exposure model. For example, in a study in Connecticut/Massachusetts, air pollution was averaged at the county-level ( Bell et al., 2007 ), corresponding to a comparison of different exposures within a county (e.g., different timeframes of births) as well as to a between-county comparison and thus estimated air pollution associations could be confounded by factors that also vary within the county (for example, certain personal characteristics). However, the relationship between PM and birthweight was similar to a study in Los Angeles using a smaller geographic area (zip code) ( Wilhelm and Ritz, 2005 ). Effect-measure modification may be more difficult to identify over broad geographic areas which could also influence observed results (e.g., effect modification by race) though in some studies with relatively large spatial exposure scales still find effect modification by race ( Bell et al., 2007 ). Some of these factors which differ among women, such as race and education, can be controlled for within an analysis, but other unconsidered factors, such as place-specific factors (e.g., neighborhood related) or individual factors (e.g., income), could still have an effect, either as confounders or effect modifiers.

An issue related to the scope of geographic coverage used in the studies is the potential for selection bias when mothers are excluded from the study because they are not living near monitoring locations. Studies vary in how exposure metrics are constructed from air monitoring data, with some using administrative units such as county or postal codes areas, and others constructing exposures directly for maternal residences. In either case, mothers living near monitors may differ from those living far from monitors ( Basu et al., 2004 ; Slama et al., 2007 ; Parker and Woodruff, 2008 ). Agreement on whether geographic scope of constructed metrics of air pollution exposure contributed to selection bias was not reached; some workshop participants thought the inclusion of mothers living near monitors affected generalizability rather than bias.

It was also noted that it is important to consider the larger geopolitical context. The studies to date have primarily been done in industrialized countries, such as Australia, Canada, the US and Europe, where the sources and levels of pollutants are much different from non-industrialized countries. The impact of air pollution is likely to be much larger in non-industrialized countries, which have poorer air quality and more vulnerable populations. However, understanding the impacts of pollution on perinatal health in non-industrialized countries may be particularly complicated as confounding factors (diet, socioeconomic measures, co-morbidities, etc.) and contributions from other air pollutant sources, such as coal and indoor fuel use, probably have wider within-population variation than in the developed countries.

4.1. Next steps

One possible tool to clarify the role of intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors on the exposure-outcome relationship is to create a conceptual framework for distinguishing confounding variables from those on the causal path; for example, if air pollution is related to birthweight, in part, via a measured maternal outcome, such as pregnancy-induced hypertension, then controlling for hypertension (or excluding those records) in an analysis may lead to biased inferences. Essentially, there is difficulty in distinguishing between the possible direct effects of air pollution on fetal growth and the possible effects of air pollution on other pregnancy factors, which in turn can be independent risk factors of fetal growth restriction and/or make pregnancies more susceptible to air pollution. Pregnancies which are predisposed to poor pregnancy outcomes may form susceptible subgroups with increased vulnerability to air pollution or may have poor outcomes independently of air pollution. In other words, assessing air pollution effects among a potentially susceptible subgroup defined by a specific condition predisposed to adverse birth outcome requires care to disentangle any air pollution effects from effects of other factors related to the condition (e.g., severity of a condition, amount of exposure to other agents). To date, few studies have evaluated potential intermediate outcomes.

As in other epidemiological studies, even within a hypothesized conceptual framework it is difficult to assess the extent of residual confounding that may remain after control for available covariates, so the plausibility of the phenomenon being investigated is critical. Plausibility of residual confounding by poorly measured or unavailable covariates should also be considered by investigators in the context of each study location and design. Some assessment of plausibility must come through the investigator’s experience and the weight of scientific evidence, although quantitative assessment of the underlying assumptions using sensitivity analyses is also critical. Clinical and/or animal studies would provide useful information on intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors that may influence air pollution and perinatal outcomes.

While the role of effect-measure modification in studies of air pollution and birth outcomes was not discussed thoroughly, it was mentioned that large data sets may be needed to sufficiently identify all subgroups of interest and assess effect-measure modification, though given a strong enough effect, smaller numbers could be used to identify differences. These data sets, if obtained from broad geographic areas, have an added advantage of wider exposure variation for analysis. However, large data sets tend to have fewer variables available for confounder control, and wider geographic coverage can increase the heterogeneity of the sample and thus increase the risk of residual confounding.

The following specific recommendations were suggested to further address potential issues of confounding:

Consider time-series or temporal studies, as appropriate, which are less vulnerable to confounding by personal characteristics not varying in time.
Compare characteristics and results for mothers residing at varying distances from air monitors to investigate the possible effects of choosing different study samples on results (e.g., Basu et al., 2004 ; Slama et al., 2007 ; Parker and Woodruff, 2008 ).
Use a two-phase design and augment the large data sets with additional covariate information from a survey for a subset of the births. This detailed covariate data can be used to further assess potential confounding factors on the estimated relationships within the context of the larger data set.
Identify natural experiments where locations experienced large changes in air pollution levels to assess changes in birth outcomes.
Use matched birth records of siblings where underlying maternal characteristics may be similar but exposures may differ for subjects.
Explore implications of less-commonly considered potential confounding factors such as house size, where a larger house is an indicator of wealth but could also affect air pollution exposure through various mechanisms, such as differing construction quality or air volume.
Consider area-level indicators of potential confounders, such as area level median income or housing characteristics.

5. Defining exposures: spatial and temporal exposure assessment

Because pollution monitors are not sited everywhere people live and do not always provide continuously measured data (i.e., PM 2 .5 in the US is often measured every 3–6 days, whereas other pollutants such as CO are measured hourly), there is a growing literature on the use of spatial and temporal models to predict air pollution exposure for places and times without monitoring data. Although the combination of both the spatial and temporal components of exposure variability has increased the statistical challenges for exposure estimation, for studies of air pollution and pregnancy outcome, spatial and temporal exposure models could improve exposure assignments. This could be accomplished by considering both the mother’s residential locations and the timing of relevant periods of pregnancy in the predictions. Banerjee et al. (2003) and Diggle and Riberiro (2007) provide statistical overviews of these models; Slama et al. (2007) and Brauer et al. (2008) provide examples of land-use regression model-based exposure estimates in perinatal studies.

The Particulate Matter and Perinatal Events Research (PAMPER) study provides an example of how to consider spatial and temporal exposure surfaces for a health study ( Fanshawe et al., 2008 ). The study was designed to examine associations between maternal exposure to black smoke and birth outcomes in Newcastle upon Tyne, England over a 32-year period starting in 1961. Since few monitoring data were available for black smoke, an important aspect of determining exposures was model black smoke predictions and their associated variances so that both could be used when assessing the strengths of the associations between black smoke and birth outcomes. In the case of the PAMPER study, temporal variation was more important than spatial variation for exposure predictions because of the long study period with a dramatic decline in black smoke levels. Strong seasonal patterns of the exposure over time also necessitated the development of flexible prediction models that allowed for locations and magnitudes of seasonal trends to vary annually. Additionally, “constructed covariates”, surrogate measures of pollution sources that correlate well with exposure when there is insufficient exposure data, were found to be a practical way to reduce residual spatial-temporal correlations and allowed for less complicated model structures. As an example, chimney density was found to be a good predictor of black smoke in the PAMPER study. Surrogate measures may be appropriately used either to improve spatial-temporal models or as exposure indicators in epidemiological analyses. Using validated indicators on their own in an analysis is important, as air pollution data may not be available in all locations of interest. Other recently used exposure surrogates include traffic-use patterns, distance to roadways, and land-use patterns ( Slama et al., 2007 ; Wilhelm and Ritz, 2005 ).

Another aspect to assessing exposures is the role of season in analytic models, especially if spatial/temporal prediction models are fitted seasonally. Season can represent many things, including variations in temperature and other weather patterns, allergy susceptibility, food availability, and environmental exposures (pesticides, water quality), any of which may contribute to observed geographic differences in associations between season and birth outcomes (e.g., Chodick et al., 2007 ; Matsuda et al., 1995 ; McGrath et al., 2005 ; ] Rayco-Solon et al., 2005 ). Some seasonal factors that differ geographically - such as nutritional status - vary throughout the year in many locations but probably have greater impacts in non-industrialized than in industrialized countries. Other factors, such as temperature, can also differ geographically, but with different patterns (e.g., California versus Northern New England). In addition, just controlling for season may not fully account for the effects of some seasonally-varying factors. Temperature, for example, which varies with season, may need to be specifically accounted for in an analysis as variations in temperature within a season may be important, though temperature has not been thoroughly evaluated as a potential risk factor. Consequently, importance of season-related variables in air pollution studies likely differs by birth outcome and location under investigation.

5.1. Next steps

5.1.1. spatial scale.

The importance of temporal and geostatistical modeling for exposure assessment depends on the study’s context, such as length of study period and the magnitude of the spatial and temporal variation of the pollutant being studied. In some cases, area-level average air pollution data may be sufficient enough to represent individual-level exposures, such as chronic exposure to pollutants that are evenly dispersed over relatively large geographic areas (e.g., coarse PM), for example, using average air pollution concentrations within a political unit, such as county. In other cases, modeling exposures at a finer scale will be more important. Different methods of exposure assignment capture different aspects of pollution. Some pollutants are spatially heterogeneous on a smaller scale and may be very sensitive to exposure definitions (e.g., CO, ultrafine particles), whereas others are more homogenous and can be represented by larger spatial averages (e.g., PM 2.5 ). Furthermore, some underlying pollution sources vary more locally, others more regionally (e.g., traffic as a contributor to area-level averages, wood smoke, industrial sources). It was hypothesized that smaller scale studies may be better for understanding biological mechanisms and contribute more information for local policies while larger scale studies may be better for looking at population-level factors and may be better for regional policy. However, the relative importance of small and/or large scale geographic areas in the study of air pollution and perinatal outcomes has not been systematically examined.

5.1.2. Surrogates

Surrogate measures of pollution may be important in the development of spatial and temporal prediction models, especially surrogates that incorporate seasonal trends and are relatively inexpensive to obtain. Monitoring network locations are sited for policy and regulatory purposes, not for health studies. Consequently, they are useful, but not ideal, for epidemiological investigations, and additional monitoring in targeted locations may not be possible for all studies. Several surrogates were mentioned or suggested, such as the chimneys in the PAMPER study, traffic patterns, and other characteristics used in land-use regression models. Satellite maps have potential for providing surrogate information for air pollution levels but can be limited due to various factors, such as weather (e.g., no measurements during cloudy days) and weekly reporting patterns. Surrogate measures of pollution obtained from non-conventional sources could also be used directly in epidemiological studies as alternatives to monitoring data or as inputs into prediction models; an initial list of proposed surrogate devices include contact lenses (which capture particle pollution), sleep apnea monitors (which have a filter that could be analyzed for air pollution), and house plants (which capture certain types of air pollution such as metals).

The potential influence of residual spatial and temporal correlation in analytic models was also considered. Workshop participants who had examined this issue did not report serious autocorrelation problems in their analyses; however, no comprehensive evaluations were mentioned and may be warranted. As mentioned above, the use of strong surrogates can reduce the need for more complicated models of spatial and temporal correlation.

5.1.3. Season

Further evaluation of the role of season and whether it is independently associated with birth outcomes, whether it is a surrogate for other factors that are associated with birth outcomes (e.g., temperature, food availability, etc.), whether it is a proxy for pollution exposure, or whether it may not be a confounder at all in certain locations was identified as an important area of further research.

The following specific recommendations were suggested to further address issues related to spatial and temporal exposures:

Systematically assess the relative contributions of using small and large geographic scales to assess air pollutant exposures and any subsequent influence on effect estimates.
Further evaluate and validate exposure surrogates or alternative exposure metrics.
Evaluate the potential influence of spatial and temporal autocorrelation.
Evaluate the most appropriate way to address season in different types of studies—this includes a better understanding of the implications of season as a variable in perinatal studies given the seasonal trends in births, air pollution exposures, and many other factors; both statistical approaches and seasonal indicators need to be explicitly examined.

6. Exposure windows

The third area of methodological challenge is identifying whether there are particular periods of susceptibility during pregnancy when air pollution exposure is particularly harmful to fetal health and development. Early pregnancy could be one time of enhanced susceptibility, as this is when placental attachment and development occurs, or susceptibility may increase toward the end of pregnancy when the fetal growth velocity is highest. Evaluating periods of susceptibility can provide insight into potential biological mechanisms and allow for defining more accurate measures of effect as the exposure estimate of interest can be more precisely defined. Most published studies have primarily focused on evaluating exposure by trimester, though a few have also assessed exposure by gestational month. The literature on air pollution and preterm delivery or growth restriction to date, has not identified a specific time window of susceptibility. In studies of fetal growth, some studies have reported effects due to first trimester exposures, while others report effects only for third trimester exposures ( Table 1 ). Fewer studies report effects from second trimester exposure, and some report effects for more than one trimester of exposure. Findings are similar for preterm delivery. Some of the apparent differences by trimester may be due to the varied methods used to consider (or not consider) correlated exposures among trimesters or pollutants.

Identification of a particular window of susceptibility is difficult. If air pollution is associated with growth restriction or preterm delivery, yet there is no particular critical window, then the trimester (window) of exposure that will appear to be important is that which is most highly correlated with whole-pregnancy exposure. In addition, it is difficult to distinguish one trimester from other time periods as being important because exposures among the trimesters are correlated. In studies of preterm delivery, additional care is needed to define windows of exposure given the shorter length of pregnancy for the preterm compared to the term births (e.g., Huynh et al., 2006 ; O’Neill et al., 2003 ).

There are several new ideas that could provide insight into this issue. A recently applied method used by Bell et al. (2007) was highlighted as a potentially useful approach to simultaneously adjust for all trimester-specific exposure variables. In this study, exposure during each trimester was modeled as a function of exposure in the other trimesters, and the residuals from these trimester specific models were included in the subsequent trimester-specific regression models to control for other trimesters’ exposure. The use of post-pregnancy exposure as a control category to examine the robustness of the whole or partial-pregnancy exposure has also been suggested ( Slama et al., 2007 ); specifically, if whole-pregnancy exposure is an etiologically relevant window, then the pregnancy exposure variable should be more consistently associated with pregnancy outcome than the post-pregnancy exposure. A limitation to this approach is that observed associations between post-pregnancy exposure and pregnancy outcome may be due to a high correlation between post-pregnancy and within-pregnancy air pollution exposures.

6.1. Next steps

Trimesters have been used to define pregnancy periods for decades, but do not completely correspond to critical windows of fetal developmental. Periods of susceptibility depend on the outcome being evaluated; for example, potentially relevant exposure periods for congenital anomalies, in particular, differ from those for fetal growth or preterm delivery. Thus, using trimesters to define exposure windows could inaccurately define periods of susceptibility.

It was recommended that exposure windows shorter than trimesters (mostly gestational months) should be evaluated in epidemiological studies to try and capture more relevant fetal development periods. However, it was recognized that trimester-level results offer some comparability with existing studies, as this is the most common exposure window used, easing research synthesis. If shorter time exposure windows are used, it is important to consider that the accuracy of exposure metrics may differ by the size of the exposure windows. For example, shorter windows, such as a month, may entail larger exposure misclassification when frequent measurements are not available (i.e., in areas where PM is monitored every 6 days) compared to longer windows, such as the entire gestation. In addition, the question was posed whether it matters if the fetus is exposed early and late in pregnancy or just early or just late. The evaluation of different patterns of exposure throughout pregnancy was identified as important. Particularly in studies using short time frames, such as weeks, the non-linear pattern of fetal growth and development should be considered, although a particular method for accomplishing this was not defined. A large number of windows to be examined can lead to a multiple comparisons problem; to minimize the occurrence of random findings, one suggestion was to identify potential windows of importance a priori through animal experiments. Considering shorter and longer windows of exposure will inform considerations of the importance of acute and chronic exposures.

Defining more narrow windows of susceptibility requires some confidence in the gestational age, which is typically taken from the birth certificate, and in some locations, may be less precise than birthweight because it is based on recall of last menstrual period (e.g., many areas in the US). One possible approach to more precisely measure gestational age is to use data from fertility clinic-based studies, where exact dates of conception are known, and pre-conception exposures can be studied, including paternal exposures. However, it was noted that the high correspondence between paternal and maternal (non-occupational) exposures makes separating parental effects difficult when personal exposure estimates are not available. One drawback to fertility clinic records is that pregnancies resulting from assisted conception are at higher risk of adverse birth outcomes than naturally conceived pregnancies, which would reduce the generalizability of the results ( Reddy et al., 2007 ). Nevertheless, while fertility clinic populations may be unique, their detailed data may offer important insights into gestational age issues related to windows of exposure.

Although human fetal development differs from other species, animal studies might be informative in understanding vulnerable windows; the current toxicological and biological knowledge for air pollution impacts on human health is limited and is particularly limited for reproductive outcomes. Animal studies may be particularly useful for studying effects of high exposures during specific pregnancy periods.

The following specific recommendations were suggested to evaluate potential periods of susceptibility:

Exploring other potential periods of susceptibility besides trimesters, in particular shorter ones, such as gestational months (keeping in mind for pollutants not monitored daily, the fewer available monitored values). Further, examining exposure over time as a continuous rather than categorical metric, and considering peaks of exposure, may increase our understanding of windows of vulnerability.
Applying comparative analyses across different study populations with efforts toward similar methods and definitions of both windows of exposure and outcomes represents a promising approach to resolve some of the inconsistencies observed in the literature.
Identifying relevant gestational windows of susceptibility by outcome. This identification will likely be informed by general perinatal (e.g., risk factors other than environmental contaminants) and toxicological studies.

7. Multiple pollutants

A fourth issue in evaluating the existing air pollution and perinatal outcomes literature is the variability in the types of air pollutants evaluated and which individual pollutants or combination of pollutants are identified as the pollutant(s) associated with the perinatal outcome. Existing studies in the US primarily assessed exposures to “criteria” air pollutants (particulate matter, ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide), with most studies evaluating exposure to particulate matter (both PM 2 .5 and PMi 0 ), ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and to a lesser extent sulfur dioxide ( Table 1 ). Assessing which pollutants, if any, are risk factors for poor birth outcomes is complicated by using ambient air monitors for exposure assessment. Ambient air monitoring introduces measurement error into the exposure estimates. In addition, the monitoring schedule for the pollutants varies, as some pollutants such as ozone are reported every hour, and others, such as PM, maybe reported once every six days, which can affect how well the monitoring data represent exposures over shorter periods of times (e.g., weeks).

The workshop focused on two fundamental issues in exposure assessment of multiple pollutants, measurement error and surrogate exposures using four scenarios as examples ( Table 2 ). In general, model results may be very sensitive to measurement error (the difference between measured ambient levels and personal exposure to ambient pollution) and correlations between the pollutants. However, because pollutants are often from common sources it is difficult to separate the etiological agents, the surrogates, and confounders ( Tolbert et al., 2007 ; Sarnat et al., 2001 ; Kim et al., 2007 ). Using a priori knowledge about the measurement error of the pollutants and their interrelations can help guide interpretation of models for multi-pollutant exposures. Identifying the sources of the pollution and assessing pollution mixtures offer complementary strategies to the more common approach of evaluating specific pollutants individually and may be particularly important if source or the mixture is the important risk factor.

Different interpretations of the same multi-pollutant regression model under four different scenarios of two correlated pollutants, pollutant1(P1) and pollutant(P2).

7.1. Next steps

There has been variability in which pollutants have been considered in perinatal studies and how they are considered (individually or simultaneously). An effort to systematically evaluate the contribution of different pollutants across multiple studies using the same methods for specifying exposure metrics could be helpful in evaluating the robustness of findings across different studies.

It was noted that focusing on individual pollutants as the single risk factor is likely not to reflect the effect of combined exposure to multiple air pollutants, and it could be the mixture represents a higher risk than the individual components, similar to tobacco smoke. The primary source of many pollutants is combustion, and one potentially fruitful area of inquiry is to consider the source of the pollutants as the metric for exposure, rather than the individual constituents. The case of tobacco smoke, which is similar to traffic-related air pollution in that it is a mixture of constituents from a combustion source, provides an example of evaluating exposure on a source basis. An additional advantage of a source-based approach is that it is not necessary to identify the individual etiologic components for public health interventions. In the case of combustion, it is a little more nuanced, as there are multiple environmental combustion sources of pollution (e.g., motor vehicle versus wood burning), and knowing the specific components of exhaust responsible for health effects could help regulation and technologies for harm reduction.

To consider combustion sources, a next step is to identify measures of combustion and describe how they differ by source. It was suggested that CO might be a good surrogate for motor vehicle exhaust. The similarity of associations in perinatal studies in Los Angeles over a fairly long time span when CO levels were dropping suggests that some other agent in motor vehicle exhaust that is correlated with CO may be the etiological agent ( Ritz and Yu, 1999 ; Wilhelm and Ritz, 2005 ; Ritz and Wilhelm, 2008 ). However, CO is a spatially heterogeneous pollutant, and measured levels at monitoring stations may only reflect concentrations within a small distance of the monitor. Future efforts to identify which pollutants are good surrogates of exposure and using a source-based approach are important areas for future research.

It was noted that there could be a synergistic response from exposure to multiple pollutants. Understanding this effect would require different study designs or analytical strategies than those that have been used to date. It was suggested that creating informal graphical models of different multiple pollutant scenarios, including supplemental information on the specific pollutants, would help direct future studies ( Woodruff et al., 2003 ). These models would be more consistent with an interval estimation framework (e.g., credible intervals in a Bayesian context as discussed in Dunson, 2001 ; Gelman and Hill, 2007 ) than significance testing or p-values. Small validation studies of pregnant women (e.g., assessing personal-ambient exposure correlations) would help researchers disentangle the influences of multiple pollutants and identify which pollutants act as etiologic agents, confounders, and/or surrogates.

As noted above, there is a tendency for multiple pollutant studies to focus on regulated, and routinely monitored, common air pollutants, even though these pollutants may not be the only pollutants of etiologic interest. In the United States, measurements of PM, O 3 , NO 2 , SO 2 and CO are readily available for many urban areas, although every pollutant is not monitored in all locations. Other air pollutants, such as those listed as hazardous air pollutants under the Clean Air Act, should also be examined. For these pollutants, there is less wide-spread monitoring data readily available. The increasing use of modeled exposure data may promote studies of other air pollution indices, and these data are available for several years for the hazardous air pollutants in the United States (information available at http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/natal999/ ).

Workshop participants further recommended:

Incorporate indicators of exposure precision into statistical models explicitly rather than speculating on effects of measurement error; this is important for both model-based estimates and also for the exposure estimates based on temporal and spatial averaging of ambient air monitoring data ( Van Roosbroeck et al., 2008 ).
Evaluate the effect of residential and occupational mobility during pregnancy, which can affect exposure estimates based on maternal address at birth.

8. Summary and conclusion

The research of air pollution and perinatal outcomes is a rich and growing field. The evidence to date suggests that air pollution may play some role in adverse pregnancy outcomes, and the importance of pregnancy outcomes in future health of the child make air pollution an important area of further inquiry and intervention. Perinatal outcomes have only been recently considered in policy and regulatory activities related to air pollution, and their contribution as a source of preventable disease could be substantial internationally. In this paper, we explored four areas of methodological interest that the workshop planning committee identified as varying among the published studies to date and/or were thought more likely to contribute to the variation in the findings in the epidemiologic literature. We provided recommendations specific to these areas to move this field forward and extend the discussions and recommendations from a previous workshop on the broader topic of air pollution and reproductive outcomes ( Slama et al., 2008a ).

To leverage the existing literature to date, participants noted the importance of collaboration among researchers in different countries worldwide who have been investigating this phenomenon. In addition to the topic-specific suggestions above, participants made several general recommendations for future research priorities to better elucidate the role of air pollution and perinatal outcomes.

A key next step would be to develop an international collaborative among researchers in the field to apply the same or similar methods to analyzing the existing data sets. Some of the methodological differences identified at the workshop included gestational exposure windows, the set of adjustment variables (including co-pollutants), use of seasonal variation, and spatial resolution. Applying a consistent analytic strategy across many data sets may help to reconcile some of the apparent inconsistencies in effect estimates observed across studies. Furthermore, this type of research synthesis would help in guiding policy.
Participants noted that it is critical to identify animal and cell studies to inform each of the areas discussed above. In particular, animal studies can be used to inform gestational windows of susceptibility to air pollution, reproductive endpoints that are difficult to ascertain with available epidemiological data (e.g., miscarriage, placental development), and specific pollutants or pollutant mixtures of etiologic interest. These studies can also be used to evaluate more precise measures of exposure in a homogenous population. Collaborating more closely with toxicologists to develop a priority list of experiments was noted as an important next step.
Expanding the types of outcomes considered in studies, including fetal loss (both as a pregnancy outcome and as a potential bias in studies of live births) and pregnancy related hypertension or preeclampsia, may provide insights into both mechanisms and other susceptible outcomes.

Acknowledgments

The findings and conclusions in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention or the US Environmental Protection Agency. To focus the report, an effort was made to represent the conversation during the workshop. However, particular points raised and noted here may not be universally agreed upon by all participants; time constraints did not allow for all counter points to be made during the workshop.

This represents the findings from the Workshop on “Methodological Issues In Studies Of Air Pollution And Perinatal Outcomes”. We would like to acknowledge the following: the workshop organizers were Jennifer D. Parker and Tracey J. Woodruff; the session moderators were Kathleen Belanger, Peter Diggle, Remy Slama, and Lyndsey A. Darrow; the session note takers were Matthew Strickland, Rakesh Ghosh, Jo Kay Ghosh, Hyunok Choi; the workshop participants were Kate Adams, Kathleen Belanger*, Michelle Bell*, Michael Brauer, Hyunok Choi*, Aaron Cohen, Adolfo Correa, Lyndsey Darrow*, Peter Diggle, Svetlana Glinianaia*, Ulrike Gehring, Jo Kay Ghosh, Rakesh Ghosh, Nelson Gouveia, Irva Hertz-Picciotto, Katherine J. Hoggatt*, Catherine Karr*, Nino Kuenzli, Danelle Lobdell*, Rachel Morello-Frosch, Marie O’Neill, Jennifer Parker*, Frank Pierik, Beate Ritz*, Paulo Saldiva, Remy Slama*, Matthew Strickland, Ondine Von Ehrenstein, Daniel Wartenberg, Michelle Wilhelm*, Tracey Woodruff*.

*Workshop planning group. Tanja Pless-Mulloli and Judith Rankin were on the planning group but were unable to attend the workshop.

This represents the findings from the Workshop on “Methodological Issues in Studies of Air Pollution and Perinatal Outcomes”. Funding for the workshop was provided by: Association of Occupational and Environmental Medicine Clinics, University of Washington, Seattle; Center for Occupational and Environmental Health and Fogarty Center, University of California at Los Angeles; Health Effects Institute; Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle University; Program on Reproductive Health and the Environment, National Center of Excellence in Women’s Health, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, University of California at San Francisco; School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University.

☆ Disclaimer: This paper has been subjected to review by the National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and approved for publication. The findings and conclusions are those of the authors. Approval does not signify that the contents reflect the views of the USEPA or CDC, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

Banerjee S, Carlin BP, Gelfand AE, 2003. Hierarchical Modeling and Analysis for Spatial Data Monographs on Statistics and Applied Probability . Chapman & Hall/CRC. [ Google Scholar ]
Basu R, Woodruff TJ, Parker JD, Saulnier M, Schoendorf KC, 2004. Comparing exposure metrics in the relationship between PM2.5 and birth weight in California . J. Expo Anal. Environ. Epidemiol 14 , 391–396. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Bell ML, Ebisu K, Belanger K, 2007. Ambient air pollution and low birth weight in Connecticut and Massachusetts . Environ. Health Perspect 115 ,1118–1124. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Brauer M, Lencar C, Tamburic L, Koehoorn M, Demers P, Karr C, 2008. A cohort study of traffic-related air pollution impacts on birth outcomes . Environ. Health. Perspect 116 , 680–686. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Chodick G, Shalev V, Goren I, Inskip PD, 2007. Seasonality in birth weight in Israel: new evidence suggests several global patterns and different etiologies . Ann. Epidemiol 17 , 440–446. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Darrow LA, Woodruff TJ, Parker JD, 2006. Maternal smoking as a confounder in studies of air pollution and infant mortality . Epidemiology 17 , 592–593 (research letter). [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Dugandzic R, Dodds L, Stieb D, Smith-Doiron M, 2006. The association between low level exposures to ambient air pollution and term low birth weight: a retrospective cohort study . Environ. Health 5 , 3. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Dunson D, 2001. Commentary: practical advantages of Bayesian analysis of epidemiologic data . Am. J. Epidemiol 153 ,1222–1226. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Fanshawe T, Diggle P, Rushton S, Sanderson R, Lurz P, Glinianaia SV, Pearce L, Charlton M, Pless-Mulloli T, 2008. Modelling spatio-temoporal variation in exposure to particulate matter: a two-stage approach . Environmetrics 19 , 549–566. [ Google Scholar ]
Gelman A, Hill J, 2007. Data Analysis Using Regression and Multilevel/Hierarchical Models . Cambridge University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
Genereux M, Auger N, Goneau M, Daniel M, 2008. Neighbourhood socioeconomic status, maternal education and adverse birth outcomes among mothers living near highways . J Epidemiol Community Health 62 , 695–700. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Ghosh R, Rankin J, Pless-Mulloli T, Glinianaia S, 2007. Does the effect of air pollution on pregnancy outcomes differ by gender? A systematic review . Environ. Res 105 , 400–408. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Gillman MW, 2005. Developmental origins of health and disease . N. Engl. J. Med 353 ,1848–1850. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Glinianaia SV, Rankin J, Bell R, Pless-Mulloli T, Howel D, 2004. Particulate air pollution and fetal health: a systematic review of the epidemiologic evidence . Epidemiology 15 , 36–45. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Gouveia N, Bremner SA, Novaes HM, 2004. Association between ambient air pollution and birth weight in Sao Paulo, Brazil . J. Epidemiol. Community Health 58 ,11–17. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Hansen C, Neller A, Williams G, Simpson R, 2007. Low levels of ambient air pollution during pregnancy and fetal growth among term neonates in Brisbane, Australia . Environ. Res 103 , 383–389. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Hansen CA, Barnett AG, Pritchard G, 2008. The effect of ambient air pollution during early pregnancy on fetal ultrasonic measurements during midpregnancy . Environ. Health Perspect 116 , 362–369. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Huynh M, Woodruff TJ, Parker JD, Schoendorf KC, 2006. Relationships between air pollution and preterm birth in California . Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 20 , 454–461. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Jewell NP, 2004. Statistics for Epidemiology . Chapman & Hall/CRC, Boca Raton. [ Google Scholar ]
Kim JY, Burnett RT, Neas L, et al., 2007. Panel discussion review: session two—interpretation of observed associations between multiple ambient air pollutants and health effects in epidemiologic analyses . J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol 17 ( Suppl 2 ), S83–S89. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Lacasana M, Esplugues A, Ballester F, 2005. Exposure to ambient air pollution and prenatal and early childhood health effects . Eur. J. Epidemiol 20 ,183–199. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Lin CM, Li CY, Mao IF, 2004. Increased risks of term low-birth-weight infants in a petrochemical industrial city with high air pollution levels . Arch. Environ. Health 59 , 663–668. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Liu S, Krewski D, Shi Y, Chen Y, Burnett RT, 2007. Association between maternal exposure to ambient air pollutants during pregnancy and fetal growth restriction . J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol 17 , 426–432. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Maisonet M, Correa A, Misra D, Jaakkola JJ, 2004. A review of the literature on the effects of ambient air pollution on fetal growth . Environ. Res 95 ,106–115. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Mannes T, Jalaludin B, Morgan G, Lincoln D, Sheppeard V, Corbett S, 2005. Impact of ambient air pollution on birth weight in Sydney, Australia . Occup. Environ. Med 62 , 524–530. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Matsuda S, Hiroshige Y, Furuta M, Doi T, Sone T, Kahyo H, 1995. Geographic differences in seasonal variation of mean birth weight in Japan . Hum. Biol 67 , 641–656. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
McGrath JJ, Barnett AG, Eyles DW, 2005. The association between birth weight, season of birth and latitude . Ann. Hum. Biol 32 , 547–559. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Medeiros A, Gouveia N, 2005. [ Relationship between low birthweight and air pollution in the city of Sao Paulo, Brazil ]. Rev. Saude Publica 39 , 965–972. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
O’Neill MS, Hertz-Picciotto I, Pastore LM, Weatherley BD, 2003. Have studies of urinary tract infection and preterm delivery used the most appropriate methods? Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol 17 , 226–233. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Parker JD, Woodruff TJ, 2008. Influences of study design and location on the relationship between particulate matter air pollution and birthweight . Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol 22 , 214–227. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Parker JD, Woodruff TJ, Basu R, Schoendorf KC, 2005. Air pollution and birth weight among term infants in California . Pediatrics 115 ,121–128. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Ponce NA, Hoggatt KJ, Wilhelm M, Ritz B, 2005. Preterm birth: the interaction of traffic-related air pollution with economic hardship in Los Angeles neighborhoods . Am. J. Epidemiol 162 ,140–148. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Rayco-Solon P, Fulford AJ, Prentice AM, 2005. Differential effects of seasonality on preterm birth and intrauterine growth restriction in rural Africans . Am. J. Clin. Nutr 81 ,134–139. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Reddy UM, Wapner RJ, Rebar RW, Tasca RJ, 2007. Infertility, assisted reproductive technology, and adverse pregnancy outcomes: executive summary of a National Institute of Child Health and Human Development workshop . Obstet. Gynecol 109 , 967–977. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Ritz B, Yu F, 1999. The effect of ambient carbon monoxirn in southern California between 1989 and 1993 . Environ. Health. Perspect 107 ,17–25. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Ritz B, Wilhelm M, 2008. Ambient air pollution and adverse birth outcomes: methodologic issues in an emerging field . Basic Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol 102 , 182–190. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Ritz B, Yu F, Chapa G, Fruin S, 2000. Effect of air pollution on preterm birth among children born in Southern California between 1989 and 1993 . Epidemiology 11 , 502–511. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Ritz B, Wilhelm M, Hoggatt KJ, Ghosh JK, 2007. Ambient air pollution and preterm birth in the environment and pregnancy outcomes study at the University of California, Los Angeles . Am. J. Epidemiol 166 ,1045–1052. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Rothman K, Greenland S, Lash T, 2008. Modern Epidemiology . Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA. [ Google Scholar ]
Sagiv SK, Mendola P, Loomis D, Herring AH, Neas LM, Savitz DA, Poole C, 2005. A time-series analysis of air pollution and preterm birth in Pennsylvania, 1997–2001 . Environ. Health Perspect 113 , 602–606. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Salam MT, Millstein J, Li YF, Lurmann FW, Margolis HG, Gilliland FD, 2005. Birth outcomes and prenatal exposure to ozone, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter: results from the Children’s Health Study . Environ. Health Perspect 113 ,1638–1644. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Sarnat JA, Schwartz J, Catalano PJ, Suh HH, 2001. Gaseous pollutants in particulate matter epidemiology: confounders or surrogates? Environ. Health Perspect 109 ,1053–1061. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Selvin S, 1991. Statistical Analysis of Epidemiologic Data . Oxford University Press, New York, p. 83. [ Google Scholar ]
Slama R, Darrow L, Parker J, Woodruff TJ, Strickland M, Nieuwenhuijsen M, Glinianaia S, Hoggatt KJ, Kannan S, Hurley F, Kalinka J, Sram R, Brauer M, Wilhelm M, Heinrich J, Ritz B, 2008a. Meeting report: atmospheric pollution and human reproduction . Environ. Health Perspect 116 , 791–798. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Slama R, Khoshnood B, Kaminski M, 2008b. How to control for gestational age in studies involving environmental effects on fetal growth . Environ. Health Perspect 116 , A284 author reply A284-A285. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Slama R, Morgenstern V, Cyrys J, Zutavern A, Herbarth O, Wichmann HE, Heinrich J, 2007. Traffic-related atmospheric pollutants levels during pregnancy and offspring’s term birth weight: a study relying on a land-use regression exposure model . Environ. Health Perspect 115 ,1283–1292. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Sram RJ, Binkova B, Dejmek J, Bobak M, 2005. Ambient air pollution and pregnancy outcomes: a review of the literature . Environ. Health Perspect 113 , 375–382. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Tolbert PE, Klein M, Peel JL, Sarnat SE, Sarnat JA, 2007. Multipollutant modeling issues in a study of ambient air quality and emergency department visits in Atlanta . J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol 17 ( Suppl 2 ), S29–S35. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Tong S, Colditz P, 2004. Air pollution and sudden infant death syndrome: a literature review . Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol 18 , 327–335. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Van Roosbroeck S, Li R, Hoek G, Lebret E, Brunekreef B, Spiegelman D, 2008. Traffic-related outdoor air pollution and respiratory symptoms in children: the impact of adjustment for exposure measurement error . Epidemiology 19 ( 3 ), 409–416. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Wang X, Ding H, Ryan L, Xu X, 1997. Association between air pollution and low birth weight: a community- based study . Environ. Health Perspect 105 , 514–520. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Wilhelm M, Ritz B, 2005. Local variations in CO and particulate air pollution and adverse birth outcomes in Los Angeles County, California, USA . Environ. Health Perspect 113 ,1212–1221. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Woodruff TJ, Parker JD, Kyle AD, Schoendorf KC, 2003. Disparities in exposure to air pollution during pregnancy . Environ. Health Perspect 111 , 942–946. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]

EVS Project On Green Revolution For Class 11th & 12th CBSE

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION OF THE GREEN REVOLUTION

The green revolution was a period when the productivity of global agriculture increased drastically as a result of new advances. During this period , new chemical fertilizers and pesticides were created. The chemical fertilizer made it possible to supply crops with extra nutrients and therefore, increase yield. The newly developed pesticides controlled weeds, deterred or kill insects, and prevented disease which also resulted in higher productivity. It is an important part of EVS subject to have a project on green revolution with a project report on green revolution for class 11 and 12.

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREEN REVOLUTION

The beginnings of the Green Revolution are often attributed to Norman Borlaug American scientist interested in agriculture. Dr. Norman E. Borlaug receives the congressional Gold Medal in 2007 Borlaug a 1970 Nobel laureate was honored for his work in the Green Revolution saving millions of lives from famine in India Mexico and the Middle East.

GREEN REVOLUTION IN INDIA

project on green revolution for 12th evs project pdf. Project report on green revolution is included.

In 1965 the government of Mrs. Indira Gandhi decided to major steps on agriculture conditions.
Thus Green Revolution was applied to the period from 1967 to 1978 basically in the parts of Haryana and Punjab.
At this stage, concern was on Wheat and Rice.
Dr. MS Swaminathan from India led Green Revolution as a project.

METHODS USED IN THE GREEN REVOLUTION

Multiple cropping systems: since India had only one rainy season every year farmers in the country practice one crop season per year. However, the Green Revolution introduced huger irrigation projects to make water available for other crops. Hence farmlands now had two crop seasons per year.
Seeds with superior genetics: the Indian Council for Agricultural Research, which the British had established in 1929, was recognized in 1963 and 1975. The council developed new strains of high-yield variety seeds mainly wheat and rice and also millet and corn.
Proper Irrigation system: the artificial monsoon came in the form of huge irrigation facilities dams were built to arrest large volumes of natural monsoon water which were earlier being wasted.
HYV seeds: the council developed new strains of high yield variety seeds many wheat and rice but also millet and corn were developed.
Pesticides and fertilizers: use of pesticides and weedicides to reduce any loss or damage to the crops. Increased availability and use of fertilizers to enhance the productivity of the farms.
Modern Machines: Finally the introduction of technology and machinery like tractors harvesters, drills, etc. helped immensely to promote commercial farming in the country.
Expansion of farming areas: In past independence, India needed to expand its cultivable land to meet the rising demand .

GENERAL REVOLUTION

A large increase in food production in developed and developing countries was achieved by using modern agricultural techniques.

CAUSES OF THE GREEN REVOLUTION

Irrigation Better irrigation facilities are responsible for the green revolution. In 1965-66, 22 lakh hectares area had irrigation facility while 76 lakh hectares area got this facility in the year 2002-03 tube well irrigation has rapidly increased.
Agricultural Machinery In Punjab agriculture is mechanized. Tractors, harvesting combines tube wells and pumping sets and threshers, etc. are intensively used in Punjab. Punjab has the largest number of tractors In 1966 there were 10 thousand tractors, while in 2002-03, it increased to 3.54 lakhs.
Fertilizers The use of chemical fertilizers has increased the production of food grains to large extent. In 1965-66 chemical fertilizers were used 97 thousand tonnes. In 2002-03 their use increased to 1441 thousand tonnes.
High yielding variety of seeds (HYV) The use of HYV seeds has played a major role in increasing agricultural production. For example, the per hectare yield of wheat has increased from 1200 Kgs to 4500 Kgm. In the case of rice, the yield increased from 1000 Kgs to 3500 Kgs. So HYV seeds have increased production tremendously.
Plant protection There was no arrangement to protect the plants against disease in previous times. So crops were damaged on large scale. Now there are proper arrangements to protect the plants against diseases and pests. Pesticides are sprayed to protect the plants. Plant clinics are opened to provide expert advice to farms against diseases.
Research Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) Ludhiana has done a lot of research on agricultural problems. The university provided better quality seeds for wheat rice cotton gram, maize, sugarcane, and oilseeds. The university organizes Kisan meals twice a year to provide knowledge of new agricultural techniques to farmers.
New techniques Punjab Agricultural University Ludhiana has been imparting training to farmers under the Intensive Agriculture district program (IADP). Under this program, much attention is paid to crop rotation, chemical fertilizers use of HYV seeds and water, etc.
Multiple cropping Proper arrangement of irrigation and use of HYV seeds, enabled the farmers to grow more than one crop in a year.
Price Incentive Rich harvest can bring down the price to avoid this prices of various agricultural produces are fixed by agriculture cost and price commission Govt buys agriculture to produce a minimum price fixed by the commission through agencies like food corporation of India, Mark fed and puns up, etc.

RESULT/EVALUATION OF GREEN REVOLUTION

Statistical Result The green revolution resulted in a received grain output of 131 million tons in 1978-79. This established India as one of the world’s biggest agricultural producers. No other country in the world which attempted the green Revolution recorded such a level of success.
Economical Result The increase in irrigation created the need for new dams to harness monsoon water. This in turn boosted industrial growth, created jobs, and improved the quality of life of the people. India paid back all loans taken from the world bank for the green revolution.
Sociological result The Green Revolution created plenty of jobs not only for agricultural workers but also for industrial workers. The creation of lateral facilities such as factories and hydroelectric power stations helps to uplift the social as well as the economic condition.
Political Result India transformed itself from a starving nation to an exporter of food. The green revolution was one factor that made Mrs. Indira Gandhi (1917-84) and her party, a very powerful political force in India.
Other Result Poorer farmers cannot achieve yields as high as those with better access to water, fertilizer, and land. More people own land but it is being divided into smaller and smaller plots This is because of population growth and land redistribution schemes.

EFFECTS OF THE GREEN REVOLUTION

what is green revolution class 12, find answer to it in our project for green revolution and project report on green revolution is included.

Increase in production The first major direct effect of the green revolution has been the sharp increase in agricultural production. As a result of the new agricultural strategy, food grains output increased substantially. So far as food grains are concerned, wheat seems to have made rapid strides with its production increasing from 11.1 million tons in the third plan (annual average ) to 63 million tons in 1995-96
Increase in per Acre yield Not only did the Green Revolution increase the total agricultural output, but it also increased the per hectare yield. In the case of wheat, the per hectare yield increased from 850 kg/hectare to an incredible 2281 kg/hectare by 1990.
Rural Employment Capital-intensive techniques of the new agricultural strategy are supposed to be also at the same time labor-intensive. This new technology is characterized by frequent application of water fertilizers, insecticides, double cropping larger volumes of transportation, marketing, and food processing. This will lead to increased income among agricultural laborers and small farmers.
Less dependence on Imports After the green revolution, India was finally on its way to self-sufficiency, there was now enough production for the population and to build stock in case of emergency we did not need to import grains or depend on other countries for our food supply. India was able to start exporting its agricultural produce.
Development of industries An important aspect of the new agricultural strategy is the stress it lays, on making agriculture dependent on industries for its inputs. Traditional Indian agriculture was self-sufficient in the matter of its input requirements. But the new strategy attaches great importance to industrial products as agricultural inputs.
A benefit to the farmers The Green Revolution majorly benefited the farmers. Their income saw a significant raise. Not only were they surviving, but they were also prospering which enabled them to shift to commercial farming from only sustenance farming.

IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF GREEN REVOLUTION

write a short note on green revolution class 11 with project report on green revolution included.

In addition to producing larger quantities of food, the Green Revolution was also beneficial because it made it possible to grow more crops on roughly the same amount of land with a similar amount of effort. This reduced production costs and also resulted in cheaper prices for food in the market. The ability to grow more food on the same amount of land was also beneficial to the environment because it meant that less forest or natural land needed to be converted to farmland to produce more food.

ISSUES REGARDING GREEN REVOLUTION

12th hsc evs project pdf on green revolution and project report for green revolution is included.

Pollution and erosion of soil The fertility of the soil has become poor due to the implementation of modern techniques. Chemical herbicides contribute to air water and soil pollution not only do they pollute the soil where they have been applied but rainwater can carry these chemicals to other areas.
Pollution of water Some chemical herbicides end up in waterways where they kill fish and other aquatic life, according to a study published in the Japanese Journal of Veterinary Research. It can also evaporate into the air resulting in air pollution and reduced air quality.
Unemployment among uneducated farmers The farmers are largely dependent on the market for the supply of inputs and the demand for their products. There has been displacement of agricultural labor by extensive use of agricultural machinery and leaving them unemployed.
Harmful for farmers At the same time, the demand for agricultural credit has also increased as the new technology has increased the cash requirements of the farmers. Poor farmers were not able to get loans easily.
Weeds have increased Due to the heavy crop rotation pattern, we do not give rest to land nor do we have time to employ a proper weed removal system that has increased weeds.
Loss of biodiversity Due to the heavy use of chemical pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers we have lost many birds and friendly insects and this is a big loss in long term.
Excessive use of pesticides During the green revolution, farmers used excessive pesticides these pesticides mixed with groundwater and thus spoiled the health of the people of the areas of the green revolution.
Deadly disease The new farming techniques have given birth to the serious pollution of drinking water causing cancer and another disease.

PRECAUTIONS

Proper planning and implementation of the agricultural plan.
Avoiding access to the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
Proper irrigation system to that water wastage can be controlled.
Frequent pollution control checks of the soil should be done.

Green Revolution has done a lot of positive things saving the lives of millions of people and exponentially increasing the yield of food crops. But environmental degradation makes the Green Revolution an overall inefficient short-term solution to the problem of food insecurity. So a more sustainable and environmentally-friendly system of cultivation needs to be practiced. The world needs green revolution 2, which promises to feed a growing world population sustainably without compromising the needs of future generations.

You can use this project to write note on green revolution for class 11 and 12.

NEED FOR SECOND GREEN REVOLUTION

India has tremendous export potential in agriculture in the present era of globalization. In the second Green Revolution emphasis should be laid on

Non-food grains
Improving global market opportunities.
Improving rural infrastructure
Improving rural roads and electrification

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher Daizy Gupta as well as our principal Nelinder Jeet Sandhu who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on Green Revolution which also helped me in doing a lot of research and learning new things. I am thankful to them. Secondly, I would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a lot in finalizing the project within the limited time frame. It is important for students to learn about green revolution and the best way to learn is a project on green revolution for evs class 11 and class 12.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I would like to mention some sources which proved to help make this project some of them are as follows

www.google.com
www.wikipedia.com
Google images
www.economicsdiscusssion.net
https://www.slidshare.net

DOWNLOAD PDF OF THE PROJECT

12th hsc evs project pdf

Password: hscprojects.com

In order to download the PDF, You must follow on Youtube. Once done, Click on Submit

Subscribed? Click on Confirm

Download EVS Project On Green Revolution For Class 11th & 12th CBSE PDF

Marketing Management Of Biscuits – Business Studies Project

Goods And Service Tax And Its Impact On GDP

Digital India Project Class 12 and 11 – Economics

Project on Insurance- Business Studies Project Class 11

Please Enable JavaScript in your Browser to Visit this Site.

IMAGES

Air Pollution Evs Project|Class 11th And 12th|Full Description|With PDF
air pollution model
Air pollution model for school science fair project
air pollution prevention working rotatable model
air pollution model making 3d
air pollution science project model making

VIDEO

environmental education। Air pollution । Project file । our environment । e. v.s । science project
Air pollution project
Air Pollution project explanation
water and air pollution project in sadhashiva school
Indoor Air Pollution APES Project
Air_pollution_Project#science

COMMENTS

Evs Project On Air Pollution For Class 11th And 12th
Thoroughly researched and analyzed Evs Project On Air Pollution For Class 11th And 12th. Examined the historical background and evolution of the subject matter. Explored the contributions of notable figures in the field. Investigated the key theories and principles associated with the topic.
Class 12th Maharashtra Board (HSC) EVS Project: Air Pollution
CLASS 12th MAHARASHTRA BOARD (HSC) EVS PROJECT: AIR POLLUTION. SELECTION OF PROJECT TOPIC (INTRODUCTION): ... PROJECT WORK METHODOLOGY: According to the WHO, air pollution is the fifth largest killer in India. There are a variety of ways in which the air pollution of an area can be measured. One of the ways is the measurement of particulate ...
EVS PROJECT ON AIR POLLUTION
BY SURAJ#Suraj sir#Winner's AcademySUBSCRIBE for extra benefits:-https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCN6Tsf2c3zgxCPmozqRdSsAContact me:[email protected]...
EVS Project (Class 12 ICSE): SYJC
EVS Project Topics (ICSE Class 12) Climate action plan dedicated to mumbai keeping in tune with climate adaptation, mitigation and resilience. Intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc) report - 2021 on global warming with a focus on mumbai and maharashtra. Ramsar sites in india - conservation of wetlands.
EVS PROJECT ON AIR POLLUTION
©️Learn With Ibrahim Hello Friends How Are You All? On This Channel Learn With Ibrahim I Upload Educational Videos. Hit The Like Button If Video Was Useful T...
Air Pollution
Air Pollution | EVS Project Class 11th And 12th | With PDF WELCOME 📌EVS PDF Link : - https://tejassabale.in/air-pollution-evs-project-class-11th...
Air Pollution: Evs Project-Class Xii
Air Pollution EVS - Free download as Word Doc (.doc / .docx), PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read online for free. bro
Air Pollution
Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and humans drastically. There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An increase or decrease in the composition of these gases is harmful to survival.
Class 12 Environmental Issues
SignUp for free. Learn the concepts of Class 12 Biology Environmental Issues with Videos and Stories. Description of a case study for control of vehicular pollution.,General idea, electrostatic precipitator - arrestor, scrubber, air prevention and pollution control act.
Methodological Approach in Air Pollution Health Effects Studies
[email protected]. Tel: (+98 61) 33362536. Fax: (+98 61) 33361544. ABSTRACT: Number of scienti c studies linking possible effects of air pollution on health. are increasing. However, the ...
Climate Change Project Methodology
class 12th hsc All Topics EVS PROJECT - Free ebook download as PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read book online for free. The document promotes joining various Telegram channels and groups to access study materials and notes for 12th grade and other entrance exams. It provides the names and links to join multiple Telegram channels and groups that provide notes, study materials, quizzes ...
Acid Rain Evs Project For Class 11th And 12th
This is to certify that I, [Student's Name], a [Class/Grade Level] student, have successfully completed the project on "Acid Rain For Class 11th And 12th.". The project explores the fundamental principles and key aspects of the chosen topic, providing a comprehensive understanding of its significance and implications.
Air Particles and Air Quality
Cut the carton into four flat pieces by cutting along the side seams of the carton. Cut each side into 3 square pieces, each piece will be approximately 3 inches long and 3 inches wide. You will have a total of 12 squares when you are done. Using the hole punch, punch a hole in one corner of each square.
Environmental Pollution
We can say that air pollution is one of the most crucial types of environmental pollution. It indicates the contamination of the air with poisonous gases and dangerous gases. One of the top examples of air pollution is the fumes from vehicles' exhausts. Air pollution primarily affects living species, like humans and animals.
Air Pollution class 12th EVS project
Evs project topics:-Air pollution class 12th EVS Hsc board #evs #evsproject #hsc #hscboardAir Pollution class 12th EVS project | Hsc board | Evs project | #e...
Air Pollution
Career Profile. Pollution affects everything the eye can see (and even places your eyes cannot see, like deep underground and air particles). This is when environmental science and protection technicians, or an environmental advisor, come to the rescue! They help identify issues caused from pollution or contamination.
Air Pollution Definition, Project, Information, Meaning, Causes
Air Pollution Definition. A combination of gases and solid particles in the air cause air pollution. Particles that may be suspended include factory chemicals, dust, pollen, and mould spores. A significant source of ozone pollution in cities is a gas. Smog is the name for the air pollutions that results from ozone.
A Methodology of Assessment of Air Pollution Health Impact B ...
When modeling these effects it is important that the models must be epidemiologically meaningful and robust (that is, insensitive to variations in the model parameters). The objective of this paper is to propose a methodology for the assessment of the health impact of air pollution. The proposed methodology involves the construction of models ...
National Studies on Air Pollution and Health
The National Studies on Air Pollution and Health (NSAPH) is a group of faculty, research scientists, post-doctoral fellows, graduate students, and college students studying data science methodologies in the context of climate change, environmental impacts on health outcomes, and regulatory policy. Our group's research ranges between ...
Project On Environmental & Natural Resources For Political Science
The project aimed to explore the intersection of environmental and natural resource policy with political science, focusing on key debates, initiatives, and actors in this area. Throughout the research and analysis, I delved into the consequences of climate change, deforestation, pollution, and the importance of political institutions in ...
Methodological issues in studies of air pollution and reproductive
The report of the Munich workshop ( Slama et al., 2008a) covers the effects of air pollution on a wider variety of reproductive outcomes, such as fecundity and sperm quality, discusses potential biological mechanisms, methods, and recommendations for future areas of research. The findings presented in this paper are from the Mexico City ...
EVS Project On Green Revolution For Class 11th & 12th CBSE
The newly developed pesticides controlled weeds, deterred or kill insects, and prevented disease which also resulted in higher productivity. It is an important part of EVS subject to have a project on green revolution with a project report on green revolution for class 11 and 12.

Search This Blog

True Talks by Meet Gandhi

Post a Comment

MOTIVATIONAL THOUGHTS

EVS Project (Class 12 ICSE): SYJC

Steps to Conduct the Project

How to approach the Project

EVS Project Topics (ICSE Class 12)

Red Munia birds (Sample EVS Project)

CISCE Class 12 Environmental Science (EVS) Syllabus

Related Posts:

Reader Interactions

ICSE CLASS NOTES

ACADEMIC HELP

STUDY GUIDES

Air Pollution Control

Air Pollution Diagram

What is Air Pollution?

Burning of Fossil Fuels

Automobiles

Agricultural Activities

Factories and Industries

Mining Activities

Domestic Sources

Effects of Air Pollution

Global Warming

Ozone Layer Depletion

Effect on Animals

Avoid Using Vehicles

Energy Conservation

Use of Clean Energy Resources

Frequently Asked Questions

Leave a Comment Cancel reply

Air Pollution Definition, Project, Information, Meaning, Assignment, Causes

Air Pollution Definition

Air Pollution Meaning

Air Pollution Pictures for School Project Assignment

Air Pollution Information

Air Pollution Causes

Causes 1: Burning of Fossil Fuels

Causes 2: Automobiles

Causes 3: Agricultural Activities

Causes 4: Factories and Industries

Causes 5: Mining Activities

Causes 6: Domestic Sources

Air Pollution Effects

Global Warming

Ozone Layer Depletion

Effects on Animals

Air Pollution Project

Air Pollution: Ways to Stop

Primary Pollutants

Air Pollution Assignment

What is air pollution?

What are the 5 main effects of air pollution?

How do we control air pollution?

Why is pollution a problem?

What is acid rain? Name the gases responsible for acid rain.

Trending Articles

CBSE Board Exam 2024

Recent Posts

NCERT Books

Our Other Websites

Download Adda247 App

Follow us on

CRE: An R package for interpretable discovery and inference of heterogeneous treatment effects Read More

Air Pollution and Mortality at the Intersection of Race and Social Class Read More

Mortality risk from United States coal electricity generation Read the Study

NSAPH Air Quality Disparities Mapper Click Here

Opportunities

In the News

Publications

Learn about our members!

Methodological issues in studies of air pollution and reproductive health ☆

Jennifer D. Parker

Lyndsey A. Darrow

Rémy Slama

Michelle L. Bell

Hyunok Choi

Svetlana Glinianaia