define applied behavior analysis in education

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Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)

What is applied behavior analysis .

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a therapy based on the science of learning and behavior.

Behavior analysis helps us to understand:

• How behavior works
• How behavior is affected by the environment
• How learning takes place

ABA therapy applies our understanding of how behavior works to real situations. The goal is to increase behaviors that are helpful and decrease behaviors that are harmful or affect learning.

ABA therapy programs can help:

• Increase language and communication skills
• Improve attention, focus, social skills, memory, and academics 
• Decrease problem behaviors

The methods of behavior analysis have been used and studied for decades. They have helped many kinds of learners gain different skills – from healthier lifestyles to learning a new language. Therapists have used ABA to help children with autism and related developmental disorders since the 1960s.

How does ABA therapy work?

Applied Behavior Analysis involves many techniques for understanding and changing behavior. ABA is a flexible treatment:  

• Can be adapted to meet the needs of each unique person
• Provided in many different locations – at home, at school, and in the community
• Teaches skills that are useful in everyday life
• Can involve one-to-one teaching or group instruction

Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement is one of the main strategies used in ABA.

When a behavior is followed by something that is valued (a reward), a person is more likely to repeat that behavior. Over time, this encourages positive behavior change.

First, the therapist identifies a goal behavior. Each time the person uses the behavior or skill successfully, they get a reward. The reward is meaningful to the individual – examples include praise, a toy or book, watching a video, access to playground or other location, and more.

Positive rewards encourage the person to continue using the skill. Over time this leads to meaningful behavior change. 

Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence

Understanding antecedents (what happens before a behavior occurs) and consequences (what happens after the behavior) is another important part of any ABA program.

The following three steps – the “A-B-Cs” – help us teach and understand behavior:

• An antecedent : this is what occurs right before the target behavior. It can be verbal, such as a command or request. It can also be physical, such a toy or object, or a light, sound, or something else in the environment. An antecedent may come from the environment, from another person, or be internal (such as a thought or feeling).
• A resulting behavior : this is the person’s response or lack of response to the antecedent. It can be an action, a verbal response, or something else.
• A consequence : this is what comes directly after the behavior. It can include positive reinforcement of the desired behavior, or no reaction for incorrect/inappropriate responses.

Looking at A-B-Cs helps us understand:

• Why a behavior may be happening
• How different consequences could affect whether the behavior is likely to happen again
• Antecedent: The teacher says “It’s time to clean up your toys” at the end of the day.
• Behavior: The student yells “no!”
• Consequence: The teacher removes the toys and says “Okay, toys are all done.”

How could ABA help the student learn a more appropriate behavior in this situation?

• Antecedent: The teacher says “time to clean up” at the end of the day.
• Behavior: The student is reminded to ask, “Can I have 5 more minutes?”
• Consequence: The teacher says, “Of course you can have 5 more minutes!”

With continued practice, the student will be able to replace the inappropriate behavior with one that is more helpful. This is an easier way for the student to satisfy the child’s needs!

What Does an ABA Program Involve?

Good ABA programs for autism are not "one size fits all." ABA should not be viewed as a canned set of drills. Rather, each program is written to meet the needs of the individual learner.

The goal of any ABA program is to help each person work on skills that will help them become more independent and successful in the short term as well as in the future.

Planning and Ongoing Assessment

A qualified and trained behavior analyst (BCBA) designs and directly oversees the program. They customize the ABA program to each learner's skills, needs, interests, preferences and family situation. 

The BCBA will start by doing a detailed assessment of each person’s skills and preferences. They will use this to write specific treatment goals. Family goals and preferences may be included, too.

Treatment goals are written based on the age and ability level of the person with ASD.

Treatment goals can include many different skill areas, such as:

• Communication and language
• Social skills
• Self-care (such as showering and toileting)
• Play and leisure
• Motor skills
• Learning and academic skills

The instruction plan breaks down each of these skills into small, concrete steps. The therapist teaches each step one by one, from simple (e.g. imitating single sounds) to more complex (e.g. carrying on a conversation).

The BCBA and therapists measure progress by collecting data in each therapy session. Data helps them to monitor the person’s progress toward goals on an ongoing basis.

The behavior analyst regularly meets with family members and program staff to review information about progress. They can then plan ahead and adjust teaching plans and goals as needed.

ABA Techniques and Philosophy

The instructor uses a variety of ABA procedures. Some are directed by the instructor and others are directed by the person with autism.

Parents, family members and caregivers receive training so they can support learning and skill practice throughout the day.

The person with autism will have many opportunities to learn and practice skills each day. This can happen in both planned and naturally occurring situations. For instance, someone learning to greet others by saying "hello" may get the chance to practice this skill in the classroom with their teacher (planned) and on the playground at recess (naturally occurring).

The learner receives an abundance of positive reinforcement for demonstrating useful skills and socially appropriate behaviors. The emphasis is on positive social interactions and enjoyable learning.

The learner receives no reinforcement for behaviors that pose harm or prevent learning.

ABA is effective for people of all ages. It can be used from early childhood through adulthood!

Who provides ABA services?

A board-certified behavior analyst (BCBA) provides ABA therapy services.

To become a BCBA, the following is needed:

• Earn a master’s degree or PhD in psychology or behavior analysis
• Pass a national certification exam
• Seek a state license to practice (in some states)

ABA therapy programs also involve therapists, or registered behavior technicians (RBTs). These therapists are trained and supervised by the BCBA. They work directly with children and adults with autism to practice skills and work toward the individual goals written by the BCBA. You may hear them referred to by a few different names: behavioral therapists, line therapists, behavior tech, etc.

To learn more, see the Behavior Analyst Certification Board website .

What is the evidence that ABA works?

ABA is considered an evidence-based best practice treatment by the US Surgeon General and by the American Psychological Association. 

“Evidence based” means that ABA has passed scientific tests of its usefulness, quality, and effectiveness. ABA therapy includes many different techniques.  All of these techniques focus on antecedents (what happens before a behavior occurs) and on consequences (what happens after the behavior). 

More than 20 studies have established that intensive and long-term therapy using ABA principles improves outcomes for many but not all children with autism. “Intensive” and “long term” refer to programs that provide 25 to 40 hours a week of therapy for 1 to 3 years. These studies show gains in intellectual functioning, language development, daily living skills and social functioning. Studies with adults using ABA principles , though fewer in number, show similar benefits.

Is ABA covered by insurance? 

Sometimes. Many types of private health insurance are required to cover ABA services. This depends on what kind of insurance you have, and what state you live in.

All Medicaid plans must cover treatments that are medically necessary for children under the age of 21. If a doctor prescribes ABA and says it is medically necessary for your child, Medicaid must cover the cost.

Please see our insurance resources for more information about insurance and coverage for autism services . 

You can also  contact the Autism Response Team if you have difficulty obtaining coverage, or need additional help.

Where do I find ABA services? 

To get started, follow these steps:

• Speak with your pediatrician or other medical provider about ABA. They can discuss whether ABA is right for your child. They can write a prescription for ABA if it is necessary for your insurance.
• Check whether your insurance company covers the cost of ABA therapy , and what your benefit is.
• Search our resource directory for ABA providers near you . Or, ask your child’s doctor and teachers for recommendations.
• Call the ABA provider and request an intake evaluation. Have some questions ready (see below!)

What questions should I ask? 

It’s important to find an ABA provider and therapists who are a good fit for your family. The first step is for therapists to establish a good relationship with your child. If your child trusts his therapists and enjoys spending time with them, therapy will be more successful – and fun!

The following questions can help you evaluate whether a provider will be a good fit for your family. Remember to trust your instincts, as well!

• How many BCBAs do you have on staff?
• Are they licensed with the BACB and through the state?
• How many behavioral therapists do you have?
• How many therapists will be working with my child?
• What sort of training do your therapists receive? How often?
• How much direct supervision do therapists receive from BCBAs weekly?
• How do you manage safety concerns?
• What does a typical ABA session look like?
• Do you offer home-based or clinic-based therapy?
• How do you determine goals for my child? Do you consider input from parents?
• How often do you re-evaluate goals?
• How is progress evaluated?
• How many hours per week can you provide?
• Do you have a wait list?
• What type of insurance do you accept? 

For more information

ATN/AIR-P Parent's Guide to Applied Behavior Analysis

ATN/AIR-P An Introduction to Behavioral Health Treatments

Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB)

Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI)

BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS IN EDUCATION

Behavior analysis has been used to improve teaching and increase learning across content areas, grade levels, and student populations for over 60 years. It provides a scientific approach to designing, implementing, and evaluating instruction based on analyzing interactions between what the teacher does and student learning.

Education is one of many applied behavior analysis (ABA) subspecialties. To learn more about ABA and its application in other subspecialties, check out the About Behavior Analysis web page.

Education Subspecialty Fact Sheet

Behavior Analysis in Education is one of several ABA subspecialty fact sheets produced by the BACB in partnership with subject matter experts (SMEs).

Each fact sheet also includes a list of additional resources and reading materials for those who wish to learn more.

This resource may be freely distributed and hosted online.

Introduction to Behavior Analysis in Education

By Janet Twyman, PhD, BCBA, LBA

You can find all of the BACB’s ABA subspecialty videos on our BACB Videos web page or our YouTube channel.

In This Section

• BACB Fact Sheet (PDF)
• Bylaws (PDF)
• Certificant Data
• Public Statements Policies
• ABA Fact Sheets
• Fact-Check Request

Applied Behavior Analysis

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a type of therapy frequently applied to children with autism and other developmental disorders that focuses on imparting skills in specific domains of functioning, such as social skills, communication, academic and learning skills, motor dexterity, hygiene and grooming, and more. Tailored to individual needs, ABA is delivered in a variety of settings, including school, home, clinic, and other community settings. The goal of treatment is to help children function as independently and successfully as possible.

Originally developed by psychologist Ole Ivar Lovaas in the 1960s reflecting traditional principles of behaviorism, the therapy has evolved somewhat as understanding of autism has increased. ABA utilizes positive reinforcement to teach and promote social skills, communication abilities, learning and academic skills, and self-care habits. ABA therapy is intensive; sessions typically last two or more hours and are conducted several days a week. Ideally, the therapy is attuned to each patient’s specific developmental needs, and a course of therapy typically spans two or more years.

Nevertheless, the therapy has garnered criticism over the years. In its earliest iterations ABA relied not only on positive reinforcement of behavior but also on negative reinforcement, including outright punishment , if children failed to learn skills. Many critics considered it too harsh. Today’s ABA generally relies on positive reinforcement to promote behavior change. More recent criticism of the therapy reflects a “ neurodiversity ” perspective: It rejects attempts to “normalize” behavior because it considers autism not a disorder but a normal variation of the brain’s operations.

• When It's Used
• What to Expect
• How It Works
• What to Look For in an Applied Behavioral Analyst

ABA is commonly practiced as a therapeutic intervention for individuals with autism . According to the Center for Autism, ABA helps people with autism improve social interactions, learn new skills, and maintain positive behaviors. ABA also helps transfer skills and behavior from one situation to another, controlling situations where negative behaviors arise and minimizing negative behaviors. With autism, ABA is most successful when intensely applied for more than 20 hours a week and prior to the age of 4.

ABA can also help aging adults cope with the losses that come with age, like memory , strength, and relationships. For young and old, ABA can help individuals manage some of the lifestyle challenges that accompany many mental and physical health conditions.

When working with an ABA therapist, clients will:

• Determine which behaviors require change
• Set goals and expected outcomes
• Establish ways to measure changes and improvements
• Evaluate where you are now
• Learn new skills and or learn how to avoid negative behaviors
• Regularly review your progress
• Decide whether or not further behavior modification is necessary

The length of time spent in ABA depends on the severity of the problem and individual rate of improvement.

First, a trained behavior analyst assesses a person’s needs and ability level and designs a bespoke program of therapy with specific treatment goals typically focused on several skill areas. These include:

• communication

• social skills

• self-care

• play and leisure

• motor skills

• learning and academic skills

ABA therapists deploy a variety of techniques depending on the individual’s treatment needs and the target behavior. Among them:

Discrete trial training (DTT), which is usually conducted in a one-on-one session with a therapist, breaks skills into small (discrete) units, and teaches them one by one, with the appropriate reinforcement as each unit is mastered. For example, in teaching speech skills, one unit may be devoted to producing the vocal sound S. The therapist will typically ask for the desired behavior, reward the correct response, and repeat the process until the sound is produced spontaneously. DTT may be used for teaching communication skills, social skills, motor skills like writing letters of the alphabet.

Modeling is a technique in which the therapist presents an example of the desired behavior, either personally demonstrating it or providing a video or audio recording of the desired behavior. The learner is then asked to imitate the target behavior. For example, in teaching social skills, a learner might be shown a video of a person saying thank you when given a toy or other object, and then asked to repeat the behavior as the teacher hands them an object.

Picture exchange communication system (PECS) involves the use of pictures to teach communication and vocabulary skills to children. The child, working with a set of cards having pictures of foods or other objects, gives the therapist a picture of a desired object. In exchange, the therapist provides the object shown in the picture. The technique can be used with children who do not have speech skills as a way for them to communicate their needs. But it is also used to expand the communication skills of those who can speak and teach them how to express their wants and needs in socially adaptive ways as they progress through increasingly sophisticated vocabulary and sentence structure.

Reinforcement systems involves the use of methods to teach children the consequences of engaging in specific behaviors and activities, with the purpose of increasing the likelihood such behaviors will be repeated in the future. For example, one method of reinforcement might be a token system. A child earns tokens as a form of reward for accomplishing a target behavior. Those tokens may then be used in exchange for some desired activity, such as access to a specific toy or computer game, which functions as a backup reinforcer.

All desired behaviors are broken into smaller steps, and as each step is learned, the child is rewarded for carrying out the target behavior successfully. ABA therapists typically conduct training to parents and caregivers, to that behavioral progress occurs outside the clinical setting. .

For every behavior where change is desired, the therapist identifies the ABCs—the antecedent, the behavior, and consequence of the behavior. The antecedent is what prompts the person to act. The behavior is the response itself, which could be an action or verbal expression, which the therapy aims to change. The consequence is what immediately follows the behavior.

For example, if the goal is to reduce tantrums when the child has to go to sleep, the parent might reward the child with praise if the child gets ready for bed. The parent would not provide those positive reinforcements if the child threw a tantrum instead.

An ABA therapist is a licensed mental health professional who has additional training and experience in ABA. Most states now have regulations requiring specific licensure for ABA therapists.

Certification programs for practicing ABA therapy are provided by the Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB). Board-Certified Behavior Analysts with a master’s degree and appropriate training are identified by the initials BCBA after their name; those with a doctorate-level degree are identified by the initials BCBA-D. (In Florida only, a BCBA may use the initials FL-CBA or the term Florida Certified Behavior Analyst).

In addition, there is a certification program for those who serve as supportive ABA therapy team members. Board Certified Assistant Behavior Analysts have bachelor’s degrees and ABA training and are identified by the initials BCaBA. A BCaBA cannot practice alone but can work in therapeutic settings when supervised by someone who is certified at a higher level.

The BACB also certifies Registered Behavior Technicians with a minimum of a high school diploma and 40 hours of specialized training who work only under the direct supervision of a BCBA or BCaBA.

When seeking an ABA therapist, experience counts. It is advisable to seek a therapist who has had not just extensive training but experience using ABA to treat patients presenting with concerns such as your child’s.

Important as qualifications and experience are, so is good fit. As with all forms of therapy, it is also advisable to find an ABA therapist with whom you and your child feels comfortable. Look for someone with whom you can establish clarity of communication.

Here are some important questions to ask a prospective ABA therapist:

• How often have you dealt with problems such as my child presents?
• How do you know whether child is a good candidate for ABA therapy?
• How does ABA therapy work?
• What is a typical plan of treatment and how long is a typical course of therapy?
• How do you measure progress?
• What is the nature of your training in ABA therapy?
• What is your policy on communication with parents?
• What length of time do you initially ask a client to commit to?
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• What is Applied Behavior Analysis?

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is the practice of applying the psychological principles of learning theory in a systematic way to modify behavior. The practice is used most extensively in special education and the treatment of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), but also in healthcare, animal training, and even business. ABA is widely recognized as the only scientifically valid therapy available for treating behavioral issues associated with ASD.

If you were ever put in a time-out by your parents or have put one of your children into time-out as a punishment for misbehavior, you have the science of applied behavior analysis to thank for the technique. Yet many don’t realize the role that applied behavioral analysis plays in their lives, largely behind the scenes. As the term has gained more mainstream traction, many are left wondering—what is ABA, how is it practiced, and who developed applied behavior analysis?

Doctor Montrose Wolf, one of the founders of the field, came up with the time-out in the 1960s in the process of developing effective treatment methods for an autistic 3-year-old under his care . Understanding that the child’s tantrums were being reinforced by the fact that this behavior was drawing attention, Wolf created the time-out to deprive the child of the attention but still provide an effective response to the behavior.

In doing so, he was making use of a theory of behavior modification first developed by psychologist B.F. Skinner 20 years earlier called “operant conditioning”. The theory rested on a process of observation and consequence that has since become known as “the ABCs of applied behavior analysis”:

• Antecedent : The prompt, or initial situation, leading to a behavior—in this case, the 3-year-old’s desire for adult attention.
• Behavior : The action or behavior in response to the antecedent—throwing a tantrum and acting out.
• Consequence : The reinforcement mechanism associated with the behavior—adult attention, even if ostensibly negative, desired by the child.

Wolf and his compatriots realized that by making careful observations of the environment (the antecedents) and understanding the relationship to the behaviors exhibited, they could systematically alter the consequences to either reinforce positive behaviors or discourage negative ones. This systematic manipulation is the essence of applied behavioral analysis therapy.

What is the Process Behind Applied Behavior Analysis Therapy?

A significant and sometimes overlooked contributor to the effectiveness of applied behavior analysis is the process itself. By rigorously pursuing a consistent, observable course of treatment, ABAs are able to logically and scientifically come to a conclusive judgment on the efficacy of any particular technique or treatment, and apply it systematically to help their patients.

This emphasis on scientific observation and experimentation has existed since the earliest days of behavior therapy. B.F. Skinner, one of the earliest proponents of radical behaviorism, insisted that behaviors were attributable to environmental factors and motivations. Skinner put his theories to the test using systematic experiments,  such as those conducted using a Skinner Box .

To analyze and alter problematic behaviors, or to encourage beneficial ones, the behavior analyst has to correctly identify each of the ABCs and successfully interpret how they are related to one another. In the simplest explanations found in textbooks, the ABCs of ABA go something like this:

• A:  A student with ADHD feels ignored in their class in school.
• B:  The student randomly speaks out in class.
• C:  The teacher admonishes the student, providing the attention that they were looking for.

In the real world, it can be more challenging to uncover the factors contributing to such behaviors:

• A:  A student with no history of behavioral issues has recently had a younger sibling born into their family. At home, the child feels ignored and displaced.
• C:  The teacher admonishes the student. Eventually, the parents will be contacted, who will talk with the student about the outbursts, providing the attention they were looking for.

Drawing on training and experience, the ABA must not only spot all of these factors, but correctly interpret them as being related, in order to figure out where to begin modifying them to alter the behavior.

Today, these steps are broken down into an informal loop:

• Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA)
• Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP) / Individual Education Plan (IEP)
• Ongoing Assessment

The Functional Behavior Assessment Establishes the Environment and Behaviors

Although different branches of behavior analysis may use slightly different terminology for this step, every behavior analyst begins a case by conducting an FBA – functional behavior assessment.

Much of the FBA is likely to be conducted in person and by direct observation and interview of the patient. The ABA may choose to begin by simply observing the patient during an average day, quietly noting important factors of the environment and how the patient reacts to them. Interactions with their ordinary caregivers and other people they encounter during the day will be monitored. In order to successfully intervene in problem behaviors, the ABA understands that the patient will have to improve in their natural environment, not just in the controlled environment of an exam room or clinic.

By directly interacting with the patient, the ABA can test some of the theories they have developed during other observation or from caregiver reports. The ABA might intentionally say something that has, in the past, been a trigger for aggression or acting out, simply to gauge the patient’s response. Or they might assess how the patient feels about these triggers, asking them to provide the reasoning behind their own behavior.

But observation and interaction are not the only ways to gather information. The ABA will probably interview teachers, parents, or other people the patient interacts with regularly.

They may also review medical records and behavioral incident reports.

If the patient has already been under care, the ABA will discuss the case with anyone else who has treated them, and review notes and progress from previous BIPs (behavior intervention plans) or IEPs (individualized education programs).

The FBA will result in a list of problematic behaviors that have been carefully observed and defined by the ABA. These lead to the development of the Behavior Intervention Plan.

The Behavior Intervention Plan Lays Out Strategies for Modifying Behavior

The BIP is the master plan formulated by the behavior analyst for altering the environment or consequences.

In schools, according to definitions established by the  Federal IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) , a BIP is either accompanied with or supplanted by a document called an Individualized Education Plan, or IEP. The IEP will typically cover topics and activities beyond just behavior, but the ABA working on the case will establish the behavior modification aspects of the plan in coordination with other education and healthcare professionals working on the case.

The BIP or IEP establishes the overall strategy and the specific tactics to be used in altering the patient’s behavior.

BIPs are often more formal than FBAs. They will be typed up on a form that lists the problematic behaviors drawn from the FBA together with a list of objectives that the ABA has established for the patient. The objectives will typically be related to the behaviors but are often stair-stepped toward addressing the problem, rather than simply eliminating it. Complex behavioral issues might be solved piece by piece; for instance, a student that frequently speaks out of turn in class might be given a goal of reducing these instances from ten or twelve times a week, down to four or five.

The BIP will also have preventative strategies designed to help accomplish the objectives. In the disruptive student example, for instance, the ABA might have determined that part of the cause of the outbursts is that the student doesn’t feel heard. The BIP might call for the teacher to have structured sessions each day with the student where they can give their feedback. If the student successfully restricts themselves to speaking during these appropriate moments for two weeks, they might be rewarded with their choice of a game to play during free time.

Alternative actions are also outlined, providing ways to encourage the patient to channel their impulses. For instance, if the disruptive student forgets and has an outburst, the teacher might be instructed to calmly remind them to raise their hand instead.

By clearly outlining actual steps to take and behavior thresholds to monitor, the BIP assists both the patient and those they interact with in establishing a functional pattern for addressing issues.

Ongoing Behavioral Assessment Continues Through the Treatment Process

In a sense, the FBA segment of the process never really ends. Observation and assessment of the patient is ongoing and leads to changes in the BIP. Each adjustment in treatment yields a positive, negative, or neutral result in behavior. These continuing observations lead to a confirmation or reassessment of the ABA’s theories of patient behavior and may result in new techniques or reveal problems that had been buried by the initial issues.

In fact, in complex cases, the FBA/BIP may be structured as a sort of experiment, designed to isolate the actual cause of the behavior in the first iteration. Only after a period of continuing observation of the outcomes will the ABA establish a definitive therapeutic approach.

The level of direct involvement with the ABA will depend on the patient and course of treatment. Some ABAs will primarily work directly with the patient, implementing therapy plans in a clinical environment. Otherwise, they act as more of a resource for parents and caregivers, supervising or advising the hands-on aspects of the therapy. These ABAs might check in only periodically for reviews, a sort of mini-FBA based on reporting and brief observations.

This process will continue for as long as the patient is under care. In the best cases, the interaction will tail off as the behavior or learning improves. This is called “extinction” when it results in the disappearance of problem behavior, or “acquisition” when new skills and behaviors are successfully taught.

The cycle of observation, analysis, and reinforcement is much of what makes applied behavior analysis effective, and is common to every domain and treatment that uses it, even when the particular steps or techniques vary.

How Does Applied Behavior Analysis Work?

Wherever they are applied, the various techniques in applied behavioral analysis therapy remain consistently oriented toward observing and manipulating the ABCs (antecedent, behavior, and consequence).

The systematic observation of patients is one of the cornerstones of these techniques. Known as the Functional Behavior Analysis (FBA), most ABAs will begin their treatment by making consistent, careful observations of the patient in their natural environment. The FBA can also be informed by observations made by other caregivers and from reports or interviews with the patient.

The behavior analyst will then form a hypothesis of the ABCs in play with that patient and build a Behavior Intervention Plan, or BIP, that is designed to make systematic, but gradual, changes in the consequences of behaviors that are designed to encourage socially positive behaviors and discourage socially detrimental behaviors.

The tools used to implement the consequences might include:

• Discrete Trial Training (DTT) : In discrete trial training , an ABA breaks down complex behaviors into a number of elements, which are separately and sequentially reinforced to build up into the desired behavior.
• Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) : Rather than targeting specific behaviors, pivotal response treatment involves a holistic examination of motivations and responsiveness in the patient.
• Natural Environment Training (NET) : Natural environment training uses reward systems already established in the patient’s life and pairs them with desired behaviors to create a naturalistic pattern of behavior response.
• Token Economies : Token economies create a systematic method of offering placeholders for rewards that are offered in exchange for positive behaviors—gold stars given in class for homework turned in on time, for example. An eventual reward for the tokens helps create a pattern of reinforced behaviors, particularly in group environments.

Creativity is a valuable trait for an applied behavior analyst. Working in natural environments, they are constantly assessing methods to modify behaviors, and experimenting with new techniques all the time. The field is constantly evolving.

The Practice of Applied Behavior Analysis in the World Today

What is ABA therapy’s role in the real world? And what does an applied behavior analyst do day to day? Because ABA has broad applications in almost any situation where a particular behavior or response needs to be taught or encouraged, behavior analysts find employment in a diverse array of fields well outside the typical range of psychological practice.

Animal Behavior Analysis

One of the earliest applications of operant conditioning was in animal training. Some of Skinner’s original investigation into the technique revolved around teaching pigeons to pilot guided missiles during World War II (the pigeon missiles were never deployed in combat!).

Since then, animal behavior specialists have become widely recognized for the services they provide in feedlots and other agricultural settings. Today, the techniques applied broadly in zoos and by many pet trainers to deliver consistent, positive reinforcement to improve animal behavior or to train them in specific behaviors for their own safety or that of their handlers. For example, in one recent case, behavior analysts used conditioning techniques to train horses how to enter horse trailers in a way that reduced the likelihood of injuries.

ABA theories and techniques are behind many modern educational methods used in classrooms around the country. The Good Behavior Game , for example, a popular classroom management tool, was also invented by Dr. Wolf. The practice of giving out gold stars, offering consistent repetitive reinforcement in the form of regular quizzes, and having students raise their hands before speaking all owe their existence and effectiveness to applied behavior analysis.

Applied behavioral analysis in special education is particularly prominent. Thirty percent of applied behavior analysts are employed in schools, usually working with developmentally disabled children. ABAs are responsible for conducting FBAs and using their findings to work with other healthcare professionals and educators to develop Individual Education Plans (IEPs) for special needs kids to ensure they receive the assistance they need to participate as much as possible in the same classes as their general education peers.

As one of the few treatment techniques found to be scientifically proven as effective for treating autism spectrum disorder , ABA practice in schools has surged along with the increase in ASD diagnoses in the United States.

BCBAs in a hospital setting work with patients with a wide variety of diagnoses to either directly treat behavioral issues or to assist other healthcare professionals in providing treatment that may be impeded by undesirable behaviors, or that could be enhanced by encouraging new behaviors.

For example, ABAs often work with speech-language therapists to determine how best to teach language to developmentally delayed children. In pre-verbal kids, it can be problematic to determine whether speech delays are the result of physical, mental, or behavioral problems. Studies have shown that motivation can be a problem in cases of traumatic brain injury when it comes to language acquisition.

Using FBAs and careful implementation of BIPs, ABAs can establish communication and encourage language skill development in those cases. They use the same techniques on other patients with issues as diverse as:

• Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
• Fears and phobias
• Anger management issues
• Anxiety disorders

A specialized application of applied behavior analysis called organizational behavior management (OBM) has evolved to help apply ABA systems and techniques to groups rather than just individuals.

This approach has had applications in industrial safety systems, such as the implementation of a token economy system at two dangerous open-pit mining operations in Arizona and Wyoming which resulted in a dramatic decrease in time-loss work incidents. While the decrease in injuries was surely popular with the workers, management had something to cheer about, too: the reduction in incidents through the token economy system was also associated with an almost 90 percent decrease in safety costs.

OBM is also being increasingly incorporated into popular management practices in a wide variety of fields. For example, one junior high football coach found success using behavioral analysis techniques to teach blocking skills , resulting in a 90 percent improvement in safely and properly executed blocks.

What Can You Do with an Applied Behavior Analysis Degree?

Careers in applied behavioral analysis range from corporate organizational management to psychological treatment. The most prevalent career is that of a clinical behavioral analyst working with patients that suffer from behavioral disorders, like OCD, ASD, or ADHD, that deeply affect their everyday lives. As mentioned above, there are opportunities for therapists within medical offices, counseling practices, schools, and group care facilities.

Similarly, you could become a behavior analyst consultant instead, which requires the same skills and expertise but offers a bit more flexibility to tailor your career to your own interests or needs. Instead of working full time in one place or with one type of patient, a consultancy allows you to work in several different settings and with patients of all kinds, offering the opportunity to develop additional specializations throughout your career.

There are several other jobs related to applied behavior analysis  you can step into with your ABA degree, some of which require additional certifications or degrees:

• Special education teacher or assistant
• Social worker
• Life or wellness coach
• School counselor or psychologist
• Animal training

Applied Behavior Analysis Salary

What is ABA therapy’s place in the job market, and how does that translate into pay? The field of applied behavioral analysis has enjoyed an exponentially expanding job market over the last decade. The average applied behavioral analysis salary has risen more than 1,900% due in no small part to the burgeoning understanding and diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder and other social and behavioral disorders. As such, ABA therapists are in high demand.

According to 2021 statistics from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) , a behavioral analyst earns an average annual salary of $ 102,900 . Entry-level analysts can expect an average salary of $ 73,910 , while the top earners with 10 or more years of experience pulled in an average of $ 133,200 per year. Additional certifications and skill sets can also affect these numbers; for example, having expertise in program management results in a 10% higher pay rate.  

Preparing for a Career in Applied Behavior Analysis

Almost all positions for applied behavior analysts require a minimum of a master’s degree. This is usually in a related field, such as psychology, education, or in applied behavioral analysis, but depending on the sub-field of practice, it might also be in business or animal science. Undergraduate degrees in psychology or education lay a solid groundwork for any of these advanced degree programs.

Additionally, volunteering for organizations that use applied behavior analysis therapy can provide valuable experience in the field and offer a preview of the type of working environments available.

Many positions for ABAs require a particular certification. In healthcare and education, this is usually the Board-Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA®) certificate offered by the Behavior Analyst Certification Board , a national non-profit founded in 1998 to provide standards of practice and ethics for the field.

For ABAs hoping to work with animals, the Certified Applied Animal Behaviorist (CAAB) certificate , offered by the Animal Behavior Society, is another option. Many BCBA®s work in animal training as well.

Approximately half of all states require a license or certification for ABAs to practice, with more introducing licensing requirements all the time.

To get started on your career in applied behavioral analysis, start researching graduate programs in your area that offer the qualifying coursework you need to pass your BCBA exam, preferably in a format that works for you, whether that is on campus or online.

See Graduate Programs

What Is ABA Therapy?

At its core, applied behavioral analysis therapy is used to improve or maintain the skills and actions necessary for everyday life. These include communication skills, social interactions, and learning techniques. For example, you could use applied behavioral analysis to teach motor skills, like tying shoes or using a fork. ABA therapy is also used to help improve social skills like appropriate interactions with peers, taking turns, following rules, and understanding and following social cues.

Because the techniques behind applied behavioral analysis are universally applicable to several communication and social behaviors, applied behavioral analysis therapy can be used for everything from treating psychological disorders, like OCD and ADHD, to animal training. As mentioned, it is often a first-line therapy to help patients on the autism spectrum cope with the world around them and learn appropriate skills and self-management behaviors to socialize with others.

ABA therapy has applications in diverse fields such as:

• Autism treatment centers
• Group care facilities
• Factories and offices
• Zoos and pet training centers

ABA therapists often work with other professionals in the course of their jobs. They are members of healthcare provider teams, educators, and business management teams. They might consult with doctors, therapists, and psychologists on certain cases. They work in hospitals, private clinics, schools, and in the homes of private patients.

Learn how to become an ABA therapist today!

2021 US Bureau of Labor Statistics salary and employment figures for Psychologists, All Other reflect national data, not school-specific information. Conditions in your area may vary. Data accessed January 2023.

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Teach.com / Online Education / Psychology Degrees / Online Master of Applied Behavior Analysis Programs (ABA) / What is Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)?

Applied Behavior Analysis or, as it’s commonly called, ABA is a therapeutic approach to dealing with behavioral disorders that is based on the science of learning and behavior. ABA typically includes a focus on developing minds and is most often used on children or young adults, however, it can be used for people of all ages! Applied Behavior Analysis helps us understand learning patterns, environmental effects on one’s development, and how to approach common learning disorders.

Jumpstart your career in applied behavior analysis by exploring  online ABA programs .

ABA Therapy Overview

The primary recipients of ABA therapy are individuals with  Autism Spectrum Disorder , a complex neurobehavioral condition, of varying severity, that includes impairments in social interaction and developmental language and communication skills combined with rigid, repetitive behaviors. The goals of individuals participating in ABA therapy are to improve language capabilities and other communication skills, limit negative behavioral patterns, improve learning outcomes, and help develop social skills – among many others.

Types of ABA Therapy

There are a variety of different techniques and approaches to applied behavior analysis, including many therapeutic methods in attempting to overcome learning difficulties. The most popular and widely known method is known as Discrete Trial Teaching. Discrete Trial Teaching (DTT) is a method of teaching in simplified and structured steps. During DTT, instead of teaching an entire skill in one go, the skill is broken down and “built-up” using discrete trials that teach each step one at a time.

Although Discrete Trial Training is the closest thing to a “baseline” in the field of ABA, many other methods are gaining popularity in recent years. Practicing ABA therapy in natural settings instead of controlled settings as well as an increased emphasis on ABA in schools are a few newly appreciated methodologies. Regardless of the approach to ABA employed by the therapist, circling back to the ABCs of Behavior is vital to any effective process – antecedent, behavior, and consequence. For more information about ABC and useful tools to put into practice, check out this  guide to ABC charts  for applied behavior analysis.

ABC’s of Behavior:

A:  antecedent.

The contributing factors to a behavior, sometimes referred to as ‘triggers’.

B: Behavior

The actual response or reaction to the antecedent.

C: Consequence

Specific response to the behavior that will make it more/less likely to happen in the future.

Outcomes of ABA Therapy

The primary goals of ABA therapy are to reduce unwanted behavior patterns and to teach new, productive skills to help drive meaningful change within an individual. Meaningful change is naturally on a case-by-case level, but it is important to set specific and measurable goals at the beginning of the process in order to acknowledge outcomes properly.

How to Become a Board Certified Behavior Analyst

There are a few different variations in how to become a board certified behavior analyst, with some common threads between all the paths. As far as educational requirements go, what degree you will need is largely dependent on your salary and career expectations and the type of setting you want to practice behavior analysis in. To  become a behavior analyst in a school , for example, you will likely need to pursue advanced education and obtain an official certification by the BACB (Behavior Analyst Certification Board)

The common steps to becoming a board certified behavior analyst include:

• Obtaining a Bachelors Degree
• Completion of a masters program in applied behavior analysis (for individuals looking to unlock higher career potential)
• Participating in some form of fieldwork, practicum, shadowing program, or comparable experience
• Exploring  state by state requirements  to determine what you need to practice ABA in your home state

Common Terms in Applied Behavior Analysis

Below is a glossary of common terms and acronyms in the field of applied behavior analysis, along with their definitions:

ABC’s of Behavior:  A tool used to collect information about the events that are occuring in a child’s environment. A is for antecedent, the event that precedes the behavior, B is for the actual behavior and C is for consequence, or the event that immediately follows the behavior.

ABLLS-R:  Stands for Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills – Revised. A comprehensive assessment and curriculum planning tool that allows you assess across 25 varied domains to get a complete snapshot of a child’s functioning level, strengths, and deficits. Domains include self help skills, gross motor skills, receptive skills, group instruction, etc.

Contingent Observation:  A method of controlling disruptive behavior. Individuals who misbehave are given instruction on better ways to act. Then they’re asked to remove themselves from the social group temporarily while they watch the other students behaving appropriately.

Autism:  Refers to a range of conditions characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech and nonverbal communication, as well as by unique strengths and differences. Also called autism spectrum disorder.

BCBA:  Stands for Board Certified Behavioral Analyst. This is the board certification required for a person to become a Behavior Analyst, and it is recognized worldwide. In many states or with insurance companies, only BCBAs are recognized as being properly authorized to oversee, manage, or supervise ABA programs.

Chaining:  Breaking a skill down into its step by step components.

Chunking:  The process of taking individual pieces of information (chunks) and grouping them into larger units.

Classical Conditioning:  A kind of learning in which a person comes to associate two kinds of stimuli, one that naturally prompts a given behavior and one that does not.

Clustering:  Organizing information in memory into related groups

Discrete Trial Teaching:  A method of teaching in simplified and structured steps. Instead of teaching an entire skill in one go, the skill is broken down and “built-up” using discrete trials that teach each step one at a time.

DSM(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual):  The manual published by the American Psychiatric Association which lists all classifications of mental disorders.

Echolalia:  The repetition of phrases, words or parts of words.

FBA(Functional Behavior Assessment):  Looks at the reasons behind a child’s behavior problems in order to improve behavior.

Naturalistic Teaching:  A strategy that focuses on letting the student set the pace of learning in the context of their regular daily routines.

Operant Conditioning:  A method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

Pivotal Response Therapy:  Builds on naturalistic teaching, yet it provides a bit more structure. While still student-directed, this method focuses specifically on improving core skills such as motivation, being able to respond to more than one cue, induction into social structures, self regulation, and other critical development areas.

Spectrum:  Refers to the wide variation in challenges and strengths possessed by each person with autism.

Target Behavior:  Behavior that has been selected for change.

Token Economy:  A system for providing positive reinforcement to a child or children by given them tokens for completing tasks or behaving in desired ways.

VB-MAPP Assessment (Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program):  A criterion-referenced assessment curriculum guide and skills tracking system designed specifically for children with autism and other individuals who demonstrate language delays

Autism Q & A: What is Applied Behavior Analysis?

by Dawn Hendricks, Ph.D., Susan Palko, M.Ed. and Adam Dreyfus, MA, BCBA

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a scientific approach to understanding behavior. ABA refers to a set of principles that focus on how behaviors change, or are affected by the environment, as well as how learning takes place. The term behavior refers to skills and actions needed to talk, play, and live. While these principles impact everyone each day, they can be applied systematically through interventions to help individuals learn and apply new skills in their daily lives.

ABA requires the implementation of established principles of learning, behavioral strategies, and environmental modifications to improve and teach new behaviors. In practice, implementation must be systematic so teachers can identify how behavior can be changed and understand how learning occurred. The ultimate goal of ABA is to establish and enhance socially important behaviors. Such behaviors can include academic, social, communication, and daily living skills; essentially, any skill that will enhance the independence and/or quality of life for the individual.

Question: How are Applied Behavior Analysis principals and methods used?  

Answer: The principles and methods of ABA can be used to support individuals in at least five ways.

• ABA can be used to increase behaviors, such as attending to a speaker or greeting a peer.
• The principles and methods can be used to teach a student new skills, including using a spoon and learning addition.
• ABA can be used to maintain behaviors, for example, reading sight words that were learned previously.
• ABA principles and methods can be used to help a student generalize or transfer behavior from one situation or response to another. For instance, a student may learn to generalize completing assignments in the resource room to completing them in the general education classroom.
• ABA can be used to reduce interfering or challenging behaviors.

Understanding what is meant by ABA is increased if each term is defined individually: Applied, Behavior, and Analysis.

Question: What does the word, "Applied" mean?

Answer: ABA interventions deal with behaviors of demonstrated social significance -- behaviors that are important! When implementing ABA interventions, teachers are targeting behaviors that are essential to the person. For example, learning to cross a street safely may be critical for a person who has a new job in the city, while learning to order lunch in the cafeteria may be critical for someone else. The range of behavior issues addressed by ABA is broad and deep.

The following list illustrates the scope of possible behaviors:

• Teaching social skills,
• Generalizing reading sight words in different texts,
• Teaching toileting skills,
• Teaching appropriate break room behavior,
• Teaching the bed time routine,
• Increasing requesting desired objects,
• Generalizing conversational skills to colleagues in the work place, and
• Teaching riding a bus.

Question: What does the word, "Behavior" mean?

Answer: In orderIn order to understand ABA, it is critical to understand what is meant by behavior. Behavior is anything a person does. Behavior is measurable and observable. Often behavior is thought of in negative terms, for example, screaming or hitting. However, behavior applies to all kinds of positive actions and skills too, including greeting a peer, performing a math problem, signing a letter, asking a question, and so on.

When behavior is discussed in the context of ABA, it is generally considered in three differents contexts.

• Behaviors that are to be maintained over time, such as a child who has learned to brush his teeth or the adolescent who has learned to manage a check book.
• Behaviors that should be increased. For the person who is unable to request something to eat or interact with a peer, teaching these skills is a priority.
• Behaviors that need to be decreased. Obviously, a parent wants to see a child spending less time screaming or having a tantrum, in this case, the parent would also want to see positive behaviors increase, such as communicating or asking for help.

Question: What does the word, "Analysis" mean?

Answer: Through the use of clear definitions for behavior and systematic delivery of interventions, reliable relationships between interventions and behavior can be established. There is also a need for a reliable collection of data, as well as analysis of these data to determine if behaviors are changing. Through analysis, teachers can determine if behaviors are increasing or decreasing, as well as the rate of the change. This allows objective decisions to be made about future interventions. The following components are needed to ensure analysis can be completed:

• Specific intervention goals and objectives,
• A well-defined plan including the strategies used to meet the goals and objectives,
• Ongoing data collection to show the intervention was actually responsible for the behavior gains, and
• A plan to ensure the generalization and maintenance of treatment gains.

Question: What are the basic principles of ABA?

Answer: The basic principles of ABA consist of environmental variables that impact behavior. These variables are antecedents and consequences. Antecedents are events that happen right before the behavior, and a conse-quence is the event following the behavior. The following figure demonstrates the behavior change contingency and provides an example. It is through systematic application of antecedents and consequences that target behavior will maintain, increase, or decrease -- this is how learning will occur!

A comprehensive ABA plan needs to address all the component areas: antecedent, behavior, and consequence.

Question: How can antecedents be used to impact behavior?

Answer: There is always an antecedent to a behavior, whether its a positive behavior to be increased or a negative behavior to be decreased. Antecedents are important to understand as they help the learner know what to do. For example, when John, a 16 year old with ASD, is shown a picture of the family van, he knows to put his shoes on and get in the car.

There are many ways to alter antecedents to impact learning. The most important way to target antecedents is by directly adapting instruction and student tasks so the student will have success. For example, Ty has a difficult time responding to multiple word sentences so one word instruction will be used instead of sentences. James gets overwhelmed when he does not know what he is supposed to do in his reading assignment. Therefore, directions are presented to him using picture cards.

The environment or instructional materials can also be altered when considering antecedents. This addresses circumstances that set the stage for a behavior. The following examples illustrate how manipulating the environment and/or instructional materials can change behavior.

• Jake has difficulty completing a writing task in a collaborative work group, so he is paired with one peer instead of a group of his peers.
• Joni has difficulty with math; therefore, she completes her math problems in the morning when she is at her best.
• When Skyler works on reading comprehension, she is asked to match a picture to the sentence that she just read; her peers are asked to answer a multiple choice question.

Question: How can consequences be used to impact behavior?

Answer: How behavior is affected by the consequences that follow is a crucial element in all aspects of ABA. There are limitations to what can be changed before a behavior occurs, but the most control that teachers have is over how they respond to a behavior. Is attention the consequence? Is praise delivered as the consequence? Is the person allowed to "get out of" an activity?

The most effective consequence is the use of reinforcement to reinforce appropriate behaviors. The term reinforcement is often assumed to refer to things that an individual likes to do or a preferred object. However, in ABA, reinforcement goes further than this. Reinforcement is defined as something that, when provided after a behavior, increases the future frequency of that behavior. In other words, reinforcement must result in a behavior change!

ABA breaks reinforcement down into positive and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is defined as an event in which the addition of something the person likes (praise, money, food, or toys) increases the frequency of the target behavior in the future. For example, Joey shares his toy with his little brother and his mom tells him how nice he is and gives him a treat. In the future, Joey shares his toy with his little brother more often.

Negative reinforcement is defined as the removal of something aversive or "negative" to increase the future frequency of that behavior. For example, Ms. Wiley gives homework every day; however, yesterday, each student turned their homework in on time so Ms. Wiley does not give homework today. In this case, the negative occurrence of daily homework was removed to reinforce turning in homework. Is it likely Ms. Wiley's class will turn their homework in more frequently now?

Another consequence is punishment. Punishment is providing something following a behavior that decreases the frequency of the target behavior in the future. Punishment is not recommended as it often has a negative impact on the individual and yields change that is not long lasting. In some cases, when using punishment to decrease future occurences of a behavior something is added that is aversive or not liked such as yelling or social disapproval. Many of us have been exposed to this form of punishment. Examples include a verbal reprimand or a speeding ticket. Other punishment might entail removing or taking away something enjoyed to decrease future behavior. Loss of computer time and being grounded for the weekend are two examples of this type of punishment.

Question: Who can benefit from ABA?

Answer: The principles of ABA are present daily in all our lives. Behaviors are shaped or altered based on the antecedents and consequences that a person encounters. For example, if a barking dog keeps someone in the neighborhood awake at night, the person will likely learn to shut the window before going to bed. This is an example of an antecedent that affected behavior. If an employee receives a bonus at work for doing a good job, he or she is likely to work harder. This is an example of how a consequence may shape behavior. Environmental variables such as these are constantly at play, often impacting learning and behavior.

Question: Where and by whom is ABA used?

Answer: The interventions that have been developed using the principles of ABA are used in every walk of life and every profession. Different types of people use ABA in their jobs and in their lives. Parents, teachers, psychologists, managers, and a wide variety of others use these principles in education, weight loss, animal training, gerontology, industrial safety, advertising, medical procedures, marketing, automobile safety, sports, and a host of other fields and activities. Applied Behavior Analysis is used in both general and special education classrooms. For example, teachers use ABA to manage classroom behavior, teach group reading skills, and help the class memorize multiplication facts.

These principles have also been studied and developed to be used with special populations of individuals in recent years, including those with ASD. ABA techniques can be especially useful in teaching behaviors to children with ASD who may otherwise not “pick up” these behaviors on their own as quickly as other children might. A wide variety of ABA techniques have been developed for building useful skills in learners of all ages. These techniques can be used in both structured situations, such as formal instruction in classrooms, and in more natural everyday situations, such as play or mealtime. They are used to develop basic skills like attending, listening, and imitating, as well as complex skills like reading, conversing, and taking the perspective of others.

Question: What are some of the teaching strategies used in ABA?

Answer: Teachers, parents, and behavior specialists have many tools in their tool boxes. ABA includes many strategies and procedures that can be helpful. Some of the most frequently used include prompting, shaping, task analysis, functional behavior analysis/assessment, antecedent interventions, and functional communication training. Please visit the VCU-ACE website for additional resources on teaching strategies: www.vcuautismcenter.org

Question: Is Discrete Trial Training the same as ABA?

Answer: There is confusion around the terms Discrete Trial Training (DTT) and ABA. DTT is one of many teaching procedures used within ABA. However, these terms are NOT synonymous. Instead, DTT is a teaching strategy based in the principles of ABA that focuses on skill acquisition and is useful when teaching early learning skills such as receptive instructions or imitation, or when the learner needs skills broken down into small, learnable parts.

There are four main components to discrete trial training: instruction, response, consequence, and the inter trial interval. First, the teacher gives an instruction. Second, the student responds. If it is a new skill, a prompt may be given by the teacher between the instruction and response to help the student respond correctly. The student’s response is evaluated as correct or incorrect and based on this determination, a consequence is delivered. If correct, positive reinforcement is provided. If incorrect, the teacher will provide a correction procedure. This completes the discrete learning trial and the teacher then waits for a determined period of time (e.g. 5 seconds) before continuing with the next trial. If the teacher needs to design a learning program that breaks each component down into the simplest possible terms and plans to teach each item individually, then he or she might choose to use discrete trial training.

Applied behavior analysis is a science in which interventions are taken from existing research and applied to improve behavior in socially significant ways. ABA is a way to approach behavior that will maximize positive outcomes. Simply put, ABA requires constructing intervention strategies that define the antecedents and consequences that will result in the increase of positive skills and the decrease of problem behaviors. Decisions regarding the effectiveness of the intervention are based on data collected. Based on the data analysis, the parent or interventionist may choose to continue with the intervention or change the intervention to produce positive outcomes for the individual.

References:

Catania, C. (2007) Learning, Fourth Interim Edition. Cornwall-on-Hudson, NY: Sloan Publishing Cooper, J., Heron, T., & Heward, W. (2007) Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition.  Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Lovaas, O. I. (1987). Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55(1), 3-9. Simpson, R. L. (1999). Early intervention with children with autism: The search for best practices. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 218-221. Simpson, R. L. (2001). ABA and students with autism spectrum disorders: Issues and considerations for effective practice. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 16(2), 68-71.

Please visit VCU-ACE online for additional resources! http://www.vcuautismcenter.org/index.cfm

Contributors for this issue: Dawn Hendricks, Ph.D., Susan Palko, M.Ed., & Adam Dreyfus, MA, BCBA.

Editor: Becky Boswell, MBA

Information for this Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) is from Virginia Commonwealth University's Autism Center for Excellence (VCU-ACE), which is funded by the Virginia State Department of Education (Grant # 881-61172-H027A100107). Virginia Commonwealth University is an equal opportunity/affirmative action institution providing access to education and employment without regard to age, race, color, national origin, gender, religion, sexual orientation, veteran's status, political affiliation, or disability. If special accommodations or language translation are needed contact Voice (804) 828-1851 | TTY (804) 828-2494. For additional information on ACE, contact: [[email protected]].

Applied Behavior Analysis

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a growing discipline with a presence in both psychology and education that improves the lives of children and adults with disabilities. We offer on-campus and online option ABA programs. Both options allow students to earn a master’s degree in special education and complete the ABA coursework necessary to apply to become a Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA).

The demand for highly qualified Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs) has been steadily increasing nationwide! A variety of settings and industries are competitively seeking BCBAs to fill a wide variety of positions in education, home services, clinical programs, health services and more. Our programs meet all the Behavior Analyst Certification Board coursework and supervision requirements and will qualify applicants to sit for the board exam.

Our goal is to prepare students to be competent, inclusive, ethical, and professional behavior analysts who work with persons with developmental disabilities and their families. Students coming out of our program will:

• Understand and fluently apply the principles of behavior analysis
• Have a working knowledge of current evidence-based practices for individuals with developmental disabilities 
• Select or create contextually appropriate, evidence-based interventions for individuals with whom they work and critically analyze and evaluate the effects of those interventions 
• Work collaboratively and openly with schools, families and other community stakeholders, always with an understanding of how culture and equity impact service delivery
• Ensure that the primary outcome of their work is to improve the quality of life for the individual and his or her family

Beneficence . Behavior analysts have a responsibility to engage in practices that maximize their clients' well-being and avoid those that cause harm. We understand that behavior analytic services are most likely to benefit our clients when they are provided in the context of a trusting and compassionate relationship. Where conflicts of interest arise between consumers of behavior analysis, we prioritize outcomes for the most vulnerable clients.

Inclusion. Behavior analysts have a responsibility to provide individuals of all backgrounds and abilities access to and authentic participation in meaningful activities that promote relationships, a sense of community, and an improved quality of life.

Professional excellence. Behavior analysts have a responsibility to be honest and transparent. We engage in ongoing professional development and analyze our own practices. Professional excellence requires respectful and effective collaboration with individuals from other disciplines while maintaining a commitment to data-based decision-making. Analyzing evidence from different methodologies is encouraged as a way of collaborating with others and improving practice.

Self-determination. Behavior analysts respect clients’ rights and promote client dignity, privacy, and autonomy. We assist clients to set and achieve their own goals, develop their own agency, and make decisions about their own lives.

Social Justice. Behavior analysts have a responsibility to attend to injustice where they see it, avoid perpetuating inequitable systems, and advocate for equitable systems change. We are uniquely qualified to identify controlling and contextual variables that contribute to inequitable educational and service-delivery systems and develop solutions to supplant them.

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Applied Behavior Analysis (On-campus)

Applied behavior analysis (online).

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Applied Behavior Analysis in Special Education

What is the definition of applied behavior analysis? In short, it is a method of studying and managing behavior to bring about change. ABA therapists develop research-based behavior intervention plans (BIPs) to reduce problem behaviors in children.

ABA is also known as behavior modification and learning theory. The technique is especially useful in special education classrooms, as children with learning disabilities may also have behavior problems or disorders, such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which can cause them to be disruptive at school, at home, or in their interactions with friends and peers.

ABA is not just reserved for children with learning disabilities, however. Even children without disabilities who act out may benefit from behavior analysis. Find out if ABA might be of use to your child with this review of the technique, including information on how it's conducted and implemented.

Who Benefits From Applied Behavior Analysis?

In addition to students with learning disabilities and behavior problems, ABA has been found to help children with autism, a disorder in which individuals may have trouble communicating with others, making eye contact and with social interaction generally.  

How Is Behavior Analysis Conducted?

Therapists collect and analyze data based on careful observation of student behavior. They then make alterations in the student's environment to promote a behavior transformation.

ABA therapists may use positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement as part of their behavior intervention plans (BIPs) to reduce problem behavior. They may also demonstrate desired behaviors to children, such as teaching them to raise their hand before speaking in class rather than shouting out the answer.

Who Can Develop and Implement ABA?

ABA can be developed and implemented by teachers, psychologists, and other education professionals who have been trained in its use. Parents are also typically involved and encouraged to use ABA at home as well to create consistent behavioral intervention between home and school. For example, if a child undergoing ABA has been taught not to shout out in class any longer, their parents might be taught to reinforce this boundary at home.

Sometimes students exhibit the same problem behaviors at school as they do at home. Some students may behave worse at school and better at home. The ABA can be used to address a range of behavior and give parents the tools they need to appropriately correct children who act out.

How to Find out If ABA Is Appropriate for Your Child

Contact your child's teacher, school counselor, or school psychologist to discuss ABA. You can also request an IEP team meeting to discuss your child's behaviors and appropriate methods to address them such as ABA or similar methods. If your child hasn't been diagnosed with a learning disability but has worrisome behavior problems, you can still consult school personnel about suitable behavior intervention programs.

Together, you and the faculty can decide if ABA would suit your child or if another form of behavior management would be more fitting. The goal here is not so much to rely on any one intervention program as it is to correct the problem behavior and help children reach their potential.

American Psychological Association. Applied Behavior Analysis .

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Parent Training in Behavior Management for ADHD .

Shepley C, Grisham-Brown J. Applied Behavior Analysis in Early Childhood Education: An Overview of Policies, Research, Blended Practices, and the Curriculum Framework . Behav Anal Pract . 2019;12(1):235-246. doi:10.1007/s40617-018-0236-x

Autism Speaks. Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) .

National Center on Intensive Intervention. Implementing Behavioral Strategies .

By Ann Logsdon Ann Logsdon is a school psychologist specializing in helping parents and teachers support students with a range of educational and developmental disabilities. 

Behavior Analysis is the scientific study of the principles of learning and behavior. This field of science is concerned with describing, understanding, predicting, and changing behavior. They seek answers by looking at the biological and environmental factors, although they are primarily interested in the role of environment in behavior change.

There are three main branches to the field: Conceptual Behavior Analysis, Experimental Behavior Analysis, and Applied Behavior Analysis. The Conceptual branch focuses on the philosophical, theoretical, historical, and methodological issues that underlie the field. Experimental Behavior Analysis involves basic research intended to add to the body of knowledge about phenomena that control and influence behavior. Applied Behavior Analysis is focused on the application of the principles of behavior to the needs of individuals to promote behavior change and improve quality of life.

How broad is the application of behavior analysis?

The application of behavior analysis is very broad, ranging from assisting individuals in overcoming drug addiction to improving the workplace for organizations. Behavior analysis has been applied to programs related to diet, exercise, juvenile delinquency, toilet training, education, skill acquisition, behavior reduction, organizational structures, and more.

Is behavior analysis becoming more widely accepted?

Over the past 60 years, applied behavior analysis has become recognized as the treatment of choice for behavior problems associated with intellectual disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, brain injury, and other disorders. Many people also recognize that applied behavior analysis is capable of producing remarkable results in classroom learning. In recent years, interest in the field has grown especially rapidly outside the United States; ABA International has over 5,000 members from nearly 50 countries and its affiliated chapters have a total membership of about 13,000 worldwide.

What is Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)?

The Science of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), is an empirically-validated or evidence based approach to teaching using behavioral principles, laws and strategies, backed by over 60 years of research. Typically ABA is applied to teaching children, adolescents and adults with developmental disabilities including Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities, behavioral disorders or challenges, speech impairment and mental health disorders. ABA can be used to improve skill areas or behaviors and/or decrease maladaptive behaviors that are socially significant for the family and student, client or child.

Who can benefit from Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) services?

Any individual who is interested in behavior change, whether skill acquisition or behavior reduction, including persons with developmental disabilities can benefit from Behavior Analysis treatment or services. Teaching procedures derived from our science can be applied in any natural environment including homes, special and general education classrooms, community-based activities and during therapy services such as Speech Therapy, Occupational Therapy and Physical Therapy. ABA is a data-driven science that provides teaching strategies that result in measurable outcomes for consumers.

What skills can be learned using behavioral principles and strategies of Applied Behavior Analysis?

Numerous skill areas can be addressed such as:

• Academic Skills( essayswriting.org ) such as reading, writing and math.
• Language Skills such as requesting, labeling and conversation.
• Hygiene Skills such as toileting, grooming and dressing.
• Activities of Daily Living (ADL) skills such as eating, meal preparation and doing laundry.
• Community skills such as walking in a store, shopping, sitting in a restaurant, ordering a meal, and street safety skills
• Social skills such as building relationships, interacting with peers, building play with others, sibling play and learning appropriate social rules.
• Recreation skills such as riding a bike, swimming, learning to ski, bowling, martial arts and using playground equipment.
• Creative skills such as art, painting and learning a music instrument.
• Technical skills such as using a computer, surfing the internet and computer based activities such as visual art design.
• Coping skills such as emotional regulation and self-monitoring.

Where do I find research supporting treatment using Applied Behavior Analysis?

Please visit our links page to access information about journals and books in Behavior Analysis.

What is a Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA)?

A Board Certified Behavior Analyst is a Master’s or Doctorate Level professional who has specifically studied the Science of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), with specific coursework requirements, as well as completion of supervised experience in a fieldwork setting engaging in Behavior Analytic activities and passed a national certification exam in Behavior Analysis. BCBA’s are specialized in the field of Behavior Analysis.

For more information about Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBA’s) or Board Certified Assistant Behavior Analysts (BCaBA’s) in New Mexico and around the world, including credentials and requirements of Behavior Analysts, please visit the Behavior Analyst Certification Board website at www.bacb.com.

Are there any consumer guidelines for choosing a Behavior Analyst?

The Autism Special Interest Group (Autism SIG) developed a document to help guide consumers on the qualifications of Behavior Analysts to work with children with Autism. Consumers (parents or professionals) of behavior analytic services may benefit from the information recommended in this document.

Click here to access PDF file.

Is a Behavioral Therapist or Behavior Management Specialist the same as a BCBA?

The titles Behavioral Therapist or Behavior Management Specialist do not specify certification as a behavior analyst practitioner. Anyone may use these titles to describe their work as they are not regulated terms. Individuals with a BCBA or BCBA-D have met a high standard of practice in the field of Behavior Analysis. They have completed graduate-level coursework, met experience requirements, and have passed an international certification examination. They have demonstrated understanding of the “best practice” and ethical standards of the behavior analysis profession.

While some individuals using the terms Behavioral Therapist or Behavior Management Specialist have received some formal training in Behavior Analysis, many have not. It is important for consumers to question the credentials of those employed using these terms, as some may have had little training and no formal education in Behavior Analysis.

Is there state licensing for Board Certified Behavior Analysts?

Since 1998, Behavior Analysts have been nationally credentialed by the Behavior Analysts Certification Board (BACB). The BACB is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation to meet professional credentialing needs identified by behavior analysts and consumers of behavior analysis services. Certification by the BACB establishes that the individual has met the BACB’s educational and training requirements necessary to identify him or herself as a professional Behavior Analyst. Credentialing, however is not the same as licensure, which is a process established by individual states to set requirements to practice Behavior Analysis. As of March, 2012, there are eight states with a state licensing law. New Mexico does not have a state licensing law for Behavior Analysts. There seems to be a growing trend in that direction. For more information on Behavior Analyst State Licensure Laws, visit www.bacb.com

Click here for the BACB Model Act for Licensing Behavior Analysts

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Bouvé College of Health Sciences

Applied behavior analysis.

The Master of Science in Applied Behavior Analysis prepares graduates to become behavior analysts, serving in supervisory and consultant roles within schools, agencies, hospitals, and other organizations that seek to apply behavioral science to improve socially significant behaviors.

The MS in Applied Behavior Analysis program is verified by the Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI) as meeting the coursework requirements to sit for the 5th Edition Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) exam. This online program includes seven core courses in behavior analysis plus an additional three courses that extend the student’s familiarity with clinical procedures and with the research supporting their use. Students are given the option of completing supervised fieldwork on their own or by enrolling in courses that provide supervision through the Concentrated Supervised Fieldwork option. 

Northeastern University became one of the first universities to offer a Master's degree in applied behavior analysis when it was created in 1976. In 2013, the MABA program became a fully online program which employs evidence-based practice in applied behavior analysis and online learning experiences. 

More Details

Unique features.

• Asynchronous online program with optional synchronous components, allows students to complete their degree in a way that works for their life and commitments
• Choose how to accrue your field work hours as required by the Behavior Analyst Certification Board

Program Objectives

This program was designed to prepare students to employ the principles and procedures derived from research to create meaningful change in the lives of their clients. This is achieved through in-depth exploration of foundational concepts such as classical and operant conditioning, reinforcement, motivating operations, stimulus control, and more. Advanced courses build upon this foundation, preparing graduates to address the most complex behavior problems and learning challenges.

Career Outlook

Many students become Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs) after graduation. Our graduates often go on to work in schools or private agencies, providing oversight of behavioral and educational programming for individuals with autism and related disabilities. Graduates also work in research or hospital settings, or they pursue terminal degrees in behavior analysis or related fields.

Accreditation Description

The Master’s program is verified by the Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI) as providing the course content required to sit for the BACB exam. See the data: BCBA Examination Pass Rates for Verified Course Sequences.

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Greg lum, alumnus, catherine martin, alumna, looking for something different.

A graduate degree or certificate from Northeastern—a top-ranked university—can accelerate your career through rigorous academic coursework and hands-on professional experience in the area of your interest. Apply now—and take your career to the next level.

Program Costs

Finance Your Education We offer a variety of resources, including scholarships and assistantships.

How to Apply Learn more about the application process and requirements.

Requirements

• Application fee
• Two letters of recommendation
• Transcripts from all institutions attended
• Personal statement
• TOEFL or IELTS for applicants who do not hold a degree from a U.S. institution and whose native language is not English

Are You an International Student? Find out what additional documents are required to apply.

Admissions Details Learn more about the Bouvé College of Health Sciences admissions process, policies, and required materials.

Admissions Dates

Students enroll in the fall and spring. Fall:  August 1 Spring:  December 15

We use rolling admissions. Applications will be reviewed after they are complete in our system.

Industry-aligned courses for in-demand careers.

For 100+ years, we’ve designed our programs with one thing in mind—your success. Explore the current program requirements and course descriptions, all designed to meet today’s industry needs and must-have skills.

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Northeastern's signature experience-powered learning model has been at the heart of the university for more than a century. It combines world-class academics with professional practice, allowing you to acquire relevant, real-world skills you can immediately put into action in your current workplace. This makes a Northeastern education a dynamic, transformative experience, giving you countless opportunities to grow as a professional and person.

Our Faculty

Northeastern University faculty represents a broad cross-section of professional practices and fields, including finance, education, biomedical science, management, and the U.S. military. They serve as mentors and advisors and collaborate alongside you to solve the most pressing global challenges facing established and emerging markets.

Nicole M. Davis, PhD. BCBA LABA

Maeve Donnelly

Laura Dudley, PhD. BCBA-D LABA

By enrolling in Northeastern, you’ll gain access to students at 13 campus locations, 300,000+ alumni, and 3,000 employer partners worldwide. Our global university system provides students unique opportunities to think locally and act globally while serving as a platform for scaling ideas, talent, and solutions.

Below is a look at where our Psychology & Mental Health alumni work, the positions they hold, and the skills they bring to their organization.

Where They Work

• Behavior Analysis, Inc.
• Behavior Based Learning, LLC
• Boston Public Schools
• UMass Medical School
• The New England Center for Children

What They Do

• Healthcare Services
• Community and Social Services
• Business Development
• Entrepreneurship

What They're Skilled At

• Mental Health
• Psychotherapy
• Public Speaking

Learn more about Northeastern Alumni on  Linkedin .

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Culturally Relevant Pedagogy and Applied Behavior Analysis: Addressing Educational Disparities in PK-12 Schools

Amoy k. hugh-pennie.

1 Independent Researcher, New York, NY USA

Mya Hernandez

2 Lake Michigan College, Benton Harbor, MI USA

Margaret Uwayo

3 Independent Researcher, Kalamazoo, MI USA

Gaige Johnson

4 Independent Researcher, Boston, MA USA

Denise Ross

5 Institute for Urban Education, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI USA

Associated Data

Not applicable

The purpose of this article is to describe the theory of culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) and its application to PK–12 education for behavior analysts working in schools. CRP is an educational framework that asserts that successful teachers of African American students help their students gain three repertoires: (1) sociopolitical awareness, (2) cultural competence, and (3) academic excellence. The CRP framework was designed to counter the effects that racial bias has on the academic and disciplinary experiences of some students of color. This article suggests that applied behavior analysis and CRP, when used together, may strengthen educators’ efforts to reduce the effects of racism that some students of color experience. The authors first explain the tenets of CRP based on the work of Ladson-Billings ( 1995a , 1995b ). Next, points of convergence between ABA and CRP are described. Finally, the authors offer recommendations for behavior analysts to consider when applying CRP in schools through the provision of examples of strategies and tactics derived from the behavioral literature that align with the CRP framework. The framework presented in this article has implications for behavior analysts interested in applying culturally relevant practices to their work as educators.

The educational disparities that many American children from Black, Hispanic/Latinx, Asian/Pacific Islander, and Native American racial groups experience are rooted in a history of institutionalized racism in schools that enforced inequitable systems of education. For instance, from the late 19th to the mid-20th centuries, almost half of all Native American school children were forcibly placed in boarding schools that attempted to eliminate their cultural identities (Evans-Campbell et al., 2012 ; Lajimodiere, 2013 ). Anti-literacy laws forbade African Americans from learning to read during slavery and subsequent segregation laws prohibited their children from attending integrated schools until the 1950s (Williams, 2005 ). Chinese American and Latino American children also experienced legal discrimination through school segregation (Contreras & Valverde, 1994 ; Kuo, 1998 ). Today the majority of Black, Latinox, and Native American elementary and secondary students read at a basic or below basic level (National Assessment of Educational Progress, 2019 ) and experience harsher disciplinary actions than white students (Bates & Glick, 2013 ; Skiba et al., 2011 ). Such forms of institutionalized inequities have long-term impacts on students of color (Danielson, 2002 ; Jones & Nichols, 2013 ; Levin & Rouse, 2012 ), and contribute to the “achievement gap” that describes differences in academic outcomes between white students and Black, Hispanic/Latinx, Asian/Pacific Islander, and Native American students (Downey & Pribesh, 2004 ; Fabelo et al., 2011 ; Farkas et al., 1990 ; Skiba et al., 2011 ).

According to the National Center for Education Statistics (National Center for Education Statistics, 2019 ), approximately 5.6 million students are enrolled in PK–12 schools in the United States. White students are the largest racial group followed by Black, Hispanic/Latinx, Asian/Pacific Islander, and multiethnic students (National Center for Education Statistics, 2019 ). The majority of teachers in PK–12 schools are white and largely female; this group represents 72% of all teachers (National Center for Education Statistics, 2019 ). Although trends show that student demographics in classrooms are becoming more diverse, the demographics of teachers remain consistently white female (National Center for Education Statistics, 2019 ). The demographic makeup of schools is important because research shows that students of color with white teachers are more likely to receive lower behavioral and academic ratings than their white peers, and are more likely to experience harsher and higher rates of disciplinary actions including referrals, suspensions, and expulsions (Bates & Glick, 2013 ; Skiba et al., 2011 ). In addition, according to the Behavior Analyst Certification Board’s demographic data (Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2020a ), the majority of all ABA certificants are also white and largely female. White BCBAs are the largest group (71.82%), followed by Latinx BCBAs (9.34%), Black BCBAs (3.60%), and Asian, Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, Native American/Alaskan Native who combined represent less than 7% of all BCBAs. These combined statistics about professionals both in the fields of education and behavior analysis make it socially significant to find ways to engage in culturally informed practices.

Throughout its history, the field of applied behavior analysis has used principles of behavior to address educational inequities experienced in schools. For instance, Risley and Hart ( 1968 ) and Hart and Risley ( 1974 , 1975 , 1980 ) published a series of studies focused on early interventions for African American children who were economically disadvantaged. The culmination of their work (Hart & Risley, 1995 ) and data from education projects such as Project Follow-Through (Becker & Gersten, 1982 ) contributed to academic programs that improved the outcomes of other children who were disenfranchised. In fact, many behavior analysts in the 1960s and 1970s focused their applications of behavior analysis on effective instruction that promoted academic achievement and social well-being for Black and Brown children who were economically disadvantaged (see Fontenot et al., 2019 , for a review). Their work contributed to a larger social movement to fight discrimination, segregation, and lack of opportunity in communities in poverty (Engelmann, 1999 ) and their research efforts formed the basis for interventions currently used nationally by educators (e.g., Stockard et al., 2018 ). In fact, behavior analysts still apply principles of behavior to develop interventions that address critical educational issues where racial and economic inequities such as literacy and discipline disparities persist in PK–12 schools (e.g., Good III et al., 2019 ; Horner & Sugai, 2018 ). In addition, behavior analysts have contributed to the development of a science of teaching and teaching that helps teachers apply principles of behavior to classroom-based pedagogy (Greer, 2002 ).

Despite behavior analysts’ history of efforts to ameliorate racial and socioeconomic inequalities in the U.S. education system, there is a need to continue to address racial and socioeconomic issues that disproportionately affect students of color. For example, data indicate that education-related issues such as school segregation are increasing in today’s school systems (Mervosh, 2019 ). The continuing presence of segregation and other issues that affect Black and Brown children indicate a need for behavior analysts to refocus efforts in schools on social justice. Yet, some behavior analysts report that they do not feel prepared to work with culturally diverse groups after completing ABA graduate training programs (Conners et al., 2019 ).

In response to the need to serve an increasingly diverse population in schools, culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) has become a recommended approach from state and professional educational organizations teaching children from diverse backgrounds (Muñiz, 2019 ). CRP is a theoretical framework developed by Ladson-Billings ( 1995b ) that emphasizes the strengths students bring to the classroom and leverages those strengths during teaching. The framework is built on three practices that successful teachers of Black children use in their teaching during research conducted by Ladson-Billings ( 1995a ): (1) cultural competence, (2) sociopolitical awareness, and (3) academic excellence. Although CRP has been applied in PK–12 classrooms, few articles have discussed the application of CRP for behavior analysts working in schools. Given the number of successful applications of behavior analysis to schools (Austin et al., 2015 ; Beaulieu & Hanley, 2014 ; Bradshaw et al., 2012 ; Crone et al., 2010 ; Galbraith & Normand, 2017 ; Greer et al., 2002 ; Hofstadter-Duke & Daly III, 2011 ; Johnson & Street, 2012 ; Ross et al., 2009 ; Vanselow & Hanley, 2014 ), exploring the implications of CRP for behavior analysts may help practitioners support an increasingly diverse PK–12 student population. The purpose of this article is to describe the theory of culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) and its application to PK–12 education for behavior analysts working in schools by defining and describing CRP, providing connections between CRP and ABA, and providing recommendations for integrating CRP into behavior analytic practice.

Terms and Definitions

Before discussing CRP, some terms in this article will be defined. In this article, the terms educational disparities, academic inequities, and academic inequalities refer to lower academic outcomes that disproportionately affect children of color and can be attributed in part to the limited funding, lack of access to instructional resources and materials, lack of access to highly qualified trained teachers, and oversized and overcrowded schools. Negative school outcomes refer to the lower test scores that some children of color experience as well as the high rates of suspension, expulsion, drop out, and entry into juvenile justice systems that have been correlated with school discipline systems. Social and societal inequality outcomes refer to limited earning power and lack of access to equitable health and wealth as adults.

It is also important to first define the word culture . Skinner ( 1953 ) defined culture as, “the contingencies of social reinforcement which generate and sustain” (p. 32) the behavior of group members. Skinner noted that although these contingencies may produce rules for a group, there are other rules that may not be as observable, making culture more complex than what an observer may see. Skinner’s ( 1953 ) definition of the complexity of culture is consistent with definitions of culture used in discussions of CRP. For example, both Ladson-Billings ( 2018 ) and Gorski ( 2016 ) eschew cultural essentialism in which a group is defined by a single dimension (e.g., African American) instead of by the multiple identities that members of a group may hold (e.g., Black, female, teenager, musician). Likewise, behavior analysts in recent publications have noted the importance of acknowledging the complexities of an individual’s cultural identities (Brodhead, 2019 ; Fong et al., 2016 ). In this discussion, we refer to culture as multiple identities that an individual or group may have.

Culturally Relevant Pedagogy

Culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) is a conceptual framework that Ladson-Billings ( 1995a ) developed to describe the behaviors of effective teachers of African American students. Ladson-Billings ( 1995b ) observed the pedagogical practices of eight successful teachers of elementary school African American children and then used themes from their teaching to develop the CRP framework (Ladson-Billings, 1995a , 2009 ) . The CRP framework is composed of three key practices that successful teachers of African American students implemented:

• Sociopolitical Awareness: Ladson-Billings ( 1995b ) defined sociopolitical awareness as a student’s ability to critique the world and connect it back to a larger picture. In doing so, students learn to question social norms that perpetuate social inequalities and, in turn, are empowered to shift them.
• Academic Excellence: Ladson-Billings ( 2001 ) asserted that schools must ensure that students are academically successful. By doing so, teachers also help students access the culture of power, a term that Delpit ( 1988 ) used to describe the dominant culture that one must know in order to access higher forms of education.
• Cultural Competence: Ladson-Billings ( 1995b ) reported that successful teachers of African American students ensure that students know their own cultural history. Successful teachers also use students’ cultures during instruction and teach their students the culture of power (Delpit, 1988 ).

Since the original publication of the CRP framework in 1994, several studies have reported applications of CRP with students from different groups including racial, ethnic, economic, language, and disability groups. Table ​ Table1 1 operationalizes CRP practices as described in a synthesis of CRP research conducted by Morrison et al. ( 2008 ). The practices in Table ​ Table1 1 are included to help behavior analysts integrate CRP into their own work with PK-12 students and their teachers.

Characteristics of culturally responsive pedagogy

Note. This table is adapted from Morrison et al. ( 2008 ). Practices are applicable to PK–12 student populations

Points of Convergence between ABA and CRP

Research and practice in ABA can potentially contribute to the ongoing work of educators engaged in CRP to address bias in education. ABA is a versatile field with principles of behavior that have been applied in numerous settings, organizations, and systems. The collective knowledge in ABA has formed a foundation of evidence-based strategies that are used in multiple fields including medical health care (e.g., Addison et al., 2012 ; DeFulio & Silverman, 2012 ) and mental health care (e.g., Hayes et al., 2012 ; Petts et al., 2016 ), social and community activism (e.g., Machalicek et al., 2021 ; Mathur & Rodriguez, 2021 ), and educational programming (e.g., Greer, 2002 ; Hugh-Pennie et al., 2018 ; Trump et al., 2018 ) with emerging evidence in law enforcement and the justice system (e.g., Carvalho et al., 2021 ; Crowe & Drew, 2021 ; Pritchett et al., 2021 ). In addition, behavior analysts use research from experimental behavior analysis (e.g., Bergmann et al., 2021 ; Green & Freed, 1993 ; Harsin et al., 2021 ; Michael, 1982 ; Nergaard & Couto, 2021 ), and applied behavior analysis (e.g., Dixon et al., 2012 ; Erath et al., 2021 ; McKeown et al., 2021 ; Normand et al., 2021 ) as well as related fields that apply behavioral principles such as social work (e.g.,. Thyer, 1999 ).

This versatility may make the effects of ABA appear less visible or targeted to one type of population. However, the flexibility within the experimental and applied branches of behavior analysis—in conjunction with its application across professional fields of practice—is what makes it powerful for educators interested in making individual, group, organizational, and systems changes. This section concentrates on the application of ABA in educational settings and how the rich diversity of practices in the field are compatible with the goals of CRP. We also describe theories and practices that underlie both ABA and CRP with the goal of helping behavior analysts learn how to apply CRP to practice. The following are areas of convergence between CRP and ABA:

Ladson-Billings ( 2008 ) asserted that teachers help their students gain cultural competence by: (1) acknowledging the reality of their students’ social contexts (e.g., acknowledging the socioeconomic needs of economically disadvantaged students), (2) remembering that all students have potential for high achievement but may depend on their schools to obtain it (e.g., recognizing that economically disadvantaged students may need technology and food services from the school to participate in school during the COVID-19 pandemic), and (3) modifying the curriculum and using engaging instruction to help students acquire knowledge (e.g., realizing that mainstream curricula may need to be supplemented to show the socioeconomic and racial diversity of a group of students). In summary these three aspects of cultural competence can help a teacher understand how the individual context of a students’ lived reality may present real barriers or limitations to access, opportunity, and, eventually, goal attainment. Steps must then be taken to understand how a student can gain access, increase opportunity, and decrease barriers to achieving their goals (i.e., social significance).

Engaging in cultural humility by including parents and children in any assessment of their own strengths and needs is compatible with the goals of social validity and single case design in behavior analysis (Wright, 2019 ). Wolf ( 1978 ) described social validity as a process that behavior analysts use to ensure that the goals, procedures, and effects of behavioral treatments are acceptable to consumers. When using social validity measures in conjunction with CRP, behavior analysts can incorporate questions about a student and their family to help ensure that teaching procedures or curricula are socially significant and acceptable (Nicolson et al., 2020 ). Related to this, the use of single case experimental methods lends itself to the individualization required to include a student’s cultural identity in the implementation of behavioral strategies and tactics necessary for their academic success. This is because behavior analysis is applied to the behavior of individuals, which can decrease the likelihood of broad (and potentially erroneous) generalizations to groups and racial, class, or other bias-based decision making.

• Sociopolitical Awareness : sociopolitical awareness occurs when a teacher connects social issues in a student’s community, state, country, and the world to events in their classroom. Teachers practice sociopolitical awareness by incorporating social issues into classroom lessons and then guiding students through the process of critiquing their own social viewpoints. The goal of sociopolitical awareness is to help students gain a sense of agency in their communities and the world. For example, a teacher may guide students through their own self-determined advocacy work in a school or community. It is interesting that Ladson-Billings ( 2008 ) noted that teachers themselves need to gain sociopolitical awareness as much as their students. To apply this tenet of CRP in schools, behavior analysts may partner with teachers and school leaders to employ a number of behavioral strategies and tactics that can help address academic inequalities that they observe such as unfair discipline systems and a lack of access to technology for students. One example of applying sociopolitical awareness to behavior analytic partnerships with schools may be helping schools or districts address a high number of discipline referrals for students by providing behavior analytic classroom management or positive behavior support (Buckley, 2019 ; Thomas, 2021 ).

ABA can also help schools develop positive descriptions of students who are not gaining specific academic repertoires. The use of positive descriptions of students’ strengths is consistent with the goals of CRP. For example, when students are described in nonscientific and pejorative terms such as lazy or unmotivated, or when their limited mastery of a subject area such as reading is attributed to parents who are nonparticipatory, this verbal behavior of educators shifts blame to setting events outside the control of the teacher or educational system as a whole. These nonscientific and pejorative descriptions of students perpetuate a system in which implicit bias (Gilliam et al., 2016 ) decreases overall accountability and leaves white teachers to subjectively determine which students are helped with assignments or peer tutoring, gain teacher directed positive feedback or corrections, and receive reinforcement for on-task behaviors instead of being corrected for off-task behaviors, sent out of a classroom for administrator consequences, or suspended.

However, a more objective analysis of instructional problems may occur when teaching and learning problems are defined in objective ways that identify students’ missing repertoires, prerequisite skills, ensure teaching to mastery and fluency, and nurture mutual relationships between teachers and students through effective instruction. For instance, when teachers utilize components of ABA such as continuous measurement, it may lead to positive and objective understanding of skill acquisition for both teachers and students. For students, small gains that are observed by continuous measurement might shift their motivation and lead to increased academic engagement and response effort. For teachers, it may allow them to come into contact with positive outcomes of their work, thereby improving their view of their own effectiveness as teachers as well as their view of students as capable of learning regardless of ability, race, gender, or socioeconomic status (Hugh-Pennie et al., 2018 ). Establishing the appropriate contingencies for teachers to accurately identify barriers to instruction and make sound decisions based on relevant student data as a necessary step in bridging the achievement gap between white and Black students.

Effective applications of the science of behavior to schooling describe the necessary repertoires of teachers to engage in remediating learning problems and choose effective teaching strategies. Once teachers gain these repertoires they can much more easily sustain culturally relevant teaching practices as this method of instruction leaves very little room for implicit or explicit bias to drive decision making allowing for more equity in education and a real way to bridge the achievement gap between white and Black students. Overall ABA aligns with the theoretical framework for CRP. Tangible examples are provided in Table ​ Table2 2 .

How ABA converges with culturally responsive pedagogy

Note. This is a nonexhaustive list of multiple tactics and strategies derived from the behavioral literature that support the CRP framework

Conclusions and Recommendations

The purpose of this article was to describe culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) and its potential application to schooling and ABA. CRP provides a culturally relevant framework that can be applied to the practice of behavior analysts working in PK–12 schools. In this article we have provided examples of tactics and strategies derived from the behavioral literature that support the CRP framework. Research indicates that students of color experience lower academic outcomes and harsher discipline because of bias from teachers, schools, and districts. However, CRP and ABA has the potential to mutually strengthen efforts to ameliorate the effects of racial bias in schools by focusing on strengths-based views of students, ensuring that students learn to honor their own cultures and can engage in the dominant culture, helping teachers and students engage in sociopolitical awareness through the use of effective instructional tools derived from research in behavior analysis and related fields, and contributing academic and behavioral interventions to students and schools that need them.

As Ladson-Billings ( 2018 ) noted in the description of sociopolitical awareness, it is important for behavior analysts to advocate for school and work environments that support children and educators who will inevitably face issues of racial bias in their daily lives and practice. It would be irresponsible to assume that behavior analysts are above such biased treatment and do not harbor or act on similar implicit biases. To provide a high quality, more culturally relevant standard of care, behavior analysts can start by examining their own implicit biases (Fong et al., 2016 ) and reflect on reasons why they may feel more “comfortable” or have a better rapport with certain groups when compared to others. They can further reflect on how that relationship may contribute to a lower quality of services. Devine et al. ( 2012 ) recommend learning about the context in which bias may be activated and then consciously replacing those biased responses with responses that reflect a practitioner's nonprejudiced goals.

Behavior analysts working in PK–12 settings should incorporate culturally relevant pedagogy into aspects of their work as well (Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2020b ). They should avoid cookie-cutter approaches; instead, they should prioritize the values of students and schools in informing their practice (Zarcone et al., 2019 ). As Fong et al. ( 2016 ) advised, “a blend of both self-awareness and reliance on scientific knowledge is likely to produce the most culturally aware assessment and intervention” (p. 87). The authors of this article, who are Black and Hispanic, suggest that ABA places a greater emphasis on cultural humility and cultural competency as well as a more conscious understanding of how the differences in race, the language of origin, culture, and socioeconomic status can inform practice as it relates to social significance, consent, assent, acceptability of specific strategies, interventions, and the effectiveness of treatment approaches within and across groups (Wright, 2019 ; Zarcone et al., 2019 ).

The field of education is changing in ways that demand that practitioners and researchers address the concerns of marginalized students. As a growing profession, behavior analysts must be dedicated to expanding their professional repertoires to include cultural competence and cultural humility in their work with schools (Conners et al., 2019 ; Fong et al., 2016 ; Fontenot et al., 2019 ; Wright, 2019 ). CRP may contribute not only to an increased understanding of bias and race, but to practical steps that behavior analysts can take to view the rich diversity of students as an opportunity to improve their practice and expand their reach.

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