qualitative research on work life balance

Work-life balance -a systematic review

Vilakshan - XIMB Journal of Management

ISSN : 0973-1954

Article publication date: 15 December 2021

Issue publication date: 31 July 2023

This study aims to systematically review the existing literature and develop an understanding of work-life balance (WLB) and its relationship with other forms of work-related behavior and unearth research gaps to recommend future research possibilities and priorities.

Design/methodology/approach

The current study attempts to make a detailed survey of the research work done by the pioneers in the domain WLB and its related aspects. A total of 99 research work has been included in this systematic review. The research works have been classified based on the year of publication, geographical distribution, the methodology used and the sector. The various concepts and components that have made significant contributions, factors that influence WLB, importance and implications are discussed.

The paper points to the research gaps and scope for future research in the area of WLB.

Originality/value

The current study uncovered the research gaps regarding the systematic review and classifications based on demography, year of publication, the research method used and sector being studied.

Work-life balance
Flexibility
Individual’s ability to balance work-life
Support system
WLB policy utilization
Societal culture

S., T. and S.N., G. (2023), "Work-life balance -a systematic review", Vilakshan - XIMB Journal of Management , Vol. 20 No. 2, pp. 258-276. https://doi.org/10.1108/XJM-10-2020-0186

Emerald Publishing Limited

Published in Vilakshan – XIMB Journal of Management . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence maybe seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Introduction

In this technological era, work is becoming demanding with changing nature of work and working patterns (Thilagavathy and Geetha, 2020 ). The proactive, aggressive and demanding nature of business with the intention of reaching the top requires active involvement and comprehensive devotion from the employees, thereby compromising their work-life balance (WLB) (Turanlıgil and Farooq, 2019 ). Research concerning the work-life interface has exploded over the past five decades because of the changing trends in the nature of gender roles, families, work and careers (Powell et al. , 2019 ). Researchers in this domain has published many literature reviews with regard to WLB. It is argued that the study of WLB remains snowed under by a lack of conceptual clarity (Perrigino et al. , 2018 ). Thus, research and theory only partially view the employees’ work-life needs and experiences.

How WLB is conceptualized in the past?

What are the factors that significantly influenced WLB?

In which geographical areas were the WLB studies undertaken?

Which sectors remain unstudied or understudied with regard to WLB?

Methodology

We systematically conducted the literature review with the following five steps, as shown in Figure 1 . The first step was to review the abstracts from the database like EBSCO, Science Direct, Proquest and JSTOR. The articles from publishers like ELSEVIER, Emerald insight, Springer, Taylor and Francis and Sage were considered. The literature survey was conducted using the search terms WLB, balancing work and family responsibility and domains of work and life between the period 1990 to 2019. This search process led to the identification of 1,230 relevant papers. Inclusion criteria: The scholarly articles concerning WLB published in the English language in journals listed in Scopus, web of science or Australian business deans council (ABDC) were included in this review. Exclusion criteria: The scholarly articles concerning WLB published in languages other than English were not taken into consideration. Similarly, unpublished papers and articles published in journals not listed in Scopus, web of science or ABDC were excluded.

In the second step, we identified the duplicates and removed them. Thus, the total number of papers got reduced to 960. Following this, many papers relating to work-life spillover and work-life conflict were removed, resulting in further reduction of the papers to 416. Subsequently, in the third step, the papers were further filtered based on the language. The paper in the English language from journals listed in Scopus, web of science or ABDC were only considered. This search process resulted in the reduction of related papers to 93. The fourth step in the search process was further supplemented with the organic search for the related articles, leading to 99 papers illustrated in Appendix Table 1 . In the fifth step, an Excel sheet was created to review the paper under different headings and the results are as follows.

Literature review

Evolution and conceptualization of work-life balance.

WLB concern was raised earlier by the working mothers of the 1960s and 1970s in the UK. Later the issue was given due consideration by the US Government during the mid of 1980. During the 1990s WLB gained adequate recognition as the issue of human resource management in other parts of the world (Bird, 2006 ). The scholarly works concerning WLB have increased, mainly because of the increasing strength of the women workforce, technological innovations, cultural shifts in attitudes toward the relationship between the work and the family and the diversity of family structures (Greenhaus and Kossek, 2014 ). The research works on WLB include several theoretical work-family models. Though the research on WLB has expanded to a greater extend, there are considerable gaps in our knowledge concerning work-family issues (Powell et al. , 2019 ).

Moreover, in studies where WLB and related aspects are explored, researchers have used different operational definitions and measurements for the construct. Kalliath and Brough (2008) have defined WLB as “The individual’s perception that work and non-work activities are compatible and promote growth in accordance with an individual’s current life priorities.” WLB is “a self-defined, self-determined state of well being that a person can reach, or can set as a goal, that allows them to manage effectively multiple responsibilities at work, at home and in their community; it supports physical, emotional, family, and community health, and does so without grief, stress or negative impact” (Canadian Department of Labor, as cited in Waters and Bardoel, 2006 ).

Figure 2 depicts the flowchart of the framework for the literature survey. It clearly shows the factors that have been surveyed in this research article.

Individual factors

The individual factors of WLB include demographic variables, personal demands, family demands, family support and individual ability.

Work-life balance and demography.

WLB has significant variations with demographic variables (Waters and Bardoel, 2006 ). A significant difference was found between age (Powell et al. , 2019 ), gender (Thilagavathy and Geetha, 2020 ) and marital status (Powell et al. , 2019 ) regarding WLB. There is a significant rise in women’s participation in the workforce (Jenkins and Harvey, 2019 ). WLB issues are higher for dual-career couples (Crawford et al. , 2019 ).

Many studies were conducted on WLB with reference to sectors like information technology (IT), information technology enabled services, Banking, Teaching, Academics and Women Employment. A few WLB studies are conducted among services sector employees, hotel and catering services, nurses, doctors, middle-level managers and entrepreneurs. Only very scarce research has been found concerning police, defense, chief executive officers, researchers, lawyers, journalists and road transport.

Work-life balance and personal demands.

High work pressure and high family demand lead to poor physical, psychological and emotional well-being (Jensen and Knudsen, 2017 ), causing concern to employers as this leads to reduced productivity and increased absenteeism (Jackson and Fransman, 2018 ).

Work-life balance and family demands.

An employee spends most of the time commuting (Denstadli et al. , 2017 ) or meeting their work and family responsibilities. Dual career couple in the nuclear family finds it difficult to balance work and life without domestic help (Dumas and Perry-Smith, 2018 ; Srinivasan and Sulur Nachimuthu, 2021 ). Difficulty in a joint family is elderly care (Powell et al. , 2019 ). Thus, family demands negatively predict WLB (Haar et al. , 2019 ).

Work-life balance and family support.

Spouse support enables better WLB (Dumas and Perry-Smith, 2018 ). Family support positively impacted WLB, especially for dual-career couples, with dependent responsibilities (Groysberg and Abrahams, 2014 ).

Work-life balance and individual’s ability.

Though the organizations implement many WLB policies, employees still face the problems of WLB (Dave and Purohit, 2016 ). Employees achieve better well-being through individual coping strategies (Zheng et al. , 2016 ). Individual resources such as stress coping strategy, mindfulness emotional intelligence positively predicted WLB (Kiburz et al. , 2017 ). This indicates the imperative need to improve the individual’s ability to manage work and life.

Organizational factor

Organizational factors are those relating to organization design in terms of framing policies, rules and regulations for administering employees and dealing with their various activities regarding WLB ( Kar and Misra, 2013 ). In this review, organizational factors and their impact on the WLB of the employee have been dealt with in detail.

Work-life balance and organizational work-life policies.

The organization provides a variety of WLB policies (Jenkins and Harvey, 2019 ). Employee-friendly policies positively influenced WLB ( Berg et al. , 2003 ). Further, only a few IT industries provided Flexi timing, work from home and crèches facilities (Downes and Koekemoer, 2012 ). According to Galea et al. (2014) , industry-specific nuance exists.

Work-life balance and organizational demands.

Organizations expect employees to multi-task, causing role overload (Bacharach et al. , 1991 ). The increasing intensity of work and tight deadlines negatively influenced WLB (Allan et al. , 1999 ). The shorter time boundaries make it challenging to balance professional and family life (Jenkins and Harvey, 2019 ). Job demands negatively predicted WLB (Haar et al. , 2019 ).

Work-life balance and working hours.

Work does vacuum up a greater portion of the personal hours (Haar et al. , 2019 ). This causes some important aspects of their lives to be depleted, undernourished or ignored (Hughes et al. , 2018 ). Thus, employees find less time for “quality” family life (Jenkins and Harvey, 2019 ).

Work-life balance and productivity.

Organizational productivity is enhanced by the synergies of work-family practices and work-team design (Johari et al. , 2018 ). Enhanced WLB leads to increased employee productivity (Jackson and Fransman, 2018 ).

Work-life balance and burnout.

WLB is significantly influenced by work exhaustion (burnout). Negative psychological experience arising from job stress is defined as burnout (Ratlif, 1988). Increased work and non-work demands contribute to occupational burnout and, in turn, negatively predict WLB and employee well-being (Jones et al. , 2019 ).

Work-life balance and support system.

Support from Colleagues, supervisors and the head of institutions positively predicted WLB (Ehrhardt and Ragins, 2019 ; Yadav and Sharma, 2021 ). Family-supportive organization policy positively influenced WLB (Haar and Roche, 2010 ).

Work-life balance and employee perception.

The employee’s perception regarding their job, work environment, supervision and organization positively influenced WLB (Fontinha et al. , 2019 ). Employees’ awareness concerning the existence of WLB policies is necessary to appreciate it (Matthews et al. , 2014). The employee’s perception of the need for WLB policies differs with respect to their background (Kiburz et al. , 2017 ).

Work-life balance and job autonomy.

Job autonomy is expressed as the extent of freedom the employee has in their work and working pattern ( Bailey, 1993 ). According to Ahuja and Thatcher (2005) , autonomy and flexibility enable employees to balance competing demands of work-life. Job autonomy will enhance WLB (Johari et al. , 2018 ).

Work-life balance and job satisfaction.

Job satisfaction is the driving force for task accomplishment and employees’ intention to stay (Brough et al. , 2014 ). Employees’ positive perception concerning their job enhances job satisfaction (Singh et al. , 2020 ; Yadav and Sharma, 2021 ). WLB and job satisfaction are positively correlated (Jackson and Fransman, 2018 ).

Work-life balance and organizational commitment.

Alvesson (2002) describes organizational commitment as a mutual and fair social exchange. WLB positively predicted organizational commitment (Emre and De Spiegeleare, 2019 ). Work-life policies offered by an organization lead to increased loyalty and commitment (Callan, 2008 ).

Work-life balance and work-life balance policy utilization.

The utilization of WLB policies (Adame-Sánchez et al. , 2018 ) helps meet job and family demands. Despite the availability of WLB policies, their actual adoption is rather small (Waters and Bardoel, 2006 ) and often lag behind implementation (Adame-Sánchez et al. , 2018 ).

Work-life balance and organizational culture.

Employees perceive WLB policy utilization may badly reflect their performance appraisal and promotion (Bourdeau et al. , 2019 ). Hence, seldom use the WLB policies (Dave and Purohit, 2016 ). The perception of the organization culture as isolated, unfriendly and unaccommodating (Fontinha et al. , 2017 ); a lack of supervisor and manager support and a lack of communication and education about WLB strategies (Jenkins and Harvey, 2019 ). This leads to counterproductive work behavior and work-family backlash (Alexandra, 2014 ). As a result, growing evidence suggests a dark side to WLB policies, but these findings remain scattered and unorganized (Perrigino et al. , 2018 ). Organizational culture significantly affects WLB policy utilization (Callan, 2008 ; Dave and Purohit, 2016 ).

Societal factors

Societal changes that have taken place globally and locally have impacted the individual’s lifestyle. In this modern techno world, a diversified workforce resulting from demographic shifts and communication technology results in blurring of boundaries between work and personal life (Kalliath and Brough, 2008 ).

Work-life balance and societal demands.

Being members of society, mandates employee’s participation in social events. But in the current scenario, this is witnessing a downward trend. The employee often comes across issues of inability to meet the expectation of friends, relatives and society because of increased work pressure. Societal demands significantly predicted WLB (Mushfiqur et al. , 2018 ).

Work-life balance and societal culture.

Societal culture has a strong influence on WLB policy utilization and work and non-work self-efficacy. Specifically, collectivism, power distance and gendered norms had a strong and consistent impact on WLB Policy utilization by employees (Brown et al. , 2019 ). Women’s aspiration to achieve WLB is frequently frustrated by patriarchal norms deep-rooted in the culture (Mushfiqur et al. , 2018 ).

Work-life balance and societal support.

WLB was significantly predicted by support from neighbors, friends and community members (Mushfiqur et al. , 2018 ). Sometimes employees need friend’s viewpoints to get a new perspective on a problem or make a tough decision (Dhanya and Kinslin, 2016 ). Community support is an imperative indicator of WLB ( Phillips et al. , 2016 ).

Analyzes and results

Article distribution based on year of publication.

The WLB studies included for this review were between the periods of 1990–2019. Only a few studies were published in the initial period. A maximum of 44 papers was published during 2016–2019. Out of which, 17 studies were published during the year 2019. In the years 2018, 2017 and 2016 a total of 12, 7 and 8 studies were published, respectively. The details of the article distribution over the years illustrate a rising trend, as shown in Figure 3 .

Geographical distribution

Papers considered for this review were taken globally, including the research works from 26 countries. American and European countries contributed to a maximum of 60% of the publications regarding WLB research. Figure 4 illustrates the contribution of different countries toward the WLB research.

Basic classification

The review included 99 indexed research work contributed by more than 70 authors published in 69 journals. The contribution worth mentioning was from authors like Allen T.D, Biron M, Greenhaus J. H, Haar J.M, Jensen M.T, Kalliath T and Mc Carthy A. The basic categorization revealed that the geographical distribution considered for this review was from 26 different countries, as shown in Figure 4 . The research was conducted in (but not limited to) countries like Africa, Australia, Canada, China, India, Israel, The Netherlands, Norway, New Zealand, Pakistan, Singapore, Sweden, Turkey, the USA and the UK. American and European countries together contributed to the maximum of 60% of publications. Further, the categorization uncovered that 7 out of the 99 journals contributed to 30% of the WLB papers considered for this review, clearly illustrated in Table 1 .

Methodology-based categorization of papers

The basic information like research methods, sources of data, the proportion of papers using specific methodologies were considered for methodology-based categorization. The categorization revealed that 27 out of 99 papers reviewed were conceptual and the remaining 72 papers were empirical. The empirical papers used descriptive, exploratory, explanatory or experimental research designs. Further, categorization based on the data collection method revealed that 69 papers used the primary data collection method. Additionally, classification uncovered that 57 papers used the quantitative method, whereas 11 papers used the qualitative approach and four used the mixed method. The most prominent primary method used for data collection was the questionnaire method with 58 papers, while the remaining 20 papers used interview (10), case study (5), experimental studies (3), daily dairy (1) or panel discussion (1).

Sector-based categorization of papers

The sector-based categorization of papers revealed that 41.6% (30 papers) of research work was carried out in service sectors. This is followed by 40.2% (29 papers) research in the general public. While one paper was found in the manufacturing sector, the remaining nine papers focused on managers, women, the defense sector, police and the public sector, the details of which are showcased in Table 2 .

Research gap

Individual factor.

The literature survey results demonstrated that the impact of employee education and experience on their WLB had not been examined.

The literature survey has uncovered that the relationship between income and WLB has not been explored.

The influence of domestic help on WLB has not been investigated.

Much of the research work has been carried out in developed countries like the US, UK, European countries and Australia. In contrast, very scarce research works have been found in developing countries and underdeveloped countries.

Not much work has been done in WLB regarding service sectors like fire-fighters, transport services like drivers, railway employees, pilots, air hostesses, power supply department and unorganized sectors.

A review of the relevant literature uncovered that studies concerning the individual’s ability to balance work and life are limited. The individual’s ability, along with WLB policies, considerably improved WLB. Individual strategies are the important ones that need investigation rather than workplace practices.

Kibur z et al . (2017) addressed the ongoing need for experimental, intervention-based design in work-family research. There are so far very scares experimental studies conducted with regard to WLB.

Organizational factor.

A very few studies explored the impact of the WLB policies after the implementation.

Studies concerning the organizational culture, psychological climate and WLB policy utilizations require investigation.

Organizational climates influence on the various factors that predict WLB needs exploration.

Societal factor.

The impact of the societal factors on WLB is not explored much.

Similarly, the influence of societal culture (societal beliefs, societal norms and values systems) on WLB is not investigated.

Discussion and conclusion

The current research work aspires to conduct a systematic review to unearth the research gaps, and propose direction for future studies. For this purpose, literature with regard to WLB was systematically surveyed from 1990 to 2019. This led to identifying 99 scientific research papers from index journals listed in Scopus, the web of science or the ABDC list. Only papers in the English language were considered. The review section elaborated on the evolution and conceptualization of WLB. Moreover, the literature review discussed in detail the relationship between WLB and other related variables. Further, the research works were classified based on the fundamental information revealed that a maximum of 44 papers was published during the year 2016–2019. The geographical distribution revealed that a maximum of research publications concerning WLB was from American and European countries. Further, the basic classification revealed that 7 out of the 69 journals contributed to 30% of the WLB papers considered for this review. The methodology-based classification unearthed the fact that 73% of the papers were empirical studies. Additionally, the categorization uncovered that 79% ( n = 57) of papers used quantitative methods dominated by survey method of data collection. Sector-based categorization made known the fact that a maximum of 41.6% of research work was carried out in the service sector. The research gaps were uncovered based on the systematic literature review and classifications and proposed future research directions.

Limitations

We acknowledge that there is a possibility of missing out a few papers unintentionally, which may not be included in this review. Further, papers in the English language were only considered. Thus, the papers in other languages were not included in this systematic review which is one of the limitations of this research work.

Implications

The discussion reveals the importance and essentiality of the individual’s ability to balance work and life. Consequently, the researchers have proposed future research directions exploring the relationship between the variables. WLB is an important area of research; thus, the proposed research directions are of importance to academicians. The review’s finding demonstrates that there are very scarce studies on the individual’s ability to balance work and life. This leaves a lot of scopes for researchers to do continuous investigation in this area. Hence, it is essential to conduct more research on developing individuals’ ability to balance work and life. There are a few experimental studies conducted so far in WLB. Future experimental studies can be undertaken to enhance the individual’s ability to balance work and life.

qualitative research on work life balance

Flow chart of the steps in systematic review process

Framework for the literature review

Distribution of papers based on year of publication

Geographical distribution of papers across countries

Journals details

Table 1 List of papers included in the review

Adame-Sánchez , C. , Caplliure , E.M. and Miquel-Romero , M.J. ( 2018 ), “ Paving the way for competition: drivers for work-life balance policy implementation ”, Review of Managerial Science , Vol. 12 No. 2 , pp. 519 - 533 , doi: 10.1007/s11846-017-0271-y .

Ahuja , M. and Thatcher , J. ( 2005 ), “ Moving beyond intentions and towards the theory of trying: effects of work environment and gender on post-adoption information technology use ”, MIS Quarterly , Vol. 29 No. 3 , pp. 427 - 459 .

Allan , C. , O'Donnell , M. and Peetz , D. ( 1999 ), “ More tasks, less secure, working harder: three dimensions of labour utilization ”, Journal of Industrial Relations , Vol. 41 No. 4 , pp. 519 - 535 , doi: 10.1177/002218569904100403 .

Alvesson ( 2002 ), Understanding Organizational Culture , Sage Publications , London . 10.4135/9781446280072

Bacharach , S.B. , Bamberger , R. and Conely , S. ( 1991 ), “ Work-home conflict among nurses and engineers: mediating the impact of stress on burnout and satisfaction at work ”, Journal of Organizational Behavior , Vol. 12 No. 1 , pp. 39 - 63 , doi: 10.1002/job.4030120104 .

Bailey , T.R. ( 1993 ), “ Discretionary effort and the organization of work: employee participation and work reform since Hawthorne ”, Teachers College and Conservation of Human Resources , Columbia University .

Bardoel , E.A. ( 2006 ), “ Work-life balance and human resource development ”, Holland , P. and De Cieri , H. (Eds), Contemporary Issues in Human Resource Development: An Australian Perspective , Pearson Education , Frenchs Forest, NSW , pp. 237 - 259 .

Berg , P. , Kalleberg , A.L. and Appelbaum , E. ( 2003 ), “ Balancing work and family: the role of high - commitment environments ”, Industrial Relations , Vol. 42 No. 2 , pp. 168 - 188 , doi: 10.1111/1468-232X.00286 .

Bird , J. ( 2006 ), “ Work-life balance: doing it right and avoiding the pitfalls ”, Employment Relations Today , Vol. 33 No. 3 , pp. 21 - 30 , doi: 10.1002/ert.20114 .

Bourdeau , S. , Ollier-Malaterre , A. and Houlfort , N. ( 2019 ), “ Not all work-life policies are created equal: career consequences of using enabling versus enclosing work-life policies ”, Academy of Management Review , Vol. 44 No. 1 , pp. 172 - 193 , doi: 10.5465/amr.2016.0429 .

Brough , P. , Timm , C. , Driscoll , M.P.O. , Kalliath , T. , Siu , O.L. , Sit , C. and Lo , D. ( 2014 ), “ Work-life balance: a longitudinal evaluation of a new measure across Australia and New Zealand workers ”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol. 25 No. 19 , pp. 2724 - 2744 , doi: 10.1080/09585192.2014.899262 .

Callan , S.J. ( 2008 ), “ Cultural revitalization: the importance of acknowledging the values of an organization's ‘golden era’ when promoting work-life balance ”, Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal , Vol. 3 No. 1 , pp. 78 - 97 , doi: 10.1108/17465640810870409 .

Crawford , W.S. , Thompson , M.J. and Ashforth , B.E. ( 2019 ), “ Work-life events theory: making sense of shock events in dual-earner couples ”, Academy of Management Review , Vol. 44 No. 1 , pp. 194 - 212 , doi: 10.5465/amr.2016.0432 .

Dave , J. and Purohit , H. ( 2016 ), “ Work-life balance and perception: a conceptual framework ”, The Clarion- International Multidisciplinary Journal , Vol. 5 No. 1 , pp. 98 - 104 .

Denstadli , J.M. , Julsrud , T.E. and Christiansen , P. ( 2017 ), “ Urban commuting – a threat to the work-family balance? ”, Journal of Transport Geography , Vol. 61 , pp. 87 - 94 , doi: 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.04.011 .

Downes , C. and Koekemoer , E. ( 2012 ), “ Work-life balance policies: the use of flexitime ”, Journal of Psychology in Africa , Vol. 22 No. 2 , pp. 201 - 208 , doi: 10.1080/14330237.2012.10820518 .

Dumas , T.L. and Perry-Smith , J.E. ( 2018 ), “ The paradox of family structure and plans after work: why single childless employees may be the least absorbed at work ”, Academy of Management Journal , Vol. 61 No. 4 , pp. 1231 - 1252 , doi: 10.5465/amj.2016.0086 .

Ehrhardt , K. and Ragins , B.R. ( 2019 ), “ Relational attachment at work: a complimentary fit perspective on the role of relationships in organizational life ”, Academy of Management Journal , Vol. 62 No. 1 , pp. 248 - 282 , doi: 10.5465/amj.2016.0245 .

Emre , O. and De Spiegeleare , S. ( 2019 ), “ The role of work-life balance and autonomy in the relationship between commuting, employee commitment, and well-being ”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol. 32 No. 11 , pp. 1 - 25 , doi: 10.1080/09585192.2019.1583270 .

Fontinha , R. , Easton , S. and Van Laar , D. ( 2017 ), “ Overtime and quality of working life in academics and non-academics: the role of perceived work-life balance ”, International Journal of Stress Management , ( in Press ).

Fontinha , R. , Easton , S. and Van Laar , D. ( 2019 ), “ Overtime and quality of working life in academics and non-academics: the role of perceived work-life balance ”, International Journal of Stress Management , Vol. 26 No. 2 , pp. 173 , doi: 10.1037/str0000067 .

Galea , C. , Houkes , I. and Rijk , A.D. ( 2014 ), “ An insider’s point of view: how a system of flexible working hours helps employees to strike a proper balance between work and personal life ”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol. 25 No. 8 , pp. 1090 - 1111 , doi: 10.1080/09585192.2013.816862 .

Greenhaus , J.H. and Kossek , E.E. ( 2014 ), “ The contemporary career: a work–home perspective ”, Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior , Vol. 1 No. 1 , pp. 361 - 388 , doi: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091324 .

Groysberg , B. and Abrahams , R. ( 2014 ), “ Manage your work, manage your life ”, Harvard Business Review , Vol. 92 No. 3 , pp. 58 - 66 , available at: https://hbr.org/2014/03/manage-your-work-manage-your-life

Haar , J.M. and Roche , M. ( 2010 ), “ Family-supportive organization perceptions and employee outcomes: the mediating effects of life satisfaction ”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol. 21 No. 7 , pp. 999 - 1014 , doi: 10.1080/09585191003783462 .

Haar , J.M. , Sune , A. , Russo , M. and Ollier-Malaterre , A. ( 2019 ), “ A cross-national study on the antecedents of work-life balance from the fit and balance perspective ”, Social Indicators Research , Vol. 142 No. 1 , pp. 261 - 282 , doi: 10.1007/s11205-018-1875-6 .

Hughes , R. , Kinder , A. and Cooper , C.L. ( 2018 ), “ Work-life balance ”, The Wellbeing Workout , pp. 249 - 253 , doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-92552-3_42 .

Jackson , L.T. and Fransman , E.I. ( 2018 ), “ Flexi work, financial well-being, work-life balance and their effects on subjective experiences of productivity and job satisfaction of females in an institution of higher learning ”, South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences , Vol. 21 No. 1 , pp. 1 - 13 , doi: 10.4102/sajems.v21i1.1487 .

Jenkins , K. and Harvey , S.B. ( 2019 ), “ Australian experiences ”, Mental Health in the Workplace , pp. 49 - 66 . Springer , Cham .

Jensen , M.T. and Knudsen , K. ( 2017 ), “ A two-wave cross-lagged study of business travel, work-family conflict, emotional exhaustion, and psychological health complaints ”, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology , Vol. 26 No. 1 , pp. 30 - 41 , doi: 10.1080/1359432X.2016.1197206 .

Johari , J. , Yean Tan , F. and TjikZulkarnain , Z.I. ( 2018 ), “ Autonomy, workload, work-life balance, and job performance among teachers ”, International Journal of Educational Management , Vol. 32 No. 1 , pp. 107 - 120 , doi: 10.1108/IJEM-10-2016-0226 .

Jones , R. , Cleveland , M. and Uther , M. ( 2019 ), “ State and trait neural correlates of the balance between work-non work roles ”, Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging , Vol. 287 , pp. 19 - 30 , doi: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2019.03.009 .

Kalliath , T. and Brough , P. ( 2008 ), “ Work-life balance: a review of the meaning of the balance construct ”, Journal of Management & Organization , Vol. 14 No. 3 , pp. 323 - 327 , doi: 10.1017/S1833367200003308 .

Kar , S. and Misra , K.C. ( 2013 ), “ Nexus between work life balance practices and employee retention-the mediating effect of a supportive culture ”, Asian Social Science , Vol. 9 No. 11 , p. 63 , doi: 10.1016/j.soscij.2019.03.008 , doi: 10.5539/ass.v9n11p63 .

Kiburz , K.M. , Allen , T.D. and French , K.A. ( 2017 ), “ Work-family conflict and mindfulness: investigating the effectiveness of a brief training intervention ”, Journal of Organizational Behavior , Vol. 38 No. 7 , pp. 1016 - 1037 , doi: 10.1002/job.2181 .

Mushfiqur , R. , Mordi , C. , Oruh , E.S. , Nwagbara , U. , Mordi , T. and Turner , I.M. ( 2018 ), “ The impacts of work-life balance (WLB) challenges on social sustainability: the experience of nigerian female medical doctors ”, Employee Relations , Vol. 40 No. 5 , pp. 868 - 888 , doi: 10.1108/ER-06-2017-0131 .

Perrigino , M.B. , Dunford , B.B. and Wilson , K.S. ( 2018 ), “ Work-family backlash: the ‘dark side’ of work-life balance (WLB) policies ”, Academy of Management Annals , Vol. 12 No. 2 , pp. 600 - 630 , doi: 10.5465/annals.2016.0077 .

Phillips , J. , Hustedde , C. , Bjorkman , S. , Prasad , R. , Sola , O. , Wendling , A. and Paladine , H. ( 2016 ), “ Rural women family physicians: strategies for successful work-life balance ”, The Annals of Family Medicine , Vol. 14 No. 3 , pp. 244 - 251 .

Powell , G.N. , Greenhaus , J.H. , Allen , T.D. and Johnson , R.E. ( 2019 ), “ Introduction to special topic forum: advancing and expanding work-life theory from multiple perspectives ”, Academy of Management Review , Vol. 44 No. 1 , pp. 54 - 71 , doi: 10.5465/amr.2018.0310 .

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Acknowledgements

Funding: This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Conflict of interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Data availability: The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Compliance of ethical standard statement: The results reported in this manuscript were conducted in accordance with general ethical guidelines in psychology.

Corresponding author

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Exploring work-life balance among professional women in mainland china: a qualitative study.

$\nYing Pan,$

1 International Business School Suzhou, Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou, China
2 Management School, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
3 School of Business, Changshu Institute of Technology, Changshu, China

This article introduces a qualitative study utilizing semi-structured interviews to explore the barriers and resources of professional women to attain work-life balance (WLB) in the context of mainland China. Interviews were conducted with full-time employed women who had received higher education and possessed professional qualifications ( N = 20). The findings reveal underlying factors in work and non-work domains which influence the achievement of work-life balance among Chinese professional women. Participants were found to perceive and attain their work-life balance differently according to their personal traits. The findings also highlight social and family support resources for Chinese professional women from the perspective of Confucianism. This study contributes to current knowledge on work and life issues through the lens of professional women's work-life balance perceptions and experiences in mainland China.

Introduction

After the People's Republic of China (PRC) was founded in 1949, Chairman Mao and the central government launched a campaign to encourage women to pursue higher education and take on more significant positions at work ( Li, 2021 ; Zhu et al., 2022 ). A Chinese saying states that “women hold up half the sky” which is related to recent history in China ( Li, 2021 ; Zhang et al., 2021 ). With the increasing education levels of women in China, the number and proportion of professional women are growing ( Zhang et al., 2021 ). Chinese women are employed in an increasing number of different fields and occupations ( Zhu et al., 2022 ).

The rapid transformation of industrialization and globalization has had a significant impact on many aspects of employment and worker welfare. However, due to the influence of globalization, women's role as housekeeper has not been weakened, which makes professional women have the dual roles of professional women and housekeeper ( Zhang et al., 2020 ). Based on the statistics of the Guangming Online (2022) the average weekly working hours of employees in enterprises are 48.0 h nationwide. According to statistics from the National Bureau of Statistics of China (2019a) , the average time for Chinese residents to accompany and care for their children was 3 h and 8 min, including 2 h and 17 min for men and 3 h and 31 min for women. These factors are associated with welfare indicators such as organizational turnover and physical and mental health burdens ( Wang and Li, 2017 ; Li et al., 2018 ). Consequently, throughout the past 20 years, women's experiences in organizations have grown to be a prominent area of study ( Opara et al., 2020 ).

Conducting WLB research in the context of China offers a unique opportunity. First, as a traditional collectivist society, China values the importance of community and family. It focuses on fulfilling social roles and responsibilities to the family in groups. Second, women play a major role in China as a global power. In 2018, female employees accounted for 43.7% of the national workforce ( National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2019b ). There are 742 female deputies in the 13th National People's Congress, accounting for 24.9% of the total number ( National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2019b ). Moreover, the proportion of women on corporate boards of directors accounted for 39.9% in 2018, an increase of 7.2% compared with 2010 ( National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2019b ). Such a high proportion of working women has brought about changes in the organization and family structures and roles of women. Third, for more than 5,000 years, the philosophy of Confucianism has played a dominant role in expected Chinese behavior and standards ( Le et al., 2020 ). Chinese women are still expected to handle major domestic work for families, even though they work full-time ( Chen et al., 2018 ; Zhang et al., 2021 ). Therefore, professional women have a dual burden of both work and family.

This study aims to advance our understanding of work-life issues among Chinese professional women. Despite the increasing empirical studies on work-life research in the West, there is limited attention focused on the Asian labor force in this research field, thus this study must take a closer look at work and life in Asia ( Le et al., 2020 ). This study seeks to explore Chinese professional women's work-life balance from an indigenous perspective and clarify women's active participation in the labor market, household division, and care provision in the context of the modern Chinese family. Based on semi-structured interviews with 20 professional women in China, this research contributes to the debate and evidence from previous studies by providing insights into how Chinese professional women experience and relate to the intersection between work and life. Because the specific experiences of Chinese professional women and their intersectional experiences within the Chinese context are not always consistent with the experiences of women in western countries, this study focuses on specific claims about Chinese professional women and their intersectional experiences within the Chinese context.

Literature review

Work-life balance (WLB) is a central concern in daily work and life discourse ( Greenhaus et al., 2012 ). The definition of “work” is often straightforward while the concept of “life” is more diffuse. Life in this research refers to private life outside of work ( Hagqvist et al., 2020 ). In this study, WLB was conceptualized as an individual's perceptions of how well his or her life roles are balanced ( Greenhaus et al., 2012 ). From this point of view, individuals measure the balance between work and the rest of their life subjectively ( Haar et al., 2014 ) which is contrary to the dominant opinions that consider balance to be objectively measured through a low level of role conflict, high role enrichment, or equal distribution of time and attention among several roles that constitute an individual's life ( Frone, 2003 ). The definition of WLB is based on a perception-centered approach which holds that WLB is a general concept unique to everyone, depending on their life values, priorities, and goals ( Kossek et al., 2012 ; Haar et al., 2014 ).

Most previous studies have focused on work-family balance, regardless of the individuals' broader lives including community, leisure, church, sports, and other activities ( Hall et al., 2013 ). The majority of the research evidence in the field of work-life balance shows that the conflict between work and life is exacerbated by long working hours, high job demands, high workload, and high work responsibility which professional women often face ( Hagqvist et al., 2020 ).

China is a unique country because the philosophy of Confucianism has had a substantial impact on the cultural values of China ( Le et al., 2020 ). However, a closer look at the experiences of women in China suggests that gender equality has not been realized ( Zhang et al., 2020 ). Although gender role expectations in China are changing, gender role traditions endure ( Zhang et al., 2021 ). The previous studies outline the significant role of traditional Chinese culture in shaping women's work values with some positive effects on the career advancement of women that may coexist with negative effects ( Zhang et al., 2021 ).

A profession is an occupation that satisfies the prerequisites of extensive education and training, formal testing of ability, restricted entrance, professional associations, a code of conduct, and a sense of responsibility to serve the public ( Roberts, 2005 ; Opara et al., 2020 ). The professional women in this research refer to the full-time female employees with an undergraduate degree or above, who undertakes job and possess technology or management skills and create value for their enterprises ( Opara et al., 2020 ; Zhang et al., 2020 ).

This study draws on boundary theory which discusses the way people construct, maintain, negotiate, and cross the boundaries between work and family roles ( Ashforth et al., 2000 ). Boundary theory refers to the individual creation and maintenance of “boundaries as a means of simplifying and orderly the environment” ( Ashforth et al., 2000 ). Boundary theory is mainly used in the research fields of human resource management and organizational behavior. It is often used to explore the impact of work-life conflict on workforces and how to avoid or weaken this impact through WLB. According to the boundary theory, individuals can create and maintain segmented or integrated boundaries between work and family fields actively ( Xie et al., 2022 ). As the needs and purposes of work and family are often different, the comprehensive boundary usually leads to negative consequences for employees, including low family satisfaction and serious psychological pain, such as emotional exhaustion ( Li et al., 2018 ; Xie et al., 2022 ).

Although there is research evidence regarding the imbalance of work and family responsibilities among Chinese women,little is known about how Chinese professional women understand and experience the interface between work and life. Thus, how women feel about their lives is important. Since WLB has been proven to be a prominent topic among Chinese professional women, this research adopted an inductive approach to explore Chinese women's WLB. Aligned with the situationist perspective, this research poses two research questions:

Research Question 1 : What are the barriers affecting how Chinese professional women to attain WLB?

Research Question 2: What are the resources Chinese professional women relying on to maintain WLB?

Scholars have called for increasing the use of qualitative methods to study work-life balance issues ( Phillips et al., 2016 ; Adisa et al., 2019 ; Dutta, 2020 ; Hwang and Beauregard, 2022 ). An interpretivist approach helps us understand the feelings and experiences of women ( Kvale and Brinkmann, 2015 ). We employed an exploratory qualitative research approach due to the emphasis on how individuals interpret their social world ( Bryman, 2016 ). By employing a combination of purposive and convenience sampling, semi-structured interviews were conducted to collect data so that we could retain an open mind about the notions and theories that might arise from the data ( Bryman, 2016 ).

Participants

Participants were sourced through various channels such as emails, social media groups (WeChat), and alumni associations. Four criteria had to be met simultaneously for an individual to be considered as a participant. First, each woman should have obtained undergraduate education or above. Second, the participant should possess occupational qualifications, which is a necessary characteristic for professional women. Third, women should have full-time jobs in the workforce and be financially independent. Last, they should all work and live in mainland China. The average age of the participants was 39 years and their ages ranged from 24 to 50 years. The interviewees worked in various industries which include manufacturing, agriculture, public management, finance, transport, and so on. In total, 10 of the participants held bachelor's degrees, nine of them had master's degrees, and one had a doctor's degree. The participants came from a wide range of Chinese cities, being from the Yangtze River Delta, and residing in cities such as Shanghai, Nanjing, and Suzhou. The demographic characteristics of the participants are shown in Table 1 .

Table 1 . Demographic characteristics of the participants.

The authors conducted one pilot interview to become familiarized with the interview schedule. Each participant received an introductory email from us to invite them to take part in the study. A consent form and an information page were also attached to the invitation. Participants were made aware of the confidentiality and anonymity of the interviews. No personal data such as a name, phone number, or other details were collected or registered. Informed consent was obtained from all the participants and respondents were provided with the opportunity to understand the nature of the research and the implications of their participation from the beginning ( Bryman, 2016 ).

We conducted semi-structured interviews with 20 professional women. The interviews were conducted face-to-face or via remote audio chat provided by WeChat individually ( Tan et al., 2021 ). WeChat is one of the most popular social media platforms in China ( Montag et al., 2018 ). We selected audio chat because of the belief that the interviewees could feel more comfortable when they discuss their personal feelings and stories in an anonymous manner ( Tan et al., 2021 ). The interviews were performed from October 2020 to April 2021. Five participants were interviewed face-to-face and 15 by WeChat interview. All the interviews are synchronous. Using online interviews to ask sensitive questions is more effectively compared to offline interviews because interviewees may feel less anxious to answer questions when they are not physically present ( Bryman, 2016 ). Through face-to-face interviews, we can elicit questions, and ask in situ , that can be closely related to the participants' everyday experiences ( Sand et al., 2022 ). In this study, the interviewees could choose the way they wanted to conduct the interviews. Considering the impact of COVID-19, 5 women participated in on-site interviews and 15 women chose WeChat voice chats. Interviewers asked the scripted questions initially, with verbatim phrasing used to maintain consistency. Then, interviewers asked follow-up questions to clarify responses and investigate issues in greater depth ( Phillips et al., 2016 ). All the conversations were conducted in Mandarin, with a few involving regional dialects or a mixture of Chinese and English. These interviews were recorded electronically and lasted around 40–60 min on average. The data collection was ended until no new insights were found and evidence became repetitive and we determined that data saturation had been reached ( Strauss and Corbin, 1998 ).

Data analysis

The interviews were transcribed verbatim, including all possible speech errors. NVivo 12 was used to conduct data analysis. The authors read the interview text several times to be familiar with the content, then coded line by line according to the research questions ( Fereday and Muir-Cochrane, 2006 ). This research follows the approach developed by Strauss and Corbin (1990) to represent and classify coding into open coding, axial coding, and selective coding.

Open coding

The data were broken down into a large number of codes, we undertook naming and conceptualization as part of the open coding process ( Zhang et al., 2021 ). There were 23 topics connected to barriers to attaining work-life balance and resources to maintain work-life balance were discovered.

Axial coding

We analyzed the results of the open coding process in the axial coding process, categorizing the 23 concepts into nine categories: multiple roles, family pressure, work-centric organizational culture, Chinese traditional stereotype, personal traits, family support, social support, family-supportive organizational culture, and government support.

Selective coding

Selective coding is the process of sorting through categories to find the ones that are most relevant to research. We chose two of the nine categories at this point which are barriers to attaining work-life balance and resources to maintain work-life balance ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1 . Data analysis structure.

Various barriers to attaining work-life balance were identified from the findings. Multiple roles, family pressure, work-centric organizational culture, and Chinese traditional stereotype were revealed as four types of barriers for Chinese professional women to attain work-life balance.

According to the study's findings, 12 Chinese professional women reported they were not in a status of work-life balance. Their work activities frequently occur in the non-work domain, whereas non-work activities do not frequently occur in the work domain, which contrasts with findings in Western countries ( Phillips et al., 2016 ; Kossek et al., 2021 ). Overtime work is highly prevalent and serious in China. The longer the working hours, the less care they can take for their families ( Zhao and Zhang, 2019 ). The conflict between work and family in China is also a fierce collision of values ( Pan et al., 2022 ). China advocated a collectivism culture in which hard work, self-sacrifice, and contribution to society were regarded as the highest embodiment of individual value ( Lin et al., 2021 ). Although the female employment rate in China is much higher than the world average, the pattern of division of labor within the family has not changed significantly. The traditional pattern of division of labor in the family is still popular in China, and women continue to be the primary caregivers in their households ( Cooke, 2022 ). In other words, Chinese professional women share the responsibility with their spouses economically. In terms of housework, women pay much more than men. The work-family conflict faced by Chinese women is even more serious.

Work-family conflict is viewed as a conflict between roles by Western scholars, who emphasize the subjective experience of individuals involved in the conflict ( Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985 ), whereas work-family conflict in China is viewed as a fundamental conflict between income needs and personal life responsibilities ( Yuan et al., 2022 ).

Professional women in China desire a higher standard of living at this time in their development, but they are also under a lot of financial strain, such as house loan, medical care, and education, resulting in a widespread sense of economic strain among the participants ( Cooke, 2022 ). With more and more Chinese dual employees entering the workforce, earning extra money through overtime work has become an unavoidable option for many families ( Chen et al., 2018 ; Huang et al., 2019 ). If professional women reduce their working hours or their spouses leave the workforce, the financial strain on families will worsen. Chinese professional women's work-life balance may encounter increased barriers due to the aging population and postponed retirement policy in China.

Barriers to attain work-life balance

Two core categories of work and non-work domain barriers became apparent. Some of these barriers were the same as those uncovered by previous research in Western countries, whereas others appeared unique to Chinese professional women, such as work-centric organizational culture, and Chinese traditional stereotypes.

Work domain barriers

The results showed that the main barrier for professional women to attain work-life balance is the work-centric organizational culture. Some organizations ask employees to work remotely with electronic equipment which creates a high-pressure working atmosphere within the company and seriously affects women's work-life balance.

Work-centric organizational culture

The dynamics of the workplace are shifting, and work-family conflict is further aggravated as a result of developments such as the shift to a 24/7 economy and the increasing influence of technology ( Heras et al., 2020 ; Wang et al., 2020 ). Organizational culture prizes work overtime and prioritize work over family, creating barriers to achieving work-life balance. Due to the rapid changes in work environments caused by the rise of managerialism and economic globalization, work-life conflicts for finance, health care, and social service employees have increased significantly.

According to the results of the interviews, 15 respondents reported work-centric organizational culture as a barrier. The average working hours were 8.45 h per day, while according to the People's Republic of China Labor Law (2019) , the State shall practice a working hour system wherein laborers shall work for no more than 8 h a day which means the participants work quite long hours. Long working hours and information and communication technology used after work extend work duties into the non-work domain, which blurs work and life boundaries. In the work and life domains of these Chinese professional women, low levels of job control led to increased stress-related mental health issues and decreased work-life balance ( Wang and Li, 2017 ). About 12 women reported that they frequently work extra hours and they complained about technology use after work hours blurring the line between their work and private life.

As A4 shared, “I have stressful jobs and long working hours; sometimes I think my work is endless. Actually, I'm always working at night around 11 p.m. I don't have enough time to spend with my daughter. She's already asleep when I arrive home.”

For example, A6 recounted:

I was in one well-known company 6 years ago. I worked overtime nearly every working day and usually stayed up late to 1 or 2 am to deal with the work. As you know, smartphones and laptops hamper the peace of life after work. I often received calls from my leaders or colleagues to discuss work at night or on weekends. My leisure time is limited, and I don't have the time to spend with my husband and my son.

Most of the interviewees were subject to the 996 working hour system which is a work schedule in China some companies practice that requires workers to work from 9 a.m. to 9 p.m., 6 days per week, for a 72-h work week, and they complained about uncertain working hours and expectations of mandatory unpaid overtime. A5 explained the excessive working demands she encountered:

Our company's requirement is 24-hour standby for accidents. Sometimes, although I am off work, there are some urgent accidents that need to be dealt with quickly, so I have to go to the scene of the accident. These accidents are unpredictable, you may not be familiar with all the locations in such a large geographical area, so it will take you a lot of time to drive there. You don't know when the work will be finished.

The views expressed by professional women reinforced a Confucian ideal of distance and power. They reported male staff members being preferred over female ones due to perceived higher levels of ambition and work ethic. They also admitted that women, especially those who are married and with children, are more likely to go home earlier. However, the volume of work often forced these women to work late, not leaving their offices in the evenings before their leaders, because their leaders expect them to place work before their personal lives. For example, A20 described her challenge with competition in the workplace:

The competition in my industry is too fierce. Some female colleagues even switch to working online after taking maternity leave. If you want to succeed in the workplace, you have to work harder than your male colleagues and be more excellent than them. As the competition is relatively high, there is little time for me to consider my own private life.

Non-work domain barriers

Some barriers concerning multiple roles, family pressure, and Chinese traditional stereotypes were identified. Many participants admitted that they have difficulties and obstacles in achieving WLB due to the multiple roles they juggle.

Multiple roles

Especially for the interviewees with children, the most challenging factor was their children's dependency on them. Totally 13 out of 16 working mothers reported this as the most common challenge they faced in their life domain. According to A7, the demands of motherhood immediately after giving birth are increased. As A12 stated, “My daughter constantly attaches herself to me and hopes that she can spend more time with me, while the heavy workloads prevent me from spending enough time with my daughter.” Meanwhile, A13 stated that she often takes on the responsibility such as washing her daughter's clothes and taking medicine when she is sick.

Most professional women with work-oriented attitudes are less focused on satisfying their needs. The development of their careers also creates a challenge to maintaining WLB. Women who are more successful in their profession are less likely to have satisfying lives. In addition, many women abandon what they perceive to be “superfluous” desires, such as early bedtimes and leisure time. According to A8, who is a founder of educational institutions, “It was very hard at the beginning of starting a business. I had to think about everything like costs and recruitment. I hardly have time to watch movies with my children on weekends.”

Family pressure

The study also noted that marriage may encourage men to specialize in market work while women may be more likely to take on more child-rearing responsibilities. 16 interviewees have one or two children and they have to take care of their children outside of work. According to statistics from the National Bureau of Statistics of China (2019a) , the average time for Chinese residents to accompany and care for their children was 3 h and 8 min, including 2 h and 17 min for men and 3 h and 31 min for women. The average time of the interviewees for parenting is 3.7 h which increased their burden. A13 stated, “I often work overtime in my company. When I get home, my husband and my daughter are asleep. My daughter's homework is often left on the table and waiting for me to check.” She then said that she was angry because her husband did not help her with her daughter's homework. Although personal circumstances affect women's WLB to different extents, the effects on their mental health are significant and unmistakable.

Spouses' work demands can affect the WLB of Chinese professional women due to the husbands' frequent business travel, long working hours, and hours that do not overlap. Many of the married interviewees noted that their spouses were busy with their own work and could not share the increasing demands at home which generally made it hard for them to achieve WLB. A3 shared her experience, “My husband works in Beijing and often comes home once a month or on holidays. I live in our hometown with our two sons. Most of the time, I can only solve problems at home by myself.”

My husband has been working in a city out of my living area and only comes back on weekends. Sometimes he has meetings and activities on weekends and can't come back. He often receives an urgent call even though he's supposed to spend time with us during the weekends. I usually ask my sister and brother-in-law to help me if I need help.

Chinese traditional stereotype

The results of the study revealed that traditional social recognition still has a large impact on the attitudes toward women's domestic responsibilities. If a woman has high achievement motivation, she will be criticized for not being able to take care of her family and housework. People around her will also criticize her for not being able to raise a family. For example, A7 said, “Chinese traditional social recognition supports the idea that women should stay at home after getting married. It also states that a woman should be able to spend enough time with her children to make them happy.”

Resources to maintain WLB

Work domain resources, family-supportive organizational culture.

The study revealed that family-supportive organizational culture can help professional women perform better in organizations. It can also help women develop their personal relationships and build a stronger WLB. In some companies, flexible scheduling can also help women work more effectively. According to A18, she has benefited greatly from the flexible working schedule of her company. It allows her to work from home and take advantage of the company's technical equipment.

Family-supportive organizations also provide women with psychological support and help them through difficult times. A1 highlighted the organizational culture in her company and stated, “My company provides ultimate support in terms of career growth, freedom and the flexibility. I enjoy my job because it allows me to pursue my career and family at the same time.”

Social support

Most participants agreed that social support and relationships at the workplace are very important factors that help improve WLB. For instance, 14 out of 20 participants identified supervisor support as a noteworthy resource that helped them achieve better WLB. As A13 elaborated:

I benefit a lot from the family-supportive organizational culture. If my daughter has a cold or some accidents at school during work hours, I will communicate with my department leader who understands my situation well. I can take my annual leave to take care of my child.

Meanwhile, A15 indicated that being recognized by her managers helped her take on new projects and reduced her company's expenses.

Non-work domain resources

Personal traits.

The most mentioned determinants shaping the WLB of professional women include time management and resilience.

The ability to manage time is also a key factor that professional women consider when it comes to achieving a better WLB. This is evident in the following quote of A19: “I usually work with my daughter when she has classes on weekends. She has two classes in the morning or in the afternoon, so I can make use of that time to complete my own work with my laptop.” Similarly, A16 stated that “I usually do my work when my kids are at school, nursery or after they go to bed, or I would get up early in the morning before my children wake up. Now I and my kids get up together when we can, they keep their sleep schedule and I do my job. It works quite well.”

During the process of participating in the workplace, Chinese professional women have gradually formed their own resilience and subject consciousness by contributing to society, allowing them to have greater self-control over their work and life. A11 noted, “I personally feel that men and women are equal. My husband has his work and I have mine. If I can control the work environment, I can do better in my job.” A15 elaborated that she would sacrifice her non-work time to take care of her children, rather than seek help from parents, “I want to educate my son within the ideas of our generation. Although it's harder, it will also reduce the burden for my parents.” This was confirmed by A6 as well, who said:

Now I switched to the position of sales. I think the barriers of work-life conflict have been solved very well, because I have a lot of spare time. I can pick my son up from school in the afternoon. I can talk with him about what difficulties he encountered in school during dinner, and I can solve the problems in time.

Family support

Family support was also a major factor that contributed to WLB in Chinese professional women. Family support fills the lack of non-market labor aid caused by women's entry into the workplace. Several issues concerning family support resources were identified, such as parental support, spousal support, and external domestic service.

The majority of women received parental support which could lighten the burden of their life. The results revealed that 16 professional women achieved WLB by relying on parental support from their elder parents who live with them. And 15 of them live with their parents and 1 lives with her parent-in-law and mother-in-law. Only one married woman did not have children, and two married women with children live in a nuclear family. One divorced woman with children lived with a hired helper. Elder parents often help women by sharing the home duties such as childcare and house chores, which can reduce the domestic housework burden of professional women and allow more time for both work and leisure activities. Extended households with three generations with a spouse, at least one of their parents, and their unmarried children were a common living arrangement for the majority of the participants, especially those with children. These results reveal that professional women in mainland China more often turn to their elderly parents rather than relying on hiring helpers for outsourcing domestic work.

For instance, A19 said that her parents and parents-in-law help her with the housework and childcare duties by picking her children up from school and cooking dinner in the evening. They also help with daily cleaning. She stated that her parents' help greatly reduces her burden of housework.

Parents also support their daughters' career development. As A3 elaborated, “My mother supports me working in my favorite career and encourages me to pursue my passion. Without her encouragement, I could not achieve a balanced life or work well.”

Spouses can provide instrumental and emotional support to individuals, which can help minimize the negative effects of work overload. Many women also stated that their partners provide them with the support they need in the workplace and in life. For instance, A10 said that her husband often gives her encouragement when she gets into trouble at work:

My husband gives me a lot of encouragement. If I encounter trouble, he will support me immediately. He always encourages my achievements in work. If I am stressed by work, he will console me and discuss how to solve the problem which will make me more comfortable at home and enhance my work-life balance.

A6 also confirmed that “My husband has given me a lot of support to achieve personal growth in my career.”

Government support

The legitimate rights of women are protected by various laws and regulations which include the Labor Law of the People's Republic of China and the Marriage Law of the People's Republic of China. Chinese women enjoy equal rights with men in political, economic, cultural, social, and family life, such as health protection, occupational training, social insurance and welfare, and other labor security.

As A17 elaborated, “The Labour Law has helped women get more support from the government. It also encourages the development of spiritual civilisation by protecting the rights of women to work and live a balanced life.”

The findings of this research contribute to the theoretical void by exploring the WLB of full-time professional women in a Chinese context. As contextualization enables researchers to understand culturally embedded constructs ( Chuang et al., 2015 ), this context is a particularly fruitful advantage for obtaining a new theoretical understanding of WLB. The results show that the major barriers to WLB for Chinese professional women include excessive working demands and work-centric organizational culture. An improved work environment protects employees' job satisfaction and psychological wellbeing ( Cooper et al., 2019 ). Another finding is that Chinese professional women perceive WLB in terms of resource allocation, including time and attention in work and non-work fields and a sense of achievement both at and outside work, which may mean something different for people in different personal life stages with different personal values.

The current study uncovered the substantial role of parents in mitigating the burden of housework and raising children, which in turn supports professional women while they engage in the labor market. The explanation for this phenomenon is that it is common for married couples to live with the parents of one spouse in China ( Le et al., 2020 ). This shift might be due to the one-child policy in China which changed the family pattern from the traditional big family to the present nuclear family, which increases the attachment of parents and their child. These results are in accord with previous studies indicating that employees in collectivist cultures rely on help from extended family members to achieve domestic duties ( Stock et al., 2016 ). However, such cohabitation modes may increase conflicts such as disagreements about childcare which may still affect professional women's WLB satisfaction.

Work-life balance in China has some characteristics that differ from those in Western countries and cannot be explained merely by the related Western work-life balance theory. In general, the work-life balance of Chinese professional women is inextricably linked to the present economic development stage in China and the distinct Chinese cultural characteristics. The western work-family conflict theory contains clear endogeneity characteristics of the family such as the life cycle changes ( Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985 ). In contrast, the current barriers for Chinese professional women to attain work-life balance are characterized by an external, structural issue, and the majority of barriers experienced by employees are tied to some structural source. The trend of labor-intensive industries exacerbates Chinese professional women's work-life conflict. China has adopted a labor-intensive growth approach for many years ( Liu and Zhang, 2022 ). Countries that implement labor-intensive growth strategies typically artificially decrease employees' income and reduce workers' welfare. The current national income distribution pattern in China is characteristic of this scenario, the salary costs decreased in the government and firms under pressure. Furthermore, the expansion of college enrollment, combined with the development of technology, innovation, and service industries in China resulted in an annual increase in the number of college graduates which lead to the supply of talent outnumber the demand for talent in the labor market, and overall employment competition is too severe.

Moreover, the work-life balance of Chinese professional women is tightly linked to Chinese traditional culture, both in terms of attaining it and overcoming its barriers. In modern China, the opposing principles of “work first” and “family first” are held simultaneously ( Kinglun et al., 2014 ). China promoted a collectivism culture in which hard effort, self-sacrifice, and contribution to society were viewed as the highest embodiments of individual value ( Le et al., 2020 ). Since the reform and opening up in 1978, this value of dedication and sacrifice, combined with capital investment, has resulted in slogans such as “take the enterprise as your home,” “proud of the factory,” and other slogans containing the concept of time deprivation being widely promoted in organizations, and the entire society has a high tolerance for harsh labor conditions such as overtime work ( Zhang et al., 2020 ). Second, Chinese traditional culture places a strong emphasis on the importance of family ( Zhang et al., 2021 ). The findings show that family happiness and filial piety are essential emblems of Chinese professional women's personal integrity and that three generations living under one roof is widespread in China ( Qi, 2021 ).

Theoretical implications

This study contributes to the current literature by informing our understanding of work-life research in mainland China. Our findings show that family support and social support have strong influence in China. These results corroborate the findings of a great deal of the previous work on cultural factors of the work-life interface.

Confucianism maintains a significant influence on the cultural values of professional women in China. The philosophy of Confucius also influenced the social positions and role perceptions of individuals in society ( Van Norden, 2003 ). Cultural values and norms play a role in shaping the work-life interface. According to the philosophy of Confucius, the husband is responsible for the financial demands of the family, while the wife is responsible for caregiving and housework ( Le et al., 2020 ), but these stereotypes hamper the career development of Chinese professional women. Hard work, resilience, and loyalty are respected in the philosophy of Confucianism ( Zhang et al., 2020 ). Thus, professional women with work-oriented attitudes tend to spend long hours at work to complete work demands, although this may interrupt their private lives and ability to get support from family members ( Le et al., 2020 ). Professional women need to have harmonious relationships with their family members, colleagues, and supervisors ( Li et al., 2018 ).

The findings of this study also support recent studies indicating that collectivistic societies encourage individuals to rely on their family members for support ( Le et al., 2020 ; Zhang et al., 2020 ). Social support can enhance individuals' self-esteem which in turn helps them obtain better career achievement and protect them from emotional exhaustion, which indicates that fostering supportive environments should help enhance the quality of life ( Li et al., 2018 ). Notably, the relationship between employees and their employers is also viewed as a family relationship ( Chen et al., 2018 ), which explains how the participants reduced their work-family conflict through support from their families and supervisors. Future studies on the cultural values and perspectives of Chinese professionals could use these factors as moderators or control variables to analyze the effects of their actions on work-life experiences.

Practical implications

The findings of this research provide valuable insights to enhance Chinese professional women's WLB. The 996 work system is still common in China. As women continue to enter the labor market, they should seek further support under the background of demographic changes and marketization ( Cooke, 2022 ). The study revealed that working after regular office hours is a major problem for professional women in China. It also revealed that the lack of support from their organizations can affect their WLB. The findings of this study, therefore, suggest that a supportive culture is needed to help professional women maintain healthy WLB. A supportive leader's behavior can help build a better relationship between subordinates and encourage them to treat one another with dignity and respect. In light of this fact, managers need to cultivate positive working relationships with employees, recognize the development potential of subordinates, and care for subordinates' lives ( Zhao et al., 2019 ). Employees will be encouraged to make additional efforts to reciprocate supervisors' support and trust ( Zhao et al., 2019 ). Supervisors should understand the various factors that influence the development of a supportive work environment to improve the effectiveness of organizations' training programs.

Intergenerational care can better alleviate the work-family conflict faced by women as intergenerational care can not only improve the labor supply of women with young children ( Du et al., 2018 ; Kang and Liu, 2022 ) but also improve the female fertility rate ( García-Morán and Kuehn, 2017 ; Zhao and Zhang, 2019 ). Especially in China, there is a serious contradiction between the supply and demand of formal childcare services ( Yang et al., 2022 ). Therefore, intergenerational care is a more feasible and realistic choice for most professional women. First, the supply of formal childcare services is seriously inadequate ( Hu and Yuan, 2022 ). For example, the supply of childcare services for 0- to 3-year-old children is almost blank and the number of public kindergartens for 3- to 6-year-old children is relatively rare ( Hu and Yuan, 2022 ; Yang et al., 2022 ). Second, the childcare services lack flexibility in the time arrangement. Most of the childcare institutions close early and are not synchronized with their parents' working hours, which is difficult for parents to take into account ( Kang and Liu, 2022 ). Third, childcare institutions in China are mostly daycare and are closed on both weekends and public holidays, working mothers still have to spend a lot of time and energy in the evening and weekend care, which does not effectively reduce their childcare burden ( Li et al., 2020 ).

There are also individual differences when it comes to WLB barriers or resources and how they affect the boundaries of work and life. In terms of resources, most professional women benefit from family support which reduces their burden in their life domain. Accessing high levels of support from within the family can improve women's performance in their workplace and allow them to achieve more career success. Therefore, developing strategies as a family is important for enhancing professional women's WLB.

Limitations and future research directions

The potential limitations of the study provide opportunities for future research. First, due to the scope of social contact and the limited classification of contact groups, the extent of the generalization of the findings of this research is restricted. Therefore, future research may enlarge samples in broader regions with a cross-sectional design. Second, from the perspective of multiple definitions of WLB, work demands and time allocation issues generate specific barriers to women's energy allocation which rely on the active interventions of the organization. Related to the findings, building a good work environment, maintaining a positive workplace, and having family support can help women balance their work and life better. Therefore, how the organizations and family members help women and alleviate WLB barriers should be further explicated with empirical studies. Third, some interviewees noted that their personal attributes can affect their WLB. Due to the increasing number of scholars who believe that WLB has a significant impact on an individual's wellbeing, future research must also look into how these attributes influence and affect WLB. To gain a deeper, comprehensive understanding of the WLB of working women, it will also be necessary to adopt quantitative research or mixed method designs.

This study explored the barriers and resources Chinese professional women encounter in their attempts to maintain WLB in mainland China. The findings indicate that work and life issues are a prominent concern for Chinese professional women. Chinese professional women's WLB is influenced by a complex interaction of work domain barriers and non-work domain barriers. Long working hours and excessive work demands have been found as consistent predictors of poor WLB ( Liu et al., 2021 ). During this qualitative study, it became apparent that women have their wisdom and resources they use to navigate their daily work and life responsibilities and maintain their relationships, thus proving that their personal traits also help them confront barriers to professional achievement and life goals. Thoughts on the influence of organizational culture and family assistance on WLB have been raised for possible directions in future research.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

The study involving human participants was reviewed and approved by University Ethics Committee (UEC) of Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University. The participants provided their informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

YP conceived the idea, developed the theoretical framework and worked on the literature review, contributed to the design of the study, collected data, analyzed data, and wrote and edited the manuscript. GS assisted in the research and revised the manuscript. Both authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Acknowledgments

The authors appreciate all the participants who contributed to the data needed for the study.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: professional women, work-life balance, barriers, resources, qualitative research, mainland China

Citation: Pan Y and Sun G (2022) Exploring work-life balance among professional women in mainland China: A qualitative study. Front. Psychol. 13:938664. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.938664

Received: 07 May 2022; Accepted: 10 October 2022; Published: 09 November 2022.

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Copyright © 2022 Pan and Sun. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Ying Pan, ying.pan@student.xjtlu.edu.cn

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Work–Life Balance: An Overview

First Online: 12 August 2021

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Saonee Sarker 5 ,
Manju Ahuja 6 ,
Suprateek Sarker 7 &
Kirsten M. Bullock 8

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Over the last few decades, activities that are formally recognized as “work” have increasingly become important to the sustenance of individuals to an extent that they are seen as encroaching upon other essential aspects of their existence. Much of this encroachment has been due to work being viewed as a virtue in and of itself, the constant introduction of new technologies that have resulted in a blurring of work and life boundaries, and a general trend in which employees are increasingly having to take on a broader set of responsibilities (Poelmans, S., Odle-Dusseau, H., & Beham, B. The Oxford handbook of organizational well - being , Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2009).

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Sarker, S., Ahuja, M., Sarker, S., Bullock, K.M. (2021). Work–Life Balance: An Overview. In: Navigating Work and Life Boundaries. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72759-8_1

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Work-life balance among newly employed officers – a qualitative study

A military career puts great demands on the individual as regards combining working life and private life. The military and the family both demand time, energy, engagement, and commitment from the individual. Finding an appropriate balance between work and non-work might be particularly complex during military training and deployments that require extended periods away from home. The aim of this study was to investigate newly employed officers’ perceptions of work-life balance and its implications for future careers.

PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE

This article is based on 34 semi-structured interviews with newly employed officers and non-commissioned officers in the Swedish Armed Forces (SAF). The interviews were analyzed according to the six-phase approach of coding and theme development by thematic analysis.

The analysis resulted in the emergence of three main themes: coping with different loyalties, individual and organizational strategies, and concerns about the future. All officers expressed loyalty to their work and organization, but these perceptions were influenced by significant others in private life. High ambitions in combination with stressful working conditions made organizational supportive strategies important, but these differed between units. Concerns about a constantly high workload and lack of recovery were highlighted, as well as concerns about future career and family building.

CONCLUSIONS

In order to retain qualified personnel, the SAF should provide support and create conditions that help employees to balance work and non-work. A career in the Armed Forces will inevitably entail a reduced work-life balance, and our results show that the newly employed officers are highly aware of this. To ease the pressure, the SAF could be clearer about the expectations on their new employees.

A military career puts great demands on the individual with regard to work-life balance. The military and the family could be considered greedy institutions since both demand time, energy, engagement, and commitment from the individual ( Segal, 1986 ). Duty personnel must be ready to participate in unpredictable and stressful situations at all times, usually with little or no advance notice ( MacDermid & Southwell, 2011 ). In addition, military personnel faces frequent separations from family and friends due to requirements to participate in training, education, and national or international operations ( Pickering, 2017 ). Finding an appropriate balance between work and non-work might be particularly complex during military training and deployments that require extended periods away from home.

Military personnel’s perceptions of work-life balance are likely to influence their attitudes towards job satisfaction and turnover intentions ( Sachau et al., 2012 ), and receiving organizational support, and thereby getting better equipped to deal with the conflicting demands of work and non-work, has a positive impact on job satisfaction and reduces turnover intentions ( Dupré & Day, 2007 ; Anderson & Goldenberg, 2019 ). Consequently, work-life balance in the military context is a highly relevant, yet understudied issue that calls for more attention.

The Swedish Armed Forces (SAF) is in the midst of a new strategic direction. The organization is expected to grow, and the focus has shifted from international missions to national defense ( Österberg & Nilsson, 2019 ). More conscripts are being called in, and an increasing number of individuals are attending officer training. Contemporarily, the SAF is facing significant challenges due to many retirements in the years to come. This expansion of the SAF has consequences for the new officers, entering an organization full of vacancies, meaning that several newly graduated officers might experience a high workload (Österberg et al., submitted). The current situation highlights the importance of investigating recently graduated officers’ perceptions of work-life balance.

WORK-LIFE BALANCE

Work-life balance is a well-established concept that has been extensively studied in previous research (e.g. Clark, 2000 ; Greenhaus et al., 2003 ; Hill et al., 2001 ; Voydanoff, 2005 ). Balance relates to the job, life, and family satisfaction, as research on work-life balance aims to explain how well employees succeed in combining their work roles and non-work roles ( Casper et al., 2018 ). There are different designations in the literature, aiming at conceptualizing the relation between the two dominant life domains of work and non-work. The concepts of ‘work-life balance’, ‘work-family balance’, ‘work-home balance’, or merely ‘balance’, are intermittently used to explain how individuals perceive and manage their work roles and non-work roles. The term ‘family’ is commonly used to describe the non-work domain, often irrespective of the individual having a family with a spouse and children or not. This paper will use the terms ‘work’ and ‘life’ for each domain, and the concept ‘work-life balance’ to explain their relationship.

Clark (2000 , p. 751) defines work-life balance as “satisfaction and good functioning at work and home, with a minimum of role conflict”. Her work/ family border theory provides a useful framework for understanding how individuals manage and negotiate the work and life domains and the borders between them to attain balance. According to the theory, work and home are two different domains with contrasting cultures, each consisting of specific rules and expectations about behavior. Borders between domains, defining the point at which domain-relevant behavior begins or ends, are characterized by permeability (the degree to which elements from another domain may enter) and flexibility (the extent to which a border can contract or expand). These determine how individuals separate or integrate work and home ( Clark, 2000 ). Individuals are border-crossers, making regular transitions between work and home domains. These transitions are affected by the individuals’ influence on and identification with domain responsibilities and other domain members’ (e.g. supervisors and spouses) perceptions of what constitutes work and home. In summary, the theory suggests that an individual’s perception of balance is influenced by the strength of borders, identification with domains, and social support from significant others.

Work-life conflict emerges when role pressures from the work domain and the life domain are incompatible in some respect ( Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985 ). There are two directions of conflict: work-to-life conflict occurs when work interferes with private life, and life-to-work conflict occurs when private life interferes with work ( Frone et al., 1997 ). Most research has assessed only work-to-family conflict, since interference of work demands with private life has a more significant impact on perceived conflict and is a better predictor of reduced job satisfaction and increased turnover intentions (e.g. Sachau et al., 2012 ).

Three primary causes of conflict are discussed in the literature. Time-based conflict emerges when time engaged in one role makes it difficult to fulfill the obligations of another role ( Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985 ). Long work hours, overtime, and irregularity or inflexibility of work schedule are examples of work-related issues that could contribute to a time-based conflict ( Huffman et al., 2014 ; Pleck et al., 1980 ). The second source of conflict, strain-based conflict, applies when strain in one role affects the individual’s performance in another ( Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985 ). Work stressors that lead to tensions and irritability could spill over to the life domain, and vice versa concerning life stressors. Behavior-based conflict occurs when specific behaviors are required in one role, making it challenging to meet the requirements of another role ( Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985 ). Behavioral expectations from peers and supervisors at work could include hardiness, emotional stability, and straightforwardness. At the same time, spouses, children, and friends, on the other hand, wish the individual to be warm, emotional, and vulnerable.

So far, only situational demands have been considered causing interference between work and private life. In addition, personal variables could serve as significant predictors of work-life conflict. Research shows that negative affect, neuroticism and low self-efficacy are reported as risk factors, whereas optimism, positive affect, and self-efficacy are considered protective factors ( Allen et al., 2012 ). This suggests that individuals with a positive approach to life are better off handling the different demands of work and private life, and those with a negative approach are more likely to experience conflict. Furthermore, research shows that organizational support plays a vital role in helping individuals cope with work-life conflict ( French et al., 2018 ).

WORK-LIFE BALANCE IN A MILITARY CONTEXT

Military members face unique challenges in balancing their military commitments and home-related responsibilities. Duty personnel must be prepared to attend stressful and unpredictable situations 24/7, sometimes with little or no advance notice ( MacDermid & Southwell, 2011 ). A longitudinal study on army soldiers showed that working long hours and experiencing role overload (the amount of energy required to complete work) had an immediate effect on their perception of work-life conflict ( Huffman et al., 2014 ). Moreover, role overload related more strongly to work-life conflict, which indicates that e.g. irregularity of work schedule and a high workload to a greater extent contribute to perceptions of work interfering with private life.

Throughout their career, military members are likely to face repeated separations from home, family, and friends while participating in training and deployments ( Pickering, 2017 ). After spending several months on assignments abroad, Dutch military personnel reported reduced relationship satisfaction and increased turnover intentions ( Andres et al., 2012 ). Moreover, the personnel reporting higher work-life conflict levels also reported lower levels of satisfaction and higher turnover intentions. The authors argue that the relationship between turnover intentions and work-life conflict seems to be bidirectional, since employees thinking about leaving the job were more likely to report work interfering with their personal life. In another study, younger employees reported more work-life conflict than their older counterparts at the beginning of their careers, possibly due to their lack of previous experience of managing conflicting demands ( Vuga & Juvan, 2013 ). Also, more problems with balancing work and family were reported by military employees in their 30s, who had large families with dependent children.

Receiving organizational support, and thereby getting better equipped to deal with the conflicting demands of work and non-work, has a positive impact on job satisfaction and reduces leave intentions among military personnel ( Anderson & Goldenberg, 2019 ; Dupré & Day, 2007 ; Sachau et al., 2012 ). A Canadian study on reservists showed that perceptions of receiving enough family support from the Armed Forces had a positive impact on overall job satisfaction and affective commitment to the organization, which reduced leave intentions ( Anderson & Goldenberg, 2019 ). Moreover, those who perceived more family support reported greater satisfaction with work-life balance and less work-life conflict than those experiencing less support. A similar result was found in another study, where army soldiers’ perceptions of a family-friendly organizational environment were positively related to intentions to remain in the military ( Huffman et al., 2008 ). Human resource practices such as organizational support, supervisor support, work-life balance, work stimulation, and job clarity had direct effects, as well as indirect effects through job satisfaction on health symptoms and turnover intentions among military personnel ( Dupré & Day, 2007 ). Consistently, Sachau et al. (2012) show that organizational support, supervisor support, and peer support for work-life balance reduced work to family conflict and family to work conflict, and both forms of conflict predicted increased turnover intentions and decreased job satisfaction.

In order to understand the relation between private life and military work in Sweden, a brief description of the Swedish military system is needed.

THE SWEDISH ARMED FORCES AND OFFICER TRAINING IN SWEDEN

The SAF has undergone some significant changes in the last decade, including leaving conscription in favor of an all-volunteer force (AVF) and then switching back to conscription ( Österberg & Nilsson, 2019 ). The transition to an AVF in 2010 resulted in a situation where soldiers were employed on contracts ( Österberg & Rydstedt, 2018 ), instead of leaving the organization after completed conscription. This new situation puts job satisfaction and other work-related issues in focus ( Österberg et al., 2017 ; Fors Brandebo et al., 2019 ).

Alongside converting to an AVF, the Swedish officer system has also undergone dramatic changes, introducing the two-category officer system. The introduction of the AVF in Sweden coincided with the renewed officer system, and after 25 years with a one-category officer system, a two-category system with NCOs (specialists) and Officers was introduced (Hed-lund, 2013). The NCOs carry out an 18-month specialist officer training, and the officers complete the 3-year academic Officers’ Programme (OP). The OP is a three-year university education that leads to a bachelor level degree in War Science, and the students graduate as fänrik (second lieutenant/ensign). They lead units from platoon level and up when starting to work as officers. Specialist officers are normally educated at specialist schools and centers for 18 months and graduate as first sergeants. Experienced soldiers who have served as corporals and sergeants may take a shortened course (Österberg et al., submitted).

The introduction of the AVF followed the trend of massive downsizing of the SAF, which had been going on since the 1990s ( Weber & Österberg, 2015 ; Strand & Berndtsson, 2015 ). The SAF struggled to recruit even a small number of soldiers (2500-4000 yearly) with the new system ( Fors Brandebo et al., 2019 ). The re-introduction of conscription in 2018, this time gender-neutral, also brought back focus from international missions to national defense ( Österberg & Nilsson, 2019 ). Therefore, with this new direction for the SAF, the organization is beginning to grow again, with more conscripts being called in, and more officers starting the officer training. This expansion of the SAF has consequences for the new officers, entering an organization full of vacancies, meaning that several newly graduated officers get a high workload from day one (Österberg et al., submitted).

Moskos (1977) described how the transition from a conscripted military to an AVF in the US eventually would lead to a situation where military employment would look like employment in civilian society. The institutional orientation (which emphasizes the distinct military culture) would be replaced by an occupational orientation where salary and bonuses are appreciated. In 2010, Sweden’s conscription system was suspended, and an AVF was introduced, hence introducing a new occupation into the Swedish labor market: employed soldiers ( Rydstedt & Österberg, 2013 ). Consequently, many officers who today serve in the SAF have their military background in the AVF, instead of in a conscription system. Job satisfaction and retention have been studied in a Swedish context during the years with an AVF (see e.g. Österberg et al., 2017 ; Österberg & Rydstedt, 2018 ; Fors Brandebo et al., 2019 ). However, work-life balance is a neglected area from a Swedish perspective. In any organization, high degrees of employee satisfaction and commitment are vital fundamentals for good work performance and employee retention. Within five years, approximately 1500 officers will retire from the SAF, which puts the work-life balance in focus.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study is to investigate newly employed officers’ perceptions of work-life balance and its implications for future careers.

This article is based on semi-structured interviews with newly employed officers and non-commissioned officers in the SAF. The selection of participants was based on a convenience sample, and military contacts in four army units were asked to suggest interviewees.

A total sample of 34 participants was interviewed, of which 15 were officers (9 men, 6 women), and 19 were non-commissioned officers (17 men, 2 women). The gender distribution is skewed in favor of women (24%) compared to the overall gender distribution among officers within the SAF, which comprise 9% women. Among the participants, 12 had a partner; only 2 had children.

The officers’ ages ranged from 24 to 36 years (mean age 28 years), and they had worked as employed soldiers for roughly 1 year before starting the OP. The non-commissioned officers’ ages ranged from 23 to 45 years (mean age 31 years), and they had worked as employed soldiers for about 5 years before starting the officer training. The participants had been employed as officers or specialist officers between 5 months and 4 years at the time of the interviews (mean length of service 1 year).

The interviews ranged from 30 to 73 minutes and were conducted in individual rooms at the army units. It was ensured that no one would interfere during the interviews so that the participants could speak freely. Informed consent was obtained from all participants. They were given information about the study, that their accounts would be treated confidentially, and that they had the opportunity to withdraw at any point without having to declare the reason.

The semi-structured interview guide included open-ended questions about perceptions of officer training, working conditions, work-life balance, social support, and future career. Sample questions were: ‘From the beginning, why did you want to become an officer?’, ‘What does an approximate working week look like?’, ‘How do you experience the relationship between your work and your free time?’, and ‘What are your thoughts on your future career in the Armed Forces?’. The conversations were recorded and transcribed verbatim.

The interviews were analyzed according to the six-phase approach of coding and theme development by thematic analysis ( Braun & Clarke, 2006 ). This method provides a flexible and systematic technique for analyzing qualitative data. The coding process began by reading and re-reading the transcriptions to get an in-depth knowledge of the data. After that, a systematic coding process of identifying relevant patterns in the data took place, and similar codes were clustered together. After reviewing initial themes, final themes were defined and named, and analytic conclusions were drawn from data. However, the third theme is more of a progressive character, entailing some interesting and relevant topics to consider when proposing future guidelines regarding work-life balance in a military context.

The analysis resulted in the emergence of three main themes: coping with different loyalties, individual and organizational strategies, and concerns about the future.

COPING WITH DIFFERENT LOYALTIES

The theme highlights the divided loyalties and perceived tensions described by the newly employed officers, when attempting to deal with the different commitments and responsibilities of work and non-work. These role-related demands and expectations involved being a reliable team member, devoted to the unit where stationed and to the organization as a whole, and concurrently, being a devoted partner and friend, spending time with and providing care and support to near ones at home. Two groups with different main approaches were identified among the officers: those who tried to balance their loyalty between work and non-work, and those who primarily expressed loyalty towards their occupational role.

All participants were highly dedicated to their work role and organization, yet almost half of them described the life outside work as the predominant and most valuable domain. They balanced between the different loyalties, trying to distribute time and engagement satisfactory between work and non-work. One officer reflected on the importance of not identifying too much with the work role:

“There is a risk that the identity in the Armed Forces will take over. I try to separate this, so I do not identify myself with anything too much. I do not think it is healthy – At the same time, you can’t play a role when you have my job. I must still be John. After all, the day I am involved in something stressful, John has to carry the burden. Not Lieutenant Wood”.

Support from family and friends made it easier to handle the sometimes conflicting demands, and the officers stated that they would rather quit their jobs than be at risk of ending their relationships. Also, the officers reflected upon how their choice of occupation had affected significant others outside of work. After several years of education and training, they felt responsible for putting their partner’s career on hold. From now on, they were willing to comply with their partner’s plans for the future, irrespective of having to relocate or give up their military career. Two of the participants described this as follows:

“We study harder than students in civilian universities. We travel a lot. And I, who have a partner and a life at home… it was tearing me apart being away from home. We are still trying to repair our relationship after my years in the Officers’ Programme”.

“My future here depends on my partner’s job opportunities. She’s finished studying here in barely a year and a half. I feel great here and do not want to move, but if she gets a job in another place, I will sacrifice my employment and move to another regiment. Because she has sacrificed so much. I have been on a mission abroad once, and I’m going away again this winter. I have studied at the OP for three years. She’s given me the opportunity to do what I want, so I’ll have to adapt to her when she’s done”.

In contrast, the other half of the officers expressed their main loyalty and commitment towards their occupational role and the organization. They seemed unwilling to compromise in situations not compatible with their ambitions at work. This view appeared to be most significant among the officers who were stationed in remotely located units and among the officers who currently did not have a partner. Work was highly valued and gave meaning to life, as expressed by one officer: “The job is my life, I have no significant life outside of work”. Additionally, four of the officers revealed that their love relationships recently had ended, since they found it difficult to get their partner to understand the demands military employment placed on them. For them, this was not just a job but more of a lifestyle:

“I would rather do something that I enjoy and feel passionate about than be somewhere else, possibly making more money and having more convenient working hours. For me, it is what you do at work that is most important, and that is why I work in the Armed Forces”.

Although all participants expressed loyalty towards their work and organization, the officers trying to balance their engagement between work and non-work generally more often were in a relationship than their counterparts. Significant others in private life influenced their perceptions of work and what they valued the most in life.

INDIVIDUAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGIES

The newly employed officers were faced with a high workload from day one when starting to work in their units, resulting in stressful working conditions and frequent overtime. This situation, combined with the officers being highly ambitious and putting great demands on themselves, had complications as they tended to take on more work than manageable in the long run. Several officers had identified a need to slow down to prevent future fatigue and burnout. When finally getting home in the evenings, they felt exhausted, and time spent at home was primarily devoted to recovery, which resulted in little or no time left for socializing with family and friends:

“My free time and my social life are clearly suffering. Because I’m so exhausted when I get home, that I can’t do anything but sleep. And this affects me negatively, of course. […] In fact, my whole military career has been such a… it’s difficult to get the social life to work. And during the time I was employed as a soldier, I went on international missions a couple of times. And there are not many who are interested in dating when you go away for six months and are in a war zone. Not everyone can handle it. After all, it doesn’t matter if you are a soldier or if you are an officer. All respect to those who get it together, but it’s always hard”.

A vast majority of the officers stressed the importance of separating their work life from their non-work life. In order to detach from their work role, they used both physical strategies, such as leaving the uniform at work when the workday was over, and psychological strategies, such as not thinking about work during free time and turning off the work phone when leaving work. The participants processed the workday during their commutes from work, to be able to “shut off” when at home.

Contrastingly, seven officers expressed a more integrative perspective on work and non-work, which resulted in the different domains blending together. These officers tended, to a greater extent than the separating officers, to work overtime and to think about work when at home. For them, taking a pro-active approach and trying to get one step ahead of upcoming assignments was used as a strategy for reducing stress and tensions:

“The job almost requires working overtime. I live nearby, and sometimes I drive here in my free time to fix something. It’s not healthy, but it’s a paradox, because if I don’t, then I’ll get stressed out later”.

Depending on their geographic location and organizational culture, the units provided different strategies to help officers cope with the high demands at work. These strategies consisted of formal approaches such as mentoring programs, guidance, and feedback from superiors, but also informal approaches such as social events with colleagues during free time. At units located in remote communities, spending time together substantially contributed to developing an in-depth commitment towards the unit, and to a sense of belonging to the team:

“I feel that the commanders are doing everything they can with the resources they have, and I think that is important – that someone is truly dedicated to the unit. […] I can’t put my finger on what it is, but I get a very genuine feeling from everyone who works here. They are keen that everyone should enjoy working here. And in the free time… there is not much to do here, but we have dinner parties, focusing on socializing”.

The absence of supporting strategies in other units resulted in the officers experiencing high demands and constant strain, leading to an unsustainable situation at work. As the officers struggled to handle the burden of work demands by themselves, they felt abandoned by the organization, not providing the support and help they needed:

“I tried to zero my overtime. I planned a nine-week vacation this summer. No, it wasn’t approved, because I had to be here. Okay. And now I have too many hours, which means they don’t understand what I’ve done wrong. No, but I know. You haven’t approved it. So now I’m on ‘the red line’. I’m not allowed to have this much overtime, but I don’t know when to zero my overtime”.

Attempts to cope with the high workload differed among individuals, and units. Individual strategies for finding balance between work and private life were influenced by the organizational strategies, and the lack of organizational support.

CONCERNS ABOUT THE FUTURE

The officers expressed concerns about their future prerequisites to manage demands from work, and at the same time, having a sustainable life outside work. Three major concerns were identified. Firstly, the officers were concerned about coping with a constantly high strain and lack of recovery while accomplishing the job. These worries were based on how they perceived their current situation at work and the insufficient information from supervisors and the organization regarding their future careers. Most discontent were the officers working at units where supportive coping strategies were lacking:

“Some [supervisors] say that ‘an officer should be able to handle this, because it will be like this at war’. Absolutely. But a war does not last for 40 or 50 years. I shouldn’t be at war every day I go to work. […] I do not want such a life, where there is constant stress every day”.

Furthermore, the officers were requesting advance notice for training and changes in work schedule to reduce time demands and recover, and organize things at home. They experienced major problems, both at work and in private life when required to adapt to new demands on short notice:

“The most important thing, I would say, is that you know what your future holds. And by that, I mean that we have a tendency to change the organization here very often, due to the lack of staff. Holes are plugged and fires are extinguished temporarily. There is always a shortage of staff somewhere, which means that everyone works too a too high percentage of their full capacity. You do not feel good about it. You must be able to recover”.

Secondly, the officers highlighted worries regarding future possibilities to combine military employment and family building. Only two officers in the sample had children, but thoughts about a future family were present among several participants. Also, in this regard, apprehensions were based on the absence of future plans and a long-term perspective on their upcoming careers:

“I am extremely nervous about having children… But we want to have children someday, and I’m not going to let my work life jeopardize my family relationship. That’s out of the question! No matter how much I enjoy this occupation, I have told my partner and I tell anyone who asks that I won’t let that happen”.

Third, the requirements of geographical mobility for future career advancement were not appealing to the officers. The respondents felt that they had already made sacrifices when participating in officer training, and were now beginning to settle down. As mentioned in previous themes, the relocations had put a strain on their relationships and even resulted in separations. The main concerns on future mobility regarded how it would affect significant others in private life:

“It’s important that the lady can cope with being alone. And maybe not everyone does. The love must be strong, so to speak, if it should last. If I am going to continue with this for the rest of my life”.

In summary, the high workload combined with the lack of support and information made the newly employed officers feel anxious about their future career and their possibilities to combine work and family life. Particularly concerns about the constant strain and future family building were seen as potential reasons for leaving the military.

The aim of this study was to investigate newly employed officers’ perceptions of work-life balance, and its implications for future careers. The results show that this could be understood from three overriding themes: coping with different loyalties, individual and organizational strategies, and concerns about the future. Implications for the organization and its employees are further discussed below.

Almost all of the participants in this study were fostered in the SAF during the decade of an AVF. Moskos (1977) assumed that the trend versus a more occupational direction within the military would come into force when leaving the conscription in favor of an AVF in the USA. This could, potentially, cast a shadow over our results, as all participants entered a completely new system when starting to work in the organization after their officer training. Officers were trained in an AVF organization, but employed in a conscript organization, where there could be differences regarding institutional or occupational approaches to work. Consequently Moskos (1977) postulates that individuals trained in a voluntary system generally value work-life balance more highly than those fostered in a conscript system do.

Our participants described how they cope with different loyalties. Here, we argue that this is interlinked with the notion of multiple identities. When working in an organization, employees identify with it as part of a united group, and this group is very prominent within the military. Here, organizational values and norms become incorporated in the self-concept as employees identify with the organization ( van Knippenberg & Sleebos, 2006 ).

Previously, the concept of military identity has often been measured in normative terms, e.g. culture, attitudes, values and motivation ( Johansen et al., 2013 ), following traditional sociologist theories of Huntington (1957) , Janowitz (1960) , and Moskos (1977) . Nonetheless, opinion is separated on how to interpret military identity, and the extent to which it affects members of a military organization ( Evetts, 2003 ; Lock-Pullan, 2001 ). Our findings suggest that the officer identity is split and constructed through other facets of life, such as family and children. When identities are in conflict, the sense of a good work-life balance might be affected, which our results show.

Attempts to improve balance is closely tied to identification with roles and activities associated with being a member of work and home domains respectively. Individuals become motivated to manage borders and domains when they internalize domain values and find meaning in their responsibilities ( Clark, 2000 ). The participants who expressed loyalty to work primarily identified with their occupational role and gave private life secondary importance. Thus, they did not perceive conflicting demands to the same extent as the officers balancing between loyalties.

According to previous research, when service is valued and supported by the spouse, the conflicting demands of being a loyal military member and a devoted partner become more manageable ( Huffman et al., 2014 ). Among our balancing participants, the support rather seemed to contribute to conflict, since some officers felt indebted to their partner for encouraging their choice of occupation with all its implications. In recent years, considerable time, energy and commitment had been devoted to work, and they were now willing to even out this imbalance. This underline the challenge that most officers experience when making a career in the Armed Forces, and it is likewise a challenge for military organizations regarding training. During the current officer career system, it seems hard to facilitate a good work-life balance.

The participants in our sample were highly dedicated to their role as officers, and they tended to work more than manageable in the long run. In the SAF, there are formal work regulations that govern employees’ financial compensation, leave, and extended leave after training and deployments. However, in some units, local deviations from these formal guidelines seemed to occur, which had consequences for the newly employed officers.

Our results show different coping strategies with work-life balance depending on geographical location and organizational prerequisites. Participants working in remote units stated that socializing was often restricted to co-workers and work-related matters outside of work. This can be a description of an institutional direction ( Moskos, 1977 ), where life outside the unit or barracks is an integrated part of the employees’ life world. In other units, though, there was a distinct separation between work and leisure time.

Significant domain members play an important role in individuals’ ability to manage domains and borders ( Clark, 2000 ), and supervisors encouraging overtime lead to a more unstable balance between the different domains. This had implications for the officers trying to separate work from private life, since it created a norm that work should always be prioritized. For participants with a more integrative perspective between work and private life, temporal and psychological borders between domains became weak and flexible, and they tended to work long hours in order to reduce work-related stress.

For many participants, the high workload and absence of organizational support lead to a lack of recovery and little or no time left for a social life outside work, which indicates a time-based and strain-based conflict. This could negatively impact retention, as the feeling of inadequacy can have a corrosive effect on job satisfaction and, in turn, retention. To avoid putting strain on newly employed officers, the SAF needs to make sure that the formal work regulations are followed.

The SAF has gone from an extensive, conscript-based defense force to a small, volunteer-based force and back to conscription. The SAF is in a period of growth, which probably will lead to job security for those entering the organization. However, the concerns among our participants are in another direction. Those concerns deal with coping with a constantly high strain, and with commuting and the necessity to move around as the officer profession requires mobility. This in turn can worsen work-life balance and make many officers leave the organization.

From the time when our participants entered the organization, their focus on what is important in life has shifted from being highly dedicated to work, to wanting a balanced life with a family in the future. As previously pointed out by Segal (1986) , when years of career building coincide with years of family building, adaptability becomes problematic. During the course of a military career, deployments and geographic mobility are inevitable to advance in the officer profession, and our participants are very much aware of this.

For some officers, previous relocations had resulted in major personal sacrifices regarding their relationships, even separations. The officers who had a partner felt guilty for frequently being away, and the officers currently not in a relationship had a hard time finding someone who could accept the demands that the military career placed on them. Thus, concerns about future prerequisites to combine work and family were based on interpretations about their previous and current, very demanding, work situation. In addition, a long-term perspective on their upcoming careers, which was much sought after, was lacking.

Concerns about the future highlight the need for information and support. Research among military personnel shows that a high workload contributes to work-life conflict ( Huffman et al., 2014 ), and that separations from home contribute to reduced relationship satisfaction and increased turnover intentions ( Andres et al., 2012 ). Thoughts about leaving employment gradually make the individual psychologically detached from work, and increase the likelihood of resigning. There is a strong relationship between considering leaving one’s employment and then actually doing so. The fact that the SAF is growing again also puts focus on the burden of work within the organization. As ambitious individuals in a growing organization with many vacancies tend to work a lot and place high demands on themselves, it seems that support from the SAF is unsatisfactory, which in turn can lead to burnout and increased intentions to leave.

In order to retain qualified personnel, the SAF should provide support and create conditions that help employees balance work and non-work. Greater attention needs to be put on the different loyalties, and how these are interlinked with identities, which negatively affect the newly employed officers. A career in the Armed Forces will inevitably involve a reduced work-life balance, and our results show that the newly employed officers are highly aware of this. To ease the pressure, the SAF could be clearer about the expectations on their new employees. Although conflicting demands cannot be entirely eliminated, they certainly can be reduced.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

There are some limitations that need to be addressed. First, the sample consisted of a limited number of participants, and the results should therefore be seen as explorative. Secondly, airborne and naval units were not represented in this study, so the results cannot be applied to the whole organization. Future research on work-life balance in a military context should include these branches. The newly employed officers were relatively young and at the beginning of their military careers. Thoughts about work-life balance could be of a different nature at a later stage in life. By studying officers with families including dependent children, a different perspective on work-life balance can be obtained. Furthermore, future research could focus on perceptions of work-life balance among military members’ partners.

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Open access
Published: 23 January 2024

Etiology, consequences, and solutions of working women’s work-life conflict: a qualitative study

Zahra Hosseini ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8152-3174 1 ,
Seyyede Fateme Rahimi ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5124-0846 2 ,
Fatemeh Salmani ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6781-3899 3 ,
Mohammad Reza Miri ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9947-7524 4 ,
Teamur Aghamolaei ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2504-8014 5 &
Reza Dastjerdi ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2043-8224 6

BMC Women's Health volume 24 , Article number: 62 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Introduction

Work-life conflict (WLC) is important in organizational behavior research and human resource management. The present research aimed to investigate the underlying causes, consequences, and solutions to WLC in Iranian working women.

Materials and methods

The present qualitative study was conducted through a content analysis method among 19 working married women in Birjand, a city in the east of Iran, from December 2021 to February 2022. To collect the data, semi-structured interviews were held. The average interview time was 45 minutes, and all interviews were recorded upon the participants’ consent. Finally, after coding, the information was analyzed with MAXQDA software.

The causes of conflict included 4 main categories of individual, interpersonal, organizational, and cultural factors, with seven subcategories: the pressure of the mother’s role at home, personality traits, lack of individual skills, insufficient support, work characteristics, organizational policies, and the traditional role of women in society.

The consequences of conflict included 2 main categories, Decreasing quality of life and work problems with 4 subcategories: physical and mental illnesses, forgetting one’s role towards others, limiting social communication, and reducing productivity.

Conflict resolution methods included 3 main classes of individual-oriented, other-oriented, and organization-oriented with 8 subclasses: program-oriented, meaning-oriented, emotion-oriented, avoidance, emotional support, instrumental and work support, support work policies, and correct management views.

To solve the problem of conflict, different aspects should be considered and help to solve this challenge by influencing each dimension.

Peer Review reports

The emergence and development of families where spouses are both employed and raise income is a global social phenomenon [ 1 ]. In today’s modern work environment, maintaining work-life balance (WLB) is essential for employees because they are expected to perform multiple tasks simultaneously and have maximum productivity [ 2 ]. Work-life balance is a concept that is poorly and variably defined, and perhaps the difficulty in defining this concept reflects its complexity [ 3 ], Kirchmeyer (2000) defined work–life balance as “achieving satisfying experiences in all life domains and to do so requires personal resources such as energy, time, and commitment to be well distributed across domains” [ 4 ]. Actually, WLB is the required coordination of an employee’s professional and personal life [ 5 ]. It is difficult to strike a balance in modern societies in response to the increasing demands of family and work. Because employees must assume different roles in both conditions [ 6 ].

Work- life conflict (WLC) has become an important issue in investigating organizational behavior and human resource management, which is a positive correlate of employees’ work-life health [ 7 ] and organizational performance [ 8 ]. Mismanagement and inconsistency in life, family, and work as a result WLC can damage the individuals’ lives, organizations, and even society [ 9 , 10 ]. Although men also face WLC, women are more affected because they have to take care of family and children and do the domestic chores [ 11 ]. Studies have shown that women are always more stressed than men, and in particular, full-time women whose children are less than 13 years old are the most conflicted [ 12 ], because they usually fail to spend sufficient time with children. As a result, they are forced to leave work in some cases. Therefore, they face the increased pressure of professional and personal life, which causes role conflict and stress [ 9 ] at work and in life [ 13 ]. In addition, WLC is associated with reduced job satisfaction, absenteeism, lower performance, and intention to leave the organization [ 14 ]. In the twenty-first century, Women are working in all manufacturing and service sectors throughout the world [ 9 ]. Therefore, it is necessary for working women to achieve work-life balance (WLB). To this aim, they have to carefully handle their personal balance and skillfully blend their roles so as to optimize their potential in all aspects of life [ 15 ].

Studies show that work-life conflict has adverse effects on family and workplace, and generally endangers the well-being of societies [ 2 , 16 ]. People who experience work and life conflict have less productivity and commitment, and are more likely to be absent or leave the organization [ 16 , 17 ]. In the family dimension, work-life conflict can cause bad mood and misbehavior with spouse and children, inadequate and inappropriate performance of parental and marital duties, and ultimately decrease life satisfaction and quality of life [ 15 , 16 ]. In the individual dimension, people who have conflicts between work and life suffer significantly from a decrease in mental well-being and physical health [ 17 , 18 ].

The prevalence of work-life conflict among women of different societies and cultures is different [ 15 ]. In Iran, a working woman faces more problems than a working man to strike a balance between work and life [ 19 ]. This research is basically designed as a qualitative study to better understand local and cultural differences that affect work-life conflict. Thus, the main purpose is to answer the following questions as perceived by working women in universities of Birjand (in the east of Iran):

What are the causes of work-life conflict in working women?

What are the consequences of work-life conflict in personal and professional lives of working women?

As perceived by working women, what solutions are there to solve the work-life conflict?

Considering the importance of work-life conflict for the lives of individuals, organizations and even society, a qualitative we can provide a deeper understanding of the feelings and concerns of female employees with work-life conflicts and offer solutions to create a WLB.

Literature review

According to the gender role theory, because women are more exposed to work-life conflict even when employed, the traditional duties of housekeeping and care-taking of family members are expected from them [ 2 , 18 ]. This situation is more tangible in eastern societies, which are more traditional. In this regard, several studies have investigated the causes and effects of work and life conflict or work and family conflict in working women around the world using different statistical methods. As the findings showed, it is possible to understand the commonalities and differences of the causes of work-life conflict in working women across different cultures. In the following, we will provide a brief description of the results of recent studies:

In a qualitative study, Taghizadeh et al. (2021) concluded that some men in traditional cultures expect women to always be subservient, which is widely known as hegemonic masculinity. In addition to this job stress, the high load of family duties and lack of individual abilities and skills are considered other causes of conflict [ 19 ]. In explaining these results, especially the category of hegemonic masculinity, mention can be made of Rafiq et al.’s study (2023), showing that authoritarian leadership is positively correlated with work-family conflict and negatively with emotional exhaustion [ 20 ]. Gender perspectives on women’s employment and type of job may even affect women’s job choice. For example, the findings some qualitative research by Hafeez et al. conducted on Pakistani women entrepreneurs showed that women’s choice to become entrepreneurs is at three levels: internal, external and interpersonal. Also, the results showed that gender roles and gender-related job segregation play an important role and influence women’s job choice [ 21 ]. Tasnim et al. (2017) in Bangladesh found that long working hours, hard work, excessive workload, childcare responsibilities, workplace discrimination and prejudice, lack of supervision and dominant management style, and lack of family support are the underlying reasons for disrupted maintenance of work and life balance in working women [ 14 ]. Ademuyiwa et al. (2022) in Nigeria investigated the consequences of work-life conflict in working women and found that stress, mental fatigue and burnout as psychological disorders are among the major effects of this challenge. Also, as their results showed, closing work at the right time, helping with housework, having a kindergarten near work, and getting help from colleagues at work were mechanisms that facilitate and reduce conflict [ 22 ].

The present qualitative study used a content analysis in Birjand, a city in the east of Iran. It was conducted from December 2021 to February 2022.

Participants

The participants were women working at Birjand University of Medical Sciences. The working environment is another variable that may influence the level of work-life balance.

The university is an arena prone to work and life conflict. Working women in universities experience conflict and role accumulation widely [ 23 ].

Particularly those who work in institutions with intense work stress are more challenged to assure work-life balance. Among those intensively faced with this challenge are university employees [ 2 ].

To enrich the data, the managers and spouses of some of these women were also included in the study The sampling was purposive with a maximum variation of education, work experience, type of job, place of working and family size. Since husbands spend a large part of their time with their wives, these experiences could also help understand the issue. Interviewing the husbands of working women and university managers is actually a form of triangulation to acquire a more comprehensive understanding of the subject.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

The inclusion criteria were femininity, being married, working at university, having a work-life conflict issue, at least 1 year of work experience, and an informed consent to participate in the study. To identify women with work-life conflicts, 320 women completed the Carlson standard work-life conflict questionnaire, the score range of which was 18–90. A higher score indicated more conflict. The research team considered a score above 40 as the cut-off point for entering the study.

The minimum and maximum score of Carlson’s standard questionnaire is 18 and 90. The first 33% of the conflict score range between 18 and 42 (interpreted as low conflict). The second 33% of scores ranged between 43 and 66 (interpreted as moderate conflict). The third 33% of scores were between 67 and 90 (interpreted as high conflict). Therefore, the range of moderate to high conflict was decided to be the score of 40, to be on the safe side, as the inclusion criterion for the interview. The lowest conflict score of the interviewed person was 43 (Maryam, 35 years old).

The exclusion criterion was the participant’s unwillingness to continue the interview. If a participant was interviewed for less than 30 minutes, or if the researcher decided that the participant answered the questions conservatively and did not want to overtly state his experiences, the participant was excluded from the study and another eligible person was replaced.

Ethical considerations

This study was approved by an Ethics Committee of Research and the deputy of research at Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences (# IR.HUMS.REC.1400.214), and received a clinical trial code (#IRCT20210918052508N1). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants (320 women in the work-life conflict investigation stage, 19 women who were selected for interviews, and 6 women’s husbands in the qualitative stage) and it was explained to them that the information obtained from the questionnaires and the interviews (audio and written) will remain completely confidential in all stages of the research and the results will be published anonymously. Why the audio recorder was used was explained to the participants and the interviews were recorded with their permission. All the steps performed were according to the ethical code of the Declaration of Helsinki. Also, the principle of confidentiality was observed for the information obtained from the questionnaires of the first stage of assessing work-life conflict and the audio content of the people who were excluded from the study for any reason, and the information obtained from these people was not included in the results presented in this article, such as the information obtained. The final participants in this research have been kept confidential with the research team.

Data collection and analysis

Semi-structured in-depth interviews were used to collect the data. A total number of 29 interviews were held with working women, 4 with managers and 6 with women’s husbands. Each interview lasted between 30 and 45 minutes.

It was arranged to have a separate room for interviewing participants in Birjand University of Medical Sciences. The place was supposed to be somewhere that women could talk comfortably without interference. If the participant did not want or did not have the time to interview us during working hours, the interview was held in any place that he suggested outside the workplace (participant’s home or public places in the town). The interviews were held one on one and only in the presence of researcher to preserve the privacy and comfort of the participants.

At the beginning of each session, after introducing himself and explaining the purpose of the study, the researcher enquired about the participants’ demographic information, including age, education level, employment status, number of children, etc. Interviewees were free to withdraw from the interview any time they wanted. The interview was voice-recorded. During the interview, notes were taken whenever necessary.

The interview began with these general questions:

Tell about your job and life experiences.

Tell about the conflict that happened between your job and life.

Then according to what the participants already provided; other questions were asked. Also, when needed, exploratory probes were added, such as “Please explain more”, “Please provide an example”, “What do you mean?”, “How did you feel about this?”

The participants’ moods and emotions were recorded too, such as a nervous laughter or hatred during the conversation, to understand and interpret the interview more accurately.

Immediately after the interviews, they were first transcribed on paper and were then typed.

MAXQDA can deal with different data formats and can support data in Persian language. It can easily manage and organize the content of interviews and perform accurate qualitative analyses at a high speed and ease. The present data were analyzed in MAXQDA 2020 [ 24 ].

Having extracted the initial codes, the conceptually similar or semantically related items were categorized. This process of analysis continued until the main categories and subcategories were obtained.

Methodological considerations

Acceptance, validity, confirmability, and transferability criteria were used to determine the accuracy of data [ 16 ]. In this study, the researcher first wrote down his personal ideas, values, and judgments and how they could affect the data collection and analysis. He recorded his thoughts about the answers he expected to hear from the participants and tried to avoid biasing the results.

When we are not sure of heterogeneity of experience, sample selection becomes further demanding. An inappropriate strategy can misrepresent the population and lead to the failure of future plans and policies. Sampling strategy, if properly planned, provides the first line of defense against errors and biases in collecting sample data in a population with heterogeneous experiences. We used the word varimax for this purpose [ 11 ]. That is, we tried to observe the maximum variety in selecting the sample in terms of age, length of employment, type of employment, number of children, age of the youngest child, etc.

The trustworthiness of qualitative research corresponds to the validity and reliability of quantitative research. It was tested Guba and Lincoln’s criteria [ 25 ]. Credibility can be achieved through the researcher’s long-term engagement with information, and appropriate interaction with participants. Dependability includes activities that increase the accuracy of the generated data. In the present research, trustworthiness was provided by transcribing the recorded interviews as soon as possible and re-reading the entire data. Confirmability is ensured by observing the impartiality of the researcher and using the review of observers and agreement on the codes and themes by the team of researchers. Transferability is the generalizability of findings to similar situations. In the present study, to check transferability, maximum variety was used in sampling.

The researcher was constantly immersed in the data, shared the coding and text with the participants, rechecked the codes by other researchers and used a varimax sampling of participants in terms of age groups, work areas, family size, husband’s job and so on to increase the validity of findings.

The impression that was made from the interviewee’s words was repeated for the same participant during the interview to confirm the accuracy of interpretation.

First, 320 women completed the standard Carlson WLC questionnaire, of which 57% ( n = 182) had WLC. Among these women, 19 were interviewed purposively. The results showed that most of them had a bachelor’s degree, 1–2 children, 41–50 hours of work per week, and a conflict score of 40–50, permanent employment and 10–15 years of experience (Table 1 ).

Moreover, six of the women’s husbands were interviewed, whose ages ranged from 39 to 50 years. In addition, four managers, including 2 Ph.D. holders and two master degree holders were interviewed. All had more than 25 years of work experience (range = 25–33) and 47–62 years of age.

In the data analysis process, the codes were checked 5 times (once by the interviewer, 2 times by the research team and 2 times by an expert team outside the research) in order to increase the validity and accuracy of the data.

In the following, the categories and sub-categories are introduced. (Table 2 ).

Causes of conflict

Category of personal factors, the pressure of mother’s role at home.

Due to the multiple motherly and occupational roles that the working women population have, they are mainly faced with an issue called work-motherhood conflict and role pressure. This condition has caused them to face many issues and challenges in family and work life.

“The mother’s role of is mostly at the end of the balance scale. As a rule, a mother is always thinking about her child. She is concerned with where the child is, what she is eating= and doing, which may disturb concentration at work”. [Maryam, 35 years old].

Personality traits

Personality is an important factor related to WLC. In Stavroula Leka’s study, personality factors alone accounted for 17% of the variance in the overall WLC levels [ 17 ]. By influencing coping strategies and accessing resources, personality traits increase the level of optimism and vitality and ultimately increase the psychological capacity. This increase, in turn, leads to a better management of work and family duties and a subsequent reduction in the conflict between the two.

For example, people who have more important protective factors against stress, such as self-control, self-esteem and high self-confidence and positive thinking, are less prone to role conflict between work and life [ 17 , 26 ]. Some personality traits may cause consequences to be positively and negatively involved in challenges of a woman’s life, for example, idealistic women must bear more workload in the environment and at home because they only fully accept their way of working.

“I am an idealist. I have a set of standards in mind for my work. Now, whether in the office or at home, it is better to say I do not do something myself. I do not accept the quality of someone else’s work. This idealism makes me spend too much time on things. And sometimes I fall behind my daily plans”. [Shadi, 38 years old].

Also, people who face self-confidence issues or stress and anxiety experience a more difficult life and work. “If you are a stressful person and you do lack self-confidence, this will make you unable to focus on your work and life”. [Saeedah, 40 years old].

Lacking personal skills

At the core of work-life programs is empowerment. In these programs, the topics discussed are time management skills, effective management, decision-making and problem-solving skills. Among the topics raised, time management skills play an effective role in reducing work-family conflict [ 15 ].

“Actually, balance is important in all aspects of life, but it is more important for women, especially working women who take up many roles need to learn many skills for this job. They need to acquire communication skills when angry, life skills, problem solving skill, time management and mental pressure management. I recommend these because I am a psychologist myself”. [Reza, 52 years old].

Currently, for the employees of various departments in Iran, including employees working in universities of medical sciences, classes are held regularly to improve the quality of life in physical and mental dimensions and with the educational content of life skills, problem solving, planning and effective communication. Yet, these classes are not efficient enough. Among the reasons for the lack of efficiency, two cases can be exemplified. The first case is the low perceived importance to holding these classes by the employees. Many employees go home instead of attending classes! The second case is the unattractiveness of the classes held due to the lack of experienced professors and experts or holding of classes at the end of office hours when employees are mostly tired. It is necessary for the employees to be more attentive to holding these classes. In order to make the classes more efficient, they should expect the authorities to hold classes with maximum quality.

Category of interpersonal factors

Lake of emotional support.

Researchers believe that emotional support is next to social support, which is the expression of positive emotions, empathic understanding and encouraging the expression of feelings by the support recipient. Several measures can be taken including sympathy, attention, affection and interest towards the individual. Influenced by this type of support, people feel calm, confident and develop a sense of belonging to a place when stressed. On the other hand, emotional support promotes a sense of self-esteem that enables a person to accept and effectively deal with the situation [ 18 ].

“The support one receives from the husband as well as the interpersonal support are extremely important. When my husband and I sit together and think of solutions to solve a family problem, I have the feeling that my husband is also thinking about the same problem. For example, I decide to send my son to my mother’s house for a week, my husband suggested to send him to his uncle’s house. I liked it very much and now I am completely satisfied”. [Azam, 31 years old].

Lake of instrumental and work support

One of the first definitions of social support has been posed by Cobb (1976), who defines this concept to describe a condition when a person attaches value to him among the social networks of people who love him, and care for his well-being [ 19 ]. Social support at work is the extent to which people consider their well-being important through the resources within the work environment, including colleagues, managers or supervisors, and the wider organization in which they work [ 16 ]. This support can be in the form of emotional concern or empathy, informational and instrumental help provided by people such as colleagues, supervisors or family members [ 20 ]. The presence of support is a necessary asset to limit the adverse effects of stress and work-family conflict [ 21 ].

“A working woman must be supported; otherwise, she gets weakened. Especially the more children she has, the sooner she comes to a dead end. The support by her husband is very important. The husband’s cooperation, division of labor at home, support of those around her, including parents, or her husband, for example, taking children back from school”. [Morteza, 40 years old].

“I’m comfortable with some of my colleagues. Sometimes when I’m not feeling well, I ask others to help me, and this help reduces my work load and makes me feel better”. [Elaheh, 35 years old].

Category of organizational factors

Features of work.

Three semantic codes including: long working hours, role overload, and ambiguity of tasks were repeated a lot in the interviews, and the interviewers considered it as one of the work-related characteristics that plays an important role in creating conflict between work and life. The length of working hours per week is positively correlated with the work and life imbalance. Long working hours mean that working women have very little time for family. In almost all studies, long working hours lead to a stressful lifestyle and work-life imbalance [ 22 ]. Role overload means that employees are overworked both in their personal space and in their work environment [ 15 ], not only having an actual workload, but also the perception or belief that the workload and the multiplicity of responsibilities is too much for the individual. There is also the ambiguity of duties issue, which leads to the mismanagement of other roles and the increase in the WLC [ 23 ].

In some cases, due to the mismanagement in offices without consulting the employees or without considering living conditions and even the level of their skills and abilities, the employees are transferred to departments that are not in their specialized field or that require a lot of work. In these situations, employees may struggle with work-life conflict more than ever.

In some other cases, for reasons such as high workload, urgent and necessary plans, and other reasons, “overtime” may be imposed on employees without consulting them or without considering their conditions; Repeating this problem several times may make people have work-life conflict.

“There are so many job responsibilities that you can’t handle them all, so you get distressed. Once I was a designer, I was an expert in a department where I had to do everything myself. Sometimes I took the files home... My brain would sometimes stop working. My husband was a planner, so he helped me with the projects at home”. [Mojgan, 40 years old].

“Routine work with no inherent variety quickly bores us. When we get bored, this boredom is brought home. Finally, when we are tired at home, everything is negatively affected”. [Ali, 50 years old].

Organizational policies

The norms and values related to the nature of work, conceptualization of the ideal employee and employee relations, are known as the work culture that governs an organization [ 27 ]. Policies supporting WLB at the organizational level are more likely to focus on timing, for example longer holiday hours, part-time work alternatives, telecommuting or flexible working hours. Such general policies are approved and implemented in the organization with the aim of creating a sense of human resource control over working hours [ 24 ]. Policies supporting work and family are effective in reducing the WLC by creating incentives for human resources such as support packages and providing childcare facilities [ 28 ].

“Organizations should show a bit more flexibility towards female employees, and the manager should not expect a woman who is thinking about her family at home at 2 o’clock to stay in the office for longer hours of work”. [Razieh, 37 years old].

“Unfortunately, our organization does not consider any facilities for working mothers. Some organizations have a child care room. Well, this is very good, and makes it easy for people to work”. [Farzaneh, 44 years old].

Category of cultural factors

The traditional role of women in society.

An old saying in China contends that a husband is the breadwinner and a wife is the housewife. This proverb shows the clear division of gender roles in a traditional family [ 25 ]. Regarding the effect of gender on WLC, stereotypically, men work full-time outside home, while women take care of domestic and family chores. The gender-based division of roles is actually part of a collective culture that can affect the role pressure on women [ 29 ].

“In family, there are high and unreasonable expectations from women and mothers, as if the mother should do all the housework. Even the child has come to the same understanding that the mother should do the housework, and this really puts a lot of pressure on woman”. [Shima, 28 years old].

Patriarchy is a social and ideological construct that considers men superior to women. Patriarchy is described as a social system in which men have authority over women, children, and property. Patriarchy encourages male leadership, male dominance and male power, and governs the view that housework is on a woman’s shoulders [ 26 ].

“Men also have the same traditional view of the past, a kind of patriarchy where cooking, sweeping, changing diapers, etc. are mother’s duties. How can a mother go to a great length and do all these things?” [Farzaneh, 44 years old].

Consequences of conflict for women’s lives

Low quality of life, physical and mental diseases.

Many studies show that WLC is a risk factor for people’s health [ 30 , 31 , 32 ] These effects can be psychological or physical. These consequences include an increased consumption of sedatives, stress, depression, and other mental disorders and psychosomatic symptoms such as sleep disorders, headaches, and fatigue [ 33 ].

“If I go ahead with this condition, my health is threatened. I understand that sometimes I get a fast heart rate or digestive problems. I also have sleep disorders”. [Maryam, 39 years old].

“Extremely tired from working a lot at home makes me unable to do my housework well. Sometimes, especially at night, I find it hard to concentrate and begin to feel dizzy. I also have this problem early in the morning because I lack sleep. My child wakes up several times at night for milk “. [Fateme, 27 years old].

Limited social communication

One important effect of the lacking WLB is the reduction of recreation and social interactions outside home. A conflicted person prefers to dedicate the hours she spends having fun with friends or parties to doing the backlog. This can cause a decrease in life satisfaction and a decrease in the psychological capacity of that individual [ 34 ].

“Many times, I bring the office work home, because it is not completed in the work time... Believe me, I don’t even find the time to call siblings”.

“Usually in the evenings, I do the housework and children’s work, and very often I refuse my friend’s invitation for a birthday party or a simple hang-out. I prefer to sit and do my own work”. [Maryam, 41 years old].

Forgetting the other roles

According to the role pressure theory, the overall system considers the individual’s role as a system which is excessively demanding; thus, the individual is not able to fully respond to all demands. Consequently, there are high chances that she faces a large load of irregular and conflicting role requirements. She may not be able to do the responsibilities and duties involved in each role completely and correctly.

“This high tension and fatigue make you forget some roles you already have and some duties each role entails. Sometimes two weeks may pass but I do not find the time to visit my sick mother, so I can only call her instead”. [Ilham, 45 years old].

“If you can’t bring balance back to your life, you will do the duties you have for children and husband... but incompletely, that means ineffectively”. [Mohammad Reza, 50 years old].

Job problems

Decreased productivity.

The negative effects of employees’ WLC from an occupational perspective can include job dissatisfaction, lack of organizational commitment, job stress, and the intention to leave. All these, in turn, affect job performance, direct and indirect costs of absence from work, costs related to the loss and replacement of valuable employees, customer satisfaction, and organizational productivity [ 35 ].

“Too much work pressure makes a person lose temper, get moody and damage the relationship with one’s clients beyond expectations”. [Arezu, 39 years old].

“The issue of balance is a very important one, because if not resolved, it will gradually lead to job dissatisfaction and increase problems in the work environment. It can also create personal and family problems”. [Abbas, 47 years old].

Loss of credit or job status

Evidently, every organization hopes to increase the efficiency and productivity of its output (goods/services), so the high-level performance of each employee is very important for the organization. On the contrary, studies show that WLC induces stress in employees and leads to organizational underachievement [ 36 ]. It is important for an organization to achieve an optimal level of performance from an employee, yet WLC limits such achievements. There is a negative correlation between employee performance and WLC. This issue leads to the degraded job position or the loss of occupational or organizational credibility [ 37 ].

“One of the assistants in our office is a woman. Sometimes she delayed because she had to take her children in the morning to drop them off at daycare or a relative’s house. In the evenings, if she was in the office, she could not go to pick her up. Her work project was transferred to the archive. And her child cried a lot”. [Akram, 35 years old].

Conflict resolution methods

Individual -centered solutions, program-oriented.

Psychologists who investigate stress distinguish between problem-focused coping strategies and emotion-focused coping strategies. For the former, actions can be taken to solve the problem. Problem-focused coping is a rational approach that attempts to change the conditions by changing something in the environment or the way a person interacts with the environment (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987). As described by the psychologists, problem-focused coping (taking responsibility strategies such as time management or eliminating stressors through problem solving) often promotes a sense of control by assuming that the current condition can be changed, stress can be reduced and the adverse effects can be reduced too [ 38 ].

“I have to plan and prioritize so that I can accomplish my work, I always put my life as a higher priority than work; I remind myself that it is not necessary to do all the housework in just one day”. [Atiyeh, 41 years old].

“I advise that the young make the division of labor a rule at home. If everyone learns to cooperate, the work will be done quickly and there will be no fatigue and trouble for the mother. What’s wrong with the man sweeping or doing the dishes? Washing or spreading out the baby clothes and the like?” [Hossein, 38 years old].

Emotional oriented

Emotion-related coping includes efforts to change an individual’s emotional response to a stressor [ 39 ]. Most researchers approach emotional coping as the most effective factor involved in the relationship between stress and illness. Avoidance coping style is known as an effective short-term strategy, but in the long run it hinders cognitive agreement and increases disability symptoms such as depression [ 40 ].

“Sometimes I lose control and may take out the problems of the workplace or the problems at home on my husband and children or shout at them. Yelling calms me down. [Fahima, 29 years old].

“Sometimes I get so tired that I cry out of necessity. Crying was a temporary relief from emotions and mental stress.” [Zahra, 41 years old].

Meaning oriented

Meaning-centered coping involves using one’s values, beliefs, and goals to reset life priorities, attaching positive value to ordinary events, and finding and remembering transcendental power. Meaning-centered coping in turn evokes positive emotions, which restore the existing resources [ 41 ].

“But you also have to trust and believe in yourself that you can handle things”. [Hamid Reza, 51 years old].

“I used to develop a headache in the evenings and get nervous for no reason, but when I followed a friend’s advice, I got a bunch of prayers. I prayed peacefully for half an hour in the evenings. It was very helpful”. [Mitra, 33 years old].

These methods involve the use of emotional and passive styles. But, as a result, the problem remains and these people do not actively deal with the problem, so there is always a level of anxiety induced by the existence of the problem. Frequent and indiscriminate use of avoidance strategies can increase people’s susceptibility to depression, anxiety and stress [ 42 ].

“Sometimes I become completely carefree and do nothing”. [Azam, 31 years old].

“Once in a while, he gets so tired, I tell him to take a few days off. Let’s go see our parents and take some time away from work”. [Mohammed, 29 years old].

Alternative ways of working

Having emotional and practical support.

An investigation of the role of multiple social supports (workplace, supervisor, colleague, family) in WLB among Bangladeshi working women showed that all-round support (emotional and instrumental) can lead to a better WLB in women [ 43 ].

“Sometimes the opinions of colleagues with similar problems are very helpful. For example, a colleague said that she made two or three types of stew on Friday and froze them. For the work days of the week when she could have been busy and had hardly any time to cook, she quickly made rice and gave them to her family to eat”. [Fateme, 37 years old].

“Getting help from someone you trust is necessary. Now this help can act as some advice from someone who has the same problem as you. It can be like getting help with office work, when overworked, from someone who can help, or getting help from your father, mother and other family members. Evidently, the husband’s role is the most important”. [Qasem 60 years old].

Organization-oriented solutions

Conservative work policies.

The perception of organizational support has a positive effect on WLB. This positive effect means that the better the employee’s perception of organizational support, the more balanced the employee’s work and family life [ 44 ]. Policies such as the possibility of teleworking [ 45 ], granting incentive leave [ 46 ] and providing welfare facilities such as a child care center [ 47 ] are very helpful in this regard.

“Now, I would like to express my opinion from an organizational perspective. Organizations and departments should, as far as possible, consider supporting facilities for working mothers, such as childcare allowances for working mothers with children under 6 years of age”. [Asia, 36 years old].

“Another point is that organizations should penalize employees who don’t use their paid holidays. Some people look at these holidays materialistically, but these holidays are key to striking balance, especially when you need to rest”. [Zahra, 41 years old].

“I wish there was a way for women to work from a distance, like during the Covid-19 pandemic, when we worked at home. There were no problems and we took better care of our families. Giving incentive leaves or leaves based on performance is a good idea too, but unfortunately these are not always available in all companies”. [Mojgan, 44 years old].

Correct management views

Managers are significantly involved in the development of WLB policies and play a central role in turning WLB policies into practice and ensuring the existence of appropriate checks and balances in managing such practices [ 48 ]. Managers having awareness and a positive attitude towards the work and life balance issue among their employees can be effective in striking this balance in employees’ lives [ 49 ].

“Giving an incentive leave to a woman working well despite multiple roles should be applied in the policies of the organization and managers”. [Qasem, 60 years old].

“Managers should abandon the traditional view of the work-life relationship in which there is competition between work and life and should go for an approach which benefits the individual and the organization both in line with each other”. [Hamid Reza, 51 years old].

“A manager can be truly influential in the workplace. When you work in a place where there is a person on the top who does not understand the conditions of a working woman, there is a constant fear of being late or accomplishing a certain task late and being reprimanded for that which is stress-inducing”. [Saeeda, 31 years old].

Today, women’s active role in society is ever increasing, and in addition to its extensive economic benefits for organizations and societies, working women benefit from the personal advantages of this active role in life [ 13 ]. Yet, this active role has become challenging for women, and has created an imbalance between personal and professional life.

The novelty of this research is that in addition to working women, hysbands and university managers were also interviewed to get a more comprehensive view. Understanding the cause of conflicts and their solutions in terms of the three sides of the triangle (women, their husbands and managers) can help planners in health promotion and policymakers at higher organizational levels to achieve the benefits with correct planning to reduce conflict for the individual, her family and also the society.

In the present study, 4 main categories were extracted for the causes of conflict, including personal, interpersonal, organizational and cultural factors, with eight sub-categories of maternal role pressure at home, personality traits, lacking individual skills, insufficient support, work requirements, and organizational policies, the traditional role of women in society and patriarchy.

In the category of personal factors, one’s personality traits and lacking skills such as time management and the pressure of the motherly role were frequently mentioned. The relationship between personality traits and work-family conflict has been investigated by many researchers so far [ 50 , 51 , 52 ]. Personality is an important factor that can distinguish people from each other. Therefore, personality traits affect the way an individual behaves in different situations of life, job, education, marriage, etc. [ 53 ]. For example, highly sensitive and neurotic personalities tend to show negative reactions in stressful conditions such as anger, anxiety, depression, embarrassment, fear, guilt, aggression, impulsivity and sadness. A neurotic individual exerts less power in impulse control [ 17 ]. They are also less likely to cope with stressful demands in life and, therefore, when one area of life is in conflict with another, they are more likely to withdraw [ 54 ].

In another study, researchers investigated the relationship between role expectations in work and family and its contribution to conflict [ 55 ]. Similar to the present study, which considered work requirements such as lack of control over work or high work pressure as the cause of conflict, the aforementioned study concluded that high expectations of the work role and low individual control over work are associated with WLC. These researchers also found that low cooperation of family members leads to WLC, and social support at work is associated with reduced conflicts [ 55 ].

Another research conducted on 56 female police officers and 59 female teachers showed that a demanding job role and high expectations from the family role cause conflicts, and these conflicts prevail more in policewomen than female teachers [ 56 ].

In the interpersonal category of support, lack of emotional support and lack of instrumental support were the most prominent themes found in the content of interviews. Zimmet listed the sources of emotional support as family, friends, and significant others. In addition, in business life in the organizational context, the sources of social and emotional support are considered to be colleagues and managers [ 57 ]. Bourne and Wechsler, in their study, found the positive effect of social support on the employees’ health [ 58 ]. Besides, it is claimed that emotional support has a direct effect and an indirect effect (i.e., mediating effect) on job burnout [ 59 ]. According to koosek et al., receiving social support from managers and having work support can strike a balance between work and life [ 60 ]. Instrumental support refers to behaviors and attitudes of family members aimed at assisting day-to-day household activities, such as relieving the employee of household tasks or otherwise accommodating the employee’s work requirements. This allows the family member to focus his/her time and preserve energy for work when it might otherwise be scarce; suggesting that it positively influences the individual’s functioning at work [ 61 ].

In the organizational category, similar to the present findings, previous research on working women in Bangladesh showed that long working hours, insufficient organizational support, inappropriate policies and high workload cause conflict. Although they cited the lack of family support as an important issue for women, consistent with the present findings, they noted that it is not as widespread as work issues [ 13 ]. In addition, Obago studied WLC among 250 working women in Nigeria and found that factors such as long working hours, busy work schedule, inadequate work facilities, and high workloads increase the level of conflict among women [ 62 ].

Cultural factors formed a separate category in this study. The higher WLC in women around the world may be due to the fact that, in most countries, women traditionally manage family duties and are primarily in charge of caring for children and the elderly [ 63 ].

Iranian culture is a family-centered one, in which there are more demands and expectations in families compared with individual-centered societies. Due to the traditional gender roles, women are mainly responsible for family duties and men are less involved in domestic chore such as looking after children. Therefore, women with family roles must also do their occupational duties without any reduced share of domestic duties. Furthermore, in family-centered communities, looking after the elderly is a duty of children and few families take the responsibility of taking the elderly to nursing homes. The elderly live either with their children or alone in their houses while their children care for them. Most of the elderly, especially women, do not get married after their husband’s death and their children look after them. Meeting these expectations can create time-bound conflict with work responsibilities [ 64 ].

In the present study, the consequences of conflict on different aspects of life included the 2 main categories of lowering the quality of life and work issues, with 4 subcategories of physical and mental diseases, forgetting other roles, limited social communication and reduced productivity. These will disturb a proper balance between work and rest, and causes a lack of control over workload and lack of energy to achieve goals and commitments. These, in turn, lead to fatigue, poor performance and reduced quality of life [ 65 ], and contribute to poor physical and mental health [ 66 , 67 ] Still, some previous studies indicated similar poor health and WLC in male and female employees [ 68 ].while others observed it more in female employees than in males [ 69 , 70 ].

Conflict resolution methods include 3 main categories of individual-oriented methods, other-oriented methods, and organization-oriented methods with 8 sub-categories of program-oriented, meaning-oriented, emotion-oriented, avoidance, emotional support, instrumental and work support, support work policies, and correct management views. The present findings showed that the participants expected their managers to have the right managerial perspectives to manage tasks and workloads. As for WLC solutions in women, McGinnity and Russell pinpointed that flexible work arrangements such as part-time work are essential methods for WLB. Contrary to the present research [ 71 ], these researchers emphasized that working at home is associated with a significant workload and WLC. The present research found that women consider telecommuting as a suitable solution for WLC.

Kamrani et al., who studied 225 male and female nurses in six hospitals, showed that job flexibility, job commitment, and work support had the greatest impact on WLB [ 72 ]. Therefore, as expected, these factors should be considered for all employees regardless of their gender.

WLC and WLB are theoretically and practically essential for workers and organizations. A higher WLC may decrease satisfaction and performance, and may increase employee turnover, stress, intention to leave and absence from work [ 73 ],Since it has high and destructive financial costs for the organization, training new employees is important to be effective in their jobs. As a result, there are consequences such as alternative employment for workers. Organizations have to consider ways to reduce possible leave due to WLC [ 74 ]. The present participants mentioned supportive accommodations, part-time work, incentive leave, performance-dependent payment, reduced hours, and telecommuting as the possible solutions.

It is hypothesized that the level of WLC is related to demands and resources at home. The present study has recurrently raised the importance of child care and showed that finding a solution to this issue could significantly affect WLC. Mothers showed to have a higher level of WLC, and such policy measures as part-time job, flexibility and telecommuting can improve the quality of life Working at home has several direct positive effects, such as no need to commute, easier management of household responsibilities and family demands, along with increased independence during work time [ 75 ].

In this study, female employees were successfully interviewed to find important causes, effects and solutions to reduced WLC. However, there were some limitations too. A cross-gender comparison of these issues among employees can guide researchers and policy makers. Moreover, considering the different cultural beliefs in our country, it seems that more multicenter studies can be useful in other parts of the country.

In the light of the present findings, it can be concluded that in addition to providing individual solutions such as learning skills, determining appropriate work policies that can help women manage family responsibilities alongside their work need to be seriously considered. The support of the surrounding people, especially the husband, along with supportive and family-friendly organizational policies can reduce WLC and should be taken into account.

Availability of data and materials

All information extracted or analyzed during this study is included in this published article without mentioning the identity of the subjects.

Abbreviations

Work-life balance
Work-life conflict

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Acknowledgements

This study was made possible with the support of the Research and Technology Vice-Chancellor of Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences. The authors would like to thank all contributors to this project.

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Zahra Hosseini

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Seyyede Fateme Rahimi

Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Health, Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand, Iran

Fatemeh Salmani

Department of Health Promotion and Education, School of Health, Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand, Iran

Mohammad Reza Miri

Department of Health Promotion and Education, School of Health, Social Determinants in Health Promotion Research Center, Research Institute for Health, Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran

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SFR and ZH designed the study. SFR has conducted the interviews. SFR and ZH wrote and typed the interviews. The codes were approved by the presence of all authors. FS were responsible for the statistical parts of the paper. MM, TA, and RD were the advisors for writing the article and contributors in writing the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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This research has been approved by the Ethics Committee of Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences (IR.HUMS.REC.1400.214). All procedures were carried out according to the approved ethical guidelines, which are fully in line with the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed written consent was obtained from each interviewee before the interview and they could withdraw whenever they did not want to continue the study. Information about the participants is only available to the researchers. Data confidentiality is maintained. No demographic information about participants will be disclosed to reveal their identity. The talks of these people are provided without revealing their identities.

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Hosseini, Z., Rahimi, S.F., Salmani, F. et al. Etiology, consequences, and solutions of working women’s work-life conflict: a qualitative study. BMC Women's Health 24 , 62 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-023-02873-4

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Work-life balance -a systematic review

Design/methodology/approach

Originality/value

Introduction

Methodology

Literature review

Individual factors

Work-life balance and demography.

Work-life balance and personal demands.

Work-life balance and family demands.

Work-life balance and family support.

Work-life balance and individual’s ability.

Organizational factor

Work-life balance and organizational work-life policies.

Work-life balance and organizational demands.

Work-life balance and working hours.

Work-life balance and productivity.

Work-life balance and burnout.

Work-life balance and support system.

Work-life balance and employee perception.

Work-life balance and job autonomy.

Work-life balance and job satisfaction.

Work-life balance and organizational commitment.

Work-life balance and work-life balance policy utilization.

Work-life balance and organizational culture.

Societal factors

Work-life balance and societal demands.

Work-life balance and societal culture.

Work-life balance and societal support.

Analyzes and results

Geographical distribution

Basic classification

Methodology-based categorization of papers

Research gap

Organizational factor.

Societal factor.

Discussion and conclusion

Limitations

Implications

Further reading

Acknowledgements

Corresponding author

All feedback is valuable

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Questions & More Information

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Introduction

Literature review

Participants

Data analysis

Open coding

Axial coding

Selective coding

Barriers to attain work-life balance

Work domain barriers

Work-centric organizational culture

Non-work domain barriers

Multiple roles

Family pressure

Chinese traditional stereotype

Resources to maintain WLB

Social support

Non-work domain resources

Family support

Government support

Theoretical implications

Practical implications

Limitations and future research directions

Data availability statement

Ethics statement

Author contributions

Acknowledgments

Conflict of interest

Publisher's note

Work–Life Balance: An Overview

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