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1.11: Developmental Research Designs

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Learning Outcomes

Compare advantages and disadvantages of developmental research designs (cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sequential)

Now you know about some tools used to conduct research about human development. Remember, research methods are tools that are used to collect information. But it is easy to confuse research methods and research design. Research design is the strategy or blueprint for deciding how to collect and analyze information. Research design dictates which methods are used and how. Developmental research designs are techniques used particularly in lifespan development research. When we are trying to describe development and change, the research designs become especially important because we are interested in what changes and what stays the same with age. These techniques try to examine how age, cohort, gender, and social class impact development.

Cross-sectional designs

The majority of developmental studies use cross-sectional designs because they are less time-consuming and less expensive than other developmental designs. Cross-sectional research designs are used to examine behavior in participants of different ages who are tested at the same point in time. Let’s suppose that researchers are interested in the relationship between intelligence and aging. They might have a hypothesis (an educated guess, based on theory or observations) that intelligence declines as people get older. The researchers might choose to give a certain intelligence test to individuals who are 20 years old, individuals who are 50 years old, and individuals who are 80 years old at the same time and compare the data from each age group. This research is cross-sectional in design because the researchers plan to examine the intelligence scores of individuals of different ages within the same study at the same time; they are taking a “cross-section” of people at one point in time. Let’s say that the comparisons find that the 80-year-old adults score lower on the intelligence test than the 50-year-old adults, and the 50-year-old adults score lower on the intelligence test than the 20-year-old adults. Based on these data, the researchers might conclude that individuals become less intelligent as they get older. Would that be a valid (accurate) interpretation of the results?

Text stating that the year of study is 2010 and an experiment looks at cohort A with 20 year olds, cohort B of 50 year olds and cohort C with 80 year olds

No, that would not be a valid conclusion because the researchers did not follow individuals as they aged from 20 to 50 to 80 years old. One of the primary limitations of cross-sectional research is that the results yield information about age differences not necessarily changes with age or over time. That is, although the study described above can show that in 2010, the 80-year-olds scored lower on the intelligence test than the 50-year-olds, and the 50-year-olds scored lower on the intelligence test than the 20-year-olds, the data used to come up with this conclusion were collected from different individuals (or groups of individuals). It could be, for instance, that when these 20-year-olds get older (50 and eventually 80), they will still score just as high on the intelligence test as they did at age 20. In a similar way, maybe the 80-year-olds would have scored relatively low on the intelligence test even at ages 50 and 20; the researchers don’t know for certain because they did not follow the same individuals as they got older.

It is also possible that the differences found between the age groups are not due to age, per se, but due to cohort effects. The 80-year-olds in this 2010 research grew up during a particular time and experienced certain events as a group. They were born in 1930 and are part of the Traditional or Silent Generation. The 50-year-olds were born in 1960 and are members of the Baby Boomer cohort. The 20-year-olds were born in 1990 and are part of the Millennial or Gen Y Generation. What kinds of things did each of these cohorts experience that the others did not experience or at least not in the same ways?

You may have come up with many differences between these cohorts’ experiences, such as living through certain wars, political and social movements, economic conditions, advances in technology, changes in health and nutrition standards, etc. There may be particular cohort differences that could especially influence their performance on intelligence tests, such as education level and use of computers. That is, many of those born in 1930 probably did not complete high school; those born in 1960 may have high school degrees, on average, but the majority did not attain college degrees; the young adults are probably current college students. And this is not even considering additional factors such as gender, race, or socioeconomic status. The young adults are used to taking tests on computers, but the members of the other two cohorts did not grow up with computers and may not be as comfortable if the intelligence test is administered on computers. These factors could have been a factor in the research results.

Another disadvantage of cross-sectional research is that it is limited to one time of measurement. Data are collected at one point in time and it’s possible that something could have happened in that year in history that affected all of the participants, although possibly each cohort may have been affected differently. Just think about the mindsets of participants in research that was conducted in the United States right after the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001.

Longitudinal research designs

Middle-aged woman holding a picture of her younger self.

Longitudinal research involves beginning with a group of people who may be of the same age and background (cohort) and measuring them repeatedly over a long period of time. One of the benefits of this type of research is that people can be followed through time and be compared with themselves when they were younger; therefore changes with age over time are measured. What would be the advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal research? Problems with this type of research include being expensive, taking a long time, and subjects dropping out over time. Think about the film, 63 Up , part of the Up Series mentioned earlier, which is an example of following individuals over time. In the videos, filmed every seven years, you see how people change physically, emotionally, and socially through time; and some remain the same in certain ways, too. But many of the participants really disliked being part of the project and repeatedly threatened to quit; one disappeared for several years; another died before her 63rd year. Would you want to be interviewed every seven years? Would you want to have it made public for all to watch?

Longitudinal research designs are used to examine behavior in the same individuals over time. For instance, with our example of studying intelligence and aging, a researcher might conduct a longitudinal study to examine whether 20-year-olds become less intelligent with age over time. To this end, a researcher might give an intelligence test to individuals when they are 20 years old, again when they are 50 years old, and then again when they are 80 years old. This study is longitudinal in nature because the researcher plans to study the same individuals as they age. Based on these data, the pattern of intelligence and age might look different than from the cross-sectional research; it might be found that participants’ intelligence scores are higher at age 50 than at age 20 and then remain stable or decline a little by age 80. How can that be when cross-sectional research revealed declines in intelligence with age?

The same person, "Person A" is 20 years old in 2010, 50 years old in 2040, and 80 in 2070.

Since longitudinal research happens over a period of time (which could be short term, as in months, but is often longer, as in years), there is a risk of attrition. Attrition occurs when participants fail to complete all portions of a study. Participants may move, change their phone numbers, die, or simply become disinterested in participating over time. Researchers should account for the possibility of attrition by enrolling a larger sample into their study initially, as some participants will likely drop out over time. There is also something known as selective attrition— this means that certain groups of individuals may tend to drop out. It is often the least healthy, least educated, and lower socioeconomic participants who tend to drop out over time. That means that the remaining participants may no longer be representative of the whole population, as they are, in general, healthier, better educated, and have more money. This could be a factor in why our hypothetical research found a more optimistic picture of intelligence and aging as the years went by. What can researchers do about selective attrition? At each time of testing, they could randomly recruit more participants from the same cohort as the original members, to replace those who have dropped out.

The results from longitudinal studies may also be impacted by repeated assessments. Consider how well you would do on a math test if you were given the exact same exam every day for a week. Your performance would likely improve over time, not necessarily because you developed better math abilities, but because you were continuously practicing the same math problems. This phenomenon is known as a practice effect. Practice effects occur when participants become better at a task over time because they have done it again and again (not due to natural psychological development). So our participants may have become familiar with the intelligence test each time (and with the computerized testing administration).

Another limitation of longitudinal research is that the data are limited to only one cohort. As an example, think about how comfortable the participants in the 2010 cohort of 20-year-olds are with computers. Since only one cohort is being studied, there is no way to know if findings would be different from other cohorts. In addition, changes that are found as individuals age over time could be due to age or to time of measurement effects. That is, the participants are tested at different periods in history, so the variables of age and time of measurement could be confounded (mixed up). For example, what if there is a major shift in workplace training and education between 2020 and 2040 and many of the participants experience a lot more formal education in adulthood, which positively impacts their intelligence scores in 2040? Researchers wouldn’t know if the intelligence scores increased due to growing older or due to a more educated workforce over time between measurements.

Sequential research designs

Sequential research designs include elements of both longitudinal and cross-sectional research designs. Similar to longitudinal designs, sequential research features participants who are followed over time; similar to cross-sectional designs, sequential research includes participants of different ages. This research design is also distinct from those that have been discussed previously in that individuals of different ages are enrolled into a study at various points in time to examine age-related changes, development within the same individuals as they age, and to account for the possibility of cohort and/or time of measurement effects. In 1965, K. Warner Schaie [1] (a leading theorist and researcher on intelligence and aging), described particular sequential designs: cross-sequential, cohort sequential, and time-sequential. The differences between them depended on which variables were focused on for analyses of the data (data could be viewed in terms of multiple cross-sectional designs or multiple longitudinal designs or multiple cohort designs). Ideally, by comparing results from the different types of analyses, the effects of age, cohort, and time in history could be separated out.

Consider, once again, our example of intelligence and aging. In a study with a sequential design, a researcher might recruit three separate groups of participants (Groups A, B, and C). Group A would be recruited when they are 20 years old in 2010 and would be tested again when they are 50 and 80 years old in 2040 and 2070, respectively (similar in design to the longitudinal study described previously). Group B would be recruited when they are 20 years old in 2040 and would be tested again when they are 50 years old in 2070. Group C would be recruited when they are 20 years old in 2070 and so on.

Shows cohorts A, B, and C. Cohort A tests age 20 in 2010, age 50 in 2040, and age 80 in 2070. Cohort B begins in 2040 and tests new 20 year-olds so they can be compared with the 50 year olds from cohort A. Cohort C tests 20 year olds in 2070, who are compared with 20 year olds from cohorts B and A, but also with the original groups of 20-year olds who are now age 80 (cohort A) and age 50 (cohort B).

Studies with sequential designs are powerful because they allow for both longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons—changes and/or stability with age over time can be measured and compared with differences between age and cohort groups. This research design also allows for the examination of cohort and time of measurement effects. For example, the researcher could examine the intelligence scores of 20-year-olds in different times in history and different cohorts (follow the yellow diagonal lines in figure 3). This might be examined by researchers who are interested in sociocultural and historical changes (because we know that lifespan development is multidisciplinary). One way of looking at the usefulness of the various developmental research designs was described by Schaie and Baltes (1975) [2] : cross-sectional and longitudinal designs might reveal change patterns while sequential designs might identify developmental origins for the observed change patterns.

Since they include elements of longitudinal and cross-sectional designs, sequential research has many of the same strengths and limitations as these other approaches. For example, sequential work may require less time and effort than longitudinal research (if data are collected more frequently than over the 30-year spans in our example) but more time and effort than cross-sectional research. Although practice effects may be an issue if participants are asked to complete the same tasks or assessments over time, attrition may be less problematic than what is commonly experienced in longitudinal research since participants may not have to remain involved in the study for such a long period of time.

When considering the best research design to use in their research, scientists think about their main research question and the best way to come up with an answer. A table of advantages and disadvantages for each of the described research designs is provided here to help you as you consider what sorts of studies would be best conducted using each of these different approaches.

https://assessments.lumenlearning.co...essments/16509

[glossary-page] [glossary-term]attrition:[/glossary-term] [glossary-definition]occurs when participants fail to complete all portions of a study[/glossary-definition]

[glossary-term]cross-sectional research:[/glossary-term] [glossary-definition]used to examine behavior in participants of different ages who are tested at the same point in time; may confound age and cohort differences[/glossary-definition]

[glossary-term]longitudinal research:[/glossary-term] [glossary-definition]studying a group of people who may be of the same age and background (cohort), and measuring them repeatedly over a long period of time; may confound age and time of measurement effects[/glossary-definition]

[glossary-term]research design:[/glossary-term] [glossary-definition]the strategy or blueprint for deciding how to collect and analyze information; dictates which methods are used and how[/glossary-definition]

[glossary-term]selective attrition:[/glossary-term] [glossary-definition]certain groups of individuals may tend to drop out more frequently resulting in the remaining participants longer being representative of the whole population[/glossary-definition]

[glossary-term]sequential research design:[/glossary-term] [glossary-definition]combines aspects of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs, but also adding new cohorts at different times of measurement; allows for analyses to consider effects of age, cohort, time of measurement, and socio-historical change[/glossary-definition] [/glossary-page]

Schaie, K.W. (1965). A general model for the study of developmental problems. Psychological Bulletin, 64(2), 92-107. ↵
Schaie, K.W. & Baltes, B.P. (1975). On sequential strategies in developmental research: Description or Explanation. Human Development, 18: 384-390. ↵

Contributors and Attributions

Modification, adaptation, and original content. Authored by : Margaret Clark-Plaskie for Lumen Learning. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
Research Methods in Developmental Psychology. Authored by : Angela Lukowski and Helen Milojevich. Provided by : University of Calfornia, Irvine. Located at : https://nobaproject.com/modules/research-methods-in-developmental-psychology?r=LDcyNTg0 . Project : The Noba Project. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
Woman holding own photograph. Provided by : Pxhere. Located at : https://pxhere.com/en/photo/221167 . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved

Born globals and international business: Evolution of a field of research

Published: 09 January 2015
Volume 46 , pages 27–35, ( 2015 )

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Ivo Zander 1 ,
Patricia McDougall-Covin 2 &
Elizabeth L Rose 3 , 4 , 5

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Knight and Cavusgil’s award-winning article has played an important role in the development of the growing body of research on companies that internationalize early and rapidly. These “born global” firms represent important contributors to many economies, often as key players in ecosystems that support large multinational enterprises. Despite their growing importance, our understanding of how and why these firms develop and implement their internationalization strategies, and what makes them successful, remains incomplete. Addressing such questions has contributed substantially to the development of the research domain of international entrepreneurship (IE), which focuses on entrepreneurial aspects of doing business across borders, in the context of both small and large firms. While IE is much broader than born globals, these firms are central to the IE domain and the impact of the Knight and Cavusgil paper has helped to develop a stronger awareness of the important linkages and intersections between IE and the wider international business research community. We reflect on the important contribution of this paper, and suggest some directions for the future development of research into firms that choose to operate internationally practically from the start of their operations.

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It can be argued that it was the recognition of the phenomenon that was novel, rather than the phenomenon itself; the “free-standing companies,” which were established in the nineteenth century and flourished until the First World War ( Wilkins, 1988 ), arguably qualify as born global firms. Whatever the first occurrences and origins of the phenomenon, it has become more broadly and systematically examined only over the past two decades or so.

While the research on born globals and international new ventures is widely recognized as the genesis of the IE literature, the domain of IE is much broader and may even include research on established multinational firms. One of the most widely accepted definitions of IE is: “International entrepreneurship is the discovery, enactment, evaluation, and exploitation of opportunities – across national borders – to create future goods and services” ( Oviatt & McDougall, 2005 : 540). In a review of IE research, Jones et al. (2011) presented a thematic map illustrating the ontology of the IE domain. The three major types of IE research are entrepreneurial internationalization, international comparisons of entrepreneurship, and comparative entrepreneurial internationalization. Born global research is in the first category.

Although presented as two types or perspectives on early and rapidly internationalizing companies, the differences should not be over-emphasized. Traditionally, born globals have been associated with the rapid growth of revenues from sales in international markets (or, as noted by Cavusgil & Knight, 2015 , in their retrospective, with companies that “view the world as their marketplace”). However, their proposed tendency to build global networks of collaborators such as distributors, representatives, and suppliers suggests they may also piece together critical operational and knowledge-based resources from international markets (see Prashantham & Floyd, 2012 , for a discussion of learning in this context). In their award-winning paper, Knight and Cavusgil (2004 : 124) indeed define born globals as “business organizations that, from or near their founding, seek superior IB performance from the application of knowledge-based resources to the sale of outputs in multiple countries.”

We thank one of the reviewers for bringing this point to our attention.

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Patricia McDougall-Covin

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Accepted by John Cantwell, Editor-in-Chief, 1 October 2014. This paper was single-blind reviewed.

The original Decade Award winning paper was published in the Journal of International Business Studies (2003) 34, 586–599, doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400056.

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Zander, I., McDougall-Covin, P. & L Rose, E. Born globals and international business: Evolution of a field of research. J Int Bus Stud 46 , 27–35 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2014.60

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Received : 21 August 2014

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Accepted : 01 October 2014

Published : 09 January 2015

Issue Date : 01 January 2015

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2014.60

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These Revised Guidelines Redefine Birth Years and Classifications for Millennials, Gen Z, and Gen Alpha

Whether you’re an elder Millennial who identifies more with Gen X or a ’90s baby who feels caught in between Gen Y and Gen Z, these new guidelines can help—no cap.

By Michele Debczak | Feb 22, 2024, 6:14 PM EST

Move over, Generation Z: Generation Alpha is officially the most accurate label to describe the youth of today.

The Pew Research Center periodically updates the age ranges it uses to define the generational groups, and that includes the Silent Generation, Baby Boomers, Generation X , and Millennials . In 2019, the organization officially added the birth years for Gen Z . Since then, other sources have weighed in on the suggested age ranges for Gen Alpha . Check out the latest definitions for each generation below:

When the Pew Research Center revised its guidelines for generational classifications in 2019, Gen Z and Gen Alpha didn’t appear on the list as separate categories. People born between 1997—the cutoff point for Millennials—and the present year were simply called “Post-Millennials.”

Gen Z has since grown into an economic and cultural force that’s hard to ignore. The world’s teens and young adults have been behind many of the biggest fashion trends , political movements , and memes of the last several years. Even though the oldest Millennials are in their early 40s, the generation has long been synonymous with young people. With Gen Z and Gen Alpha gaining more attention lately, that’s finally starting to change.

While the dates are still a bit up in the air (some argue that the oldest Zoomers were born in 1995 ), the Pew Research Center defines members of Gen Z as anyone born between 1997 and 2012. That means the group spans ages 12 to 27 as of 2024. The organization cites important political, economic, and technological factors that helped them determine the cutoff from Millennial to Gen Z. Most American Millennials were shaped by 9/11, the Iraq War, and the economic recession of 2008, while members of Gen Z may have little to no memory of these events. Gen Z is also notable for being the first generation to be totally immersed in the world of the internet since birth.

What About Gen Alpha?

The official birth years for Generation Alpha are still strongly up for debate, with some contending that they start in 2010 (syncing up with when the first iPad was released) and end in 2025, while other sources cite 2012 (or just the early 2010s) as the jumping off point for this group.

The Pew Research Center, citing concerns that generational research has become “a crowded arena” influenced by marketing, will refrain from such analysis until there’s enough historical data to support comparisons between generations at similar stages of life. The debate over Gen Alpha’s official birth years will surely persist.

What is clear is that any babies born right now definitely belong to Generation Glass, a nickname they’ve gotten thanks to how omnipresent technology has been in their formative years. Another huge factor in shaping these youngsters will be COVID-19—kids born at the start of the pandemic in 2020 will be turning 4 this year and will have no memories of life before quarantine.

As they gain influence, you can expect to hear a lot more about Gen Z and Gen Alpha, plus the industries they may or may not be blamed for “killing” into the 2020s and beyond.

A version of this story ran in 2019; it has been updated for 2024.

Meaning of research in English

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He has dedicated his life to scientific research.
He emphasized that all the people taking part in the research were volunteers .
The state of Michigan has endowed three institutes to do research for industry .
I'd like to see the research that these recommendations are founded on.
It took months of painstaking research to write the book .
absorptive capacity
dream something up
modularization
nanotechnology
non-imitative
operational research
think outside the box idiom
think something up
uninventive
study What do you plan on studying at university?
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Int J Environ Res Public Health

Population-Based Birth Cohort Studies in Epidemiology

Cristina canova.

1 Unit of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Public Health, Department of Cardio-Thoraco-Vascular Sciences and Public Health, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy

Anna Cantarutti

2 Laboratory of Healthcare Research & Pharmacoepidemiology, Unit of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Public Health, Department of Statistics and Quantitative Methods, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milan, Italy; [email protected]

Birth cohort studies are the most appropriate type of design to determine the causal relationship between potential risk factors during the prenatal or postnatal period and the health status of the newborn up to childhood and potentially adulthood. To date, there has been a growth in interest regarding observational population-based studies which are performed to provide answers to specific research questions for defined populations, for instance, assessing the exposure to environmental pollutants or drugs on the risk of developing a disease. Birth cohorts based on the recruitment and active follow-up of mothers and children allow the collection of biological material, and specific clinical and genetic information. However, they require a considerable amount of time and resources and, besides being usually of limited size, they are exposed to the risk of the loss of subjects to follow-up, with decreased statistical power and possible selection bias. For these reasons, linking the medical birth register with administrative health records for mothers and babies is increasingly being used in countries with a universal healthcare system, allowing researchers to identify large and unselected populations from birth, and to reconstruct relevant traits and care pathways of mothers and newborns. This Special Issue of the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health focuses on the current state of knowledge on perinatal and postnatal exposures and adverse pregnancy, maternal, fetal and neonatal outcomes through population-based birth cohort studies, with a specific focus on real-word data. The 12 accepted articles covered a wide range of themes that can be addressed specifically through birth cohort study design; however, only three were based on real word data with record-linkage to health administrative databases. In particular, two papers have addressed the topic of socioeconomic status considering several indicators both at the individual and contextual level. Two papers focused on inflammatory bowel diseases, both as an outcome of perinatal and antibiotic exposure in early life and as a condition associated with asthma, among children identified in a birth cohort based on a Regional Medical Birth Register. Three articles focused on medication use during pregnancy and its impact on maternal and fetal health. The effect of exposure to prenatal environmental risk factors on perinatal and childhood outcomes has been considered in two papers. Two papers analyzed ad hoc nationwide prospective birth cohorts set in Japan and UK. Finally, we included a systematic review with meta-analysis to evaluate the relation between growth restriction at birth and congenital heart defects. We think that this Special Issue may contribute to enriching the discussion of future challenges, opportunities, strengths and limitations for all research topics that can be investigated using a population-based birth cohort study design.

Birth cohort studies are the most appropriate type of design to determine the causal relation between potential risk factors during the prenatal or postnatal period and the health status of the newborn up to childhood and potentially adulthood. Since individuals are followed longitudinally across their life span from birth, or even from the intrauterine period, birth cohorts allow us to delineate associations between early exposures and subsequent outcomes [ 1 ]. Despite the difficulty of disentangling risk factors, the period of in utero development is one of the most critical windows during which adverse conditions and exposures may influence the growth and development of the fetus, as well as its postnatal developmental and behavioral outcomes [ 2 ]. Prenatal and early postnatal periods are therefore crucial to identify critical windows of susceptibility.

Population-based studies are defined as a group of individuals taken from the general population who share common characteristics, such as age, sex, or health conditions. These types of studies are performed to provide answers to specific research questions for defined populations, for instance assessing the response to a drug or the risk of developing a disease. The most delicate aspect is the selection of individuals included in the study: they should be representative of all individuals in the specific, a priori-defined population. Data collection in population-based studies relies both on linkage with available databases (e.g., hospital discharge records, death certificates, cancer registries, medical birth registries) and on procedures designed to ascertain study variables [ 3 ]. Computerized record linkage has clearly played, and continues to play, a relevant role in numerous birth cohort studies. This approach allows researchers to use retrospective follow-up which makes large studies feasible at a relatively low cost. Moreover, it allows researchers to identify health conditions through disease-specific case-identification algorithms that combine data deriving from one or more databases [ 4 ], and it can be of great use to monitor health conditions and exposures, especially pharmacological exposures, in a real-life context, without the costs, risks and ethical implications of a clinical trial. This approach can also contribute to provide insights and possible directions for future research to progress in the direction of phenomena observed at a population level. However, limits to these studies concern information relating to health behaviors and intermediate hospitalizations that are missing or under-reported.

Birth cohorts based on the prospective recruitment and active follow-up of mothers and children allow the collection of accurate information about exposures, outcomes and several covariates as well as biological material which is not usually included in retrospective studies. However, they require a considerable amount of time and resources and, besides being usually of limited size, they are exposed to the risk of a loss of subjects to follow-up, with decreased statistical power and possible selection bias. Furthermore, self-reporting is a common approach to acquire data in these studies with a risk of self-reporting bias [ 5 ].

Progressive technological and organizational improvements in recording, storing, and integrating healthcare data have raised interest in the use of real-world data to enhance the efficiency of research and to bridge evidentiary gaps between clinical research and practice. Real-world data derive from a variety of sources, including health administrative databases (HADs) and electronic health records. HADs are designed to collect information for administrative purposes, relating to all healthcare services provided by the National Health Service, such as dispensations of drug prescriptions, hospital discharge records, medical birth records and mortality records, exemptions from health-care copayments and so on. However, they are increasingly being used to examine features of healthcare delivery such as practice patterns, quality of care, safety and effectiveness of drugs, and other parameters that can be evaluated by means of epidemiological studies, as well as to support healthcare and policy decision-making [ 6 ]. Linking the medical birth registers with administrative health records for mothers and babies, first carried out in the Scandinavian countries [ 7 , 8 ], is increasingly being used in other countries with a universal healthcare system [ 9 ], allowing researchers to identify large and unselected populations from birth, and to reconstruct relevant traits and care pathways of mothers and newborns.

This Special Issue of the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH) focuses on the current state of knowledge on perinatal and postnatal exposures and adverse pregnancy, maternal, fetal and neonatal outcomes through population-based birth cohort studies, with a specific focus on real-word data. The 12 accepted articles covered a wide range of themes that can be addressed specifically through birth cohort study design; however, only three were based on real word data with record-linkage to HADs [ 10 , 11 , 12 ].

Two papers addressed the topic of indicators of socioeconomic disadvantage [ 10 , 13 ]. Evidence suggests that socioeconomic disadvantages in early-life can affect child health and have long-term effects also on adult health [ 14 , 15 ]. Assessing early-life socioeconomic status (SES) is also essential to control for confounding and modification effects in birth cohort studies. Spadea and colleagues established a network of population-based birth cohorts in five Italian cities, to study the role of exposure to air pollution and SES on birth outcomes [ 10 ]. They were able to individually link birth certificates, the municipal population register, hospital discharge records and small-scale models for residential air pollution exposures through geocoded residence addresses for all singleton livebirths from women aged 15–49 years at delivery, who were residents in the five cities during the period 2007–2013. The cohorts include all births in the area of interest and are not distorted by selection mechanisms or social desirability bias, such as birth cohorts based on voluntary enrolment and/or face-to-face interviews on socioeconomic characteristics. With the established network, the follow-up of mothers and newborns in the first years of life will be possible through linkage with hospitalizations, pharmaceutical prescriptions and outpatient services. Regarding SES, several indicators were considered, both at the individual level (maternal education, occupational status and citizenship) and contextual level (through a composite indicator of deprivation at the census block level). However, each single indicator captures different, likely correlated, dimensions of the child’s SES. As Pizzi and colleagues stated, the household’s disposable income is potentially one of the most important single indicators of the child’s SES, but it is underused because it is difficult to measure through questionnaires [ 13 ]. Moreover, comparing income across populations and studies might be complex, as different studies might collect different types of income and at different points in time. This is particularly relevant in the context of international collaborative studies, where it is essential to have harmonized comparable SES indicators. The authors therefore proposed a method for constructing a standardized and comparable cohort-specific household income indicator (“Equivalized Household Income Indicator (EHII)) for child SES to be used in European birth cohort studies, using external data from the pan-European surveys “European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions” (EUSILC) and internal data from four Italian and French birth cohorts. Being based on external data from the EUSILC surveys, which are conducted in several European countries using the same design and procedures, the EHII allows researchers to obtain a harmonized family income measure over different European populations, that can be used in the context of European collaborative studies [ 13 ].

Two papers focused on inflammatory bowel diseases, both as an outcome of perinatal and antibiotic exposure in early life and as a condition associated with asthma, among children identified in a birth cohort [ 11 , 12 ]. Both exposures and comorbidities were assessed by means of HADs, using a matched case-control design nested in a population-based birth cohort of more than 213,000 individuals born between 1989 and 2012, and resident in the Region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia (Italy).

Three articles focused on medication use during pregnancy [ 16 , 17 , 18 ], and its impact on maternal and fetal health, which are a growing public health concern. However, little information is available about the safety of most medications prescribed during this period, and clinicians often have to face the decision about whether or not to treat pregnant women based on the clinical setting of the mother. Some medicines may cause birth defects, pregnancy loss, prematurity, infant death, or developmental disabilities. The use of any medication including over-the-counter drugs, during pregnancy is estimated at 94%. However, studies have shown that less than 10% of medications approved from 1980 to 2010 have sufficient evidence to determine fetal risks deriving from in utero exposures [ 19 ].

Since pregnant women are always excluded from randomize controlled trials (RCT) due to ethical reason, it is very difficult to evaluate the safety of these drugs used during pregnancy. In this context, observational population-based cohort study designs offer an alternative to RCTs. The potential benefits of observational studies include the opportunity to evaluate a treatment’s effectiveness (i.e., results as seen in practice) rather than efficacy. Lower costs and difficulties that characterize observational studies allow researchers to enroll large numbers of patients, resulting in a greater statistical power. Therefore, it is possible to make inferences about differential effectiveness in subgroups of the population and generalize results to the overall population. However, beyond the limitations inherent in the observational nature of the approach, the lack of basilar information, and the consequent need of using proxies of the variables of interest, makes this approach particularly vulnerable to systematic uncertainty [ 6 ].

To conclude, medication use during pregnancy is very common. In the paper published in this issue, Lupatelli and colleagues mapped the patterns of medication use in pregnancy, as well as the extent and type of prescribed medications that are purposely avoided by pregnant women in Italy through a cross-sectional, web-based study [ 16 ]. According to the literature, they found a prevalence of total medication use during pregnancy of about 71%. Moreover, they did not find differences in estimates across Italy. Overall, 26.6% of women reported to have deliberately avoided a prescribed medication in pregnancy due to concerns about the safeguarding of maternal-child health. Also, Lutz and colleagues focused their attention on medication use among pregnant women with a high prevalence of self-medication in a birth cohort study in Brazil [ 17 ]. They found a prevalence of medication use during pregnancy that was higher than Lupatelli et al. (92.5%). Moreover, the same authors put their attention to another important field regarding medication use among women who breastfed their children [ 18 ]. It is widely recognized that there are many benefits of breastfeeding for both mother and child associated with lower morbidity and mortality. However, the use of medications by mothers may influence the success of breastfeeding. Lutz et al. did not find an association between weaning rates across the different breastfeeding safety categories of medications in women who were still breastfeeding, three months after birth. However, a limit to these results is that both the articles by Lupatelli et al. and Lutz et al. published in this Special Issue are based on self-reported information.

Exposure to prenatal environmental risk factors on perinatal and childhood outcomes has been considered in two papers [ 20 , 21 ]. Manduca and colleagues undertook hospital based surveillance of birth outcomes, collecting information on environmental exposures to potentially dangerous substances on about 15,000 women about to deliver in three different periods (from 2006 until 2019) in Gaza, Palestine, which has been the object of repeated severe military attacks since 2006 [ 20 ]. The second more methodological paper focused on prenatal exposure to airborne particles as a potential risk factor for infant neuropsychological development [ 21 ]. The aim of the study was to estimate the causal effect of prenatal exposure to high concentrations of airborne particles on children’s psychomotor and mental scores using a birth cohort from Gipuzkoa (Spain), and investigate possible unobserved confounding. They adopted a propensity score matching approach comparing the actual effect estimates with those obtained after adjusting for unobserved confounders based on simulations. Unmeasured confounding is an important limitation of observational studies and especially when new relationships are investigated, sensitivity analyses aimed to evaluate the robustness of the results to the omission of relevant factors in the analysis should become a standard [ 21 ].

The other two papers analyzed ad hoc nationwide prospective birth cohorts set in Japan (Japan Environment and Children’s Study [ 22 ]) and the UK (UK Millennium Cohort Study [ 23 ]). Both the topics covered in these studies (co-sleeping associated with less breathing difficulties and child development in relation to pet ownership at an early age) could not be assessed through retrospective real word data. The first manuscript used data from an ongoing nationwide prospective birth cohort study in Japan [ 22 ]. The recorded information is related to pregnant women who compiled the self-administered questionnaire between January 2011 and March 2014. Waynforth et al. used data drawn from the UK Millennium Cohort Study which recorded self-reported information from the mothers of 18,552 infants born from September 2000 to August 2001 in the UK [ 23 ].

Finally, Ghanchi and colleagues conducted a systematic review with meta-analysis to evaluate the relation between growth restriction at birth and congenital heart defects. The majority of studies included in the meta-analysis were population-based studies [ 24 ].

We, as Guest Editors, hope that this Special Issue may contribute to enriching the discussion of future challenges, opportunities, strengths and limitations for all research topics that can be investigated using a population-based birth cohort study design.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of Claudio Barbiellini Amidei (Department of Cardio-Thoraco-Vascular Sciences and Public Health, University of Padova) for his critical editing.

Author Contributions

C.C., A.C.: conceptualization, validation, data curation, writing—original draft preparation. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Don't forget to check out past studies! CORNET invites Principal Investigators (PIs) at all career levels to collaborate. Trainee PIs are noted in red below.

Ongoing Studies

Completed studies.

Screening and Referring for Unmet Social Needs in the Nursery Setting PI: Arvin Garg Objective(s): To determine the prevalence of screening/referral for unmet social needs in the nursery setting and to examine nursery-level factors that are associated with adoption of screening/referral for unmet social needs.

Screening for ABO incompatibility in the well-newborn unit: A BORN study PIs: Ladawna Gievers & Sheevaun Khaki Objective(s): To evaluate variation in blood type incompatibility screening across newborn nurseries in the United States and identify characteristics that predict screening practices.

Donor Milk Utilization in the United States PIs: La'Toya James Davis & Rasheda Vareen Objective(s): To gather information regarding human donor milk practices amongst well newborn units and nurseries across the U.S.

Improving skills in examining the infant hip (IHIP) PI: Joe Lopreiato Objective(s): To determine whether a new infant hip model and curriculum is feasible and practicable and can improve the infant hip examination skills of interns.

RECOVER UCSF Pregnancy Cohort PI: Valerie Flaherman Objective(s): In early 2020, BORN members collected some of the first data on neonatal outcomes of COVID during pregnancy, providing evidence of safety in colocation of mothers and babies. With variants prevalent and congenital COVID exposure widespread , BORN set out to gather information on the impact of the virus on the health and future development of a fetus.

Lotus Birth National Registry PI: Kimberly K. Monroe Objective(s): To examine and describe the practice of umbilical nonseverance along with related incidences of infection.

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices Related to Marijuana Use and Breastfeeding PI: Esther Chung Objective(s): To determine new mothers’ knowledge, attitudes and practices related to marijuana use and breastfeeding and to describe the variation in hospital approaches to breastfeeding among mothers with UDSs positive for cannabinoids at the time of delivery using a cross-sectional survey of newborn service directors, and postpartum mothers and infants during the newborn hospitalization.

Variation in admission criteria and available medical interventions in level I nurseries PI: Neha Joshi Objective(s): To describe institutional variability in admission criteria and available clinical interventions for late preterm and term infants in a level I nursery through a nationally distributed survey of newborn nursery medical directors participating in the BORN Network.

Literacy Promotion in the Well Newborn Nursery PI: Laura Kair Objective(s): T o estimate the prevalence and variations in anticipatory guidance about shared reading during the newborn stay at hospitals across the US and to identify sites interested in participating in a prospective study on this subject.

Early Onset Sepsis (EOS) Screening Quality Improvement (QI) Study PI: Anne-Marie Rick & Gysella Muniz-Pujalt Objective(s): To d ecrease empiric antibiotic exposure by 30% among newborns 35 weeks gestational age or later undergoing evaluation for early-onset sepsis (EOS), using recommended, evidence-based EOS screening guidelines.

Car Seat Tolerance Screening in Newborns: Epidemiology and Outcomes PI: Skye McLaurin-Jiang Objective(s): 1) describe which infants undergo a pre-discharge CSTS, 2) describe the epidemiology of CSTS failure, a nd 3) determine the relative risk of adverse outcomes in infants who failed an initial CSTS.

COVID-19 Newborn Case Series PI: Jayme Congdon Objective(s): Collected cases of newborns with COVID-19 positive mothers across the BORN network.

Variations in the evaluation, routine care and discharge planning of mothers and infants for COVID-19 in Well Newborn Units in the BORN network PI: Elena Aragona Objective(s): To examine v ariations in the evaluation, routine care and discharge planning of mothers and infants for COVID-19 in Well Newborn Units in the BORN network .

Pregnancy Coronavirus Outcomes Registry (PRIORITY) PIs: Valerie Flaherman & Stephanie Gaw Objective(s): T o determine whether SARS-CoV-2 is present in breast milk .

Development of Vaccine Preferences in Parents of Newborns PI: Jake Lohr Objective(s): T o determine when first-time parents in the immediate postpartum period developed their vaccine preferences: before, after or during pregnancy. The secondary aim is to determine what co-variables (demographic and otherwise) contribute to the timing of parents’ development of vaccine preferences. Characterize the external factors (e.g, individuals, information sources) that contribute to vaccine preference development.

Lotus Birth National Registry PI: Kimberly K. Monroe Objective(s): To examine and describe the practi ce of umbilical nonseverance along with related incidences of infection.

Newborn Bathing Practices in U.S. Hospitals PI: Ann Kellam Objective(s): To determine the variation in standardized newborn skincare practices among U.S. hospitals.

Management of Newborns with Lumbosacral Findings PI: Janelle Aby Objective(s): This cross-sectional study of management choices made by practitioners who see newborns in a regular newborn nursery setting aims to see how much inter-observer agreement exists for management of various neonatal lumbosacral findings.

Practice Variation in Asymptomatic Newborns with Risk Factors for Hypoglycemia PI: Sudha Rani Narasimhan Objective(s): To describe and analyze the practice variations related to routine maternity and newborn care, breastfeeding practices, diagnosis and treatment of hypoglycemia.

P romotion of Breastfeeding among Late Preterm Infants in BORN Nurseries PI: Laura Kair Objective(s): To identify hospital practices associated with any and exclusive breastfeeding at 3 months of age among infants born at 34-36 6/ 7 weeks ’ gestation who are admitted to the well-baby nursery.

Implementation of Car Seat Testing Prior to Discharge in Infants 35 to 37 weeks ’ Gestation: A National Study PI: Eric C. Eichenwald Objective(s): 1) To assess policies and procedures used for the car seat challenge in newborn nurseries across the BORN network in the populations tested, technique, definitions of pass or fail, and recommendations for approach to a failed test. 2) To determine if significant variability in testing procedures exist across the network.

Practice Variation in Evaluation of Term Infants for Risk of Early-Onset Sepsis PI: Karen M. Puopolo & Sagori Mukhopadhyay Objective(s): To determine the criteria used by individual BORN centers to evaluate infants born ≥ 37 weeks gestation .

Variation in Care of Opioid-Exposed Newborns: a BORN survey PI: Debra Bogen Objective(s): To identify practice variations for newborns with in-utero chronic opioid exposure. Identification of variation is the first step toward establishing best practice standards to improve care for this rapidly growing population.

Refusal of Vitamin K Prophylaxis in Newborns: Understanding Parental Beliefs and the Scope of the Problem PI: Jaspreet Loyal Objective(s): 1) To report the number of well newborns discharged from BORN-affiliated newborn nurseries without receiving intramuscular vitamin K prophylaxis ; 2) To describe providers perspectives regarding parental refusal, strategies to address refusals and the use of oral vitamin K regimens

What Research Questions Matter to BORN Network Members? Using a Delphi Process to Develop a Clinical Research Agenda PI: Elizabeth Simpson Objective(s): To develop a consensus-based, prioritized agenda for well newborn care. A two-round modified Delphi survey of BORN members was conducted. The highest rated research questions of importance to BORN clinicians were: 1) At what weight-loss percentage is it medically necessary to formula supplement a breastfeeding infant? 2) What is the optimal management of infants with neonatal abstinence syndrome? 3) How and when should we initiate a workup for sepsis, and how should these newborns be managed?

The Utility of Transcutaneous Bilirubin Measurement PI: Jim Taylor Objectives: 1) Describe the distribution of TcB values in term and late preterm newborns measured in diverse settings by developing a TcB nomogram based on the data collected (BORN TcB nomogram) 2) Identify test thresholds for TcB percentiles that maximize the specificity of the screening tool while maintaining sensitivity near 100% for identification of infants with significantly elevated TSB and 3) Identify systematic sources of error in TcB measurements.

Publications

Hoyt-Austin AE, Phillipi CA, Lloyd-McLennan AM, King BA, Sipsma HL, Flaherman VJ, Kair LR. Physician personal breastfeeding experience and clinical care of the breastfeeding dyad. Birth. 2023 Sep 19. doi: 10.1111/birt.12772. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 37724625. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37724625/

Joshi NS, Flaherman VJ, Halpern-Felscher B, Chung EK, Congdon JL, Lee HC. Admission and Care Practices in United States Well Newborn Nurseries, Hosp Pediatr . (2023), doi: 10.1542/hpeds.2022-006882

Hadfield BR, Rowley J, Puyol F, Johnson MA, Ali M, Neuhoff BK, Lyman R, Saravia A, Svatek M, Sherburne K, Cantey JB. Quality Improvement Through Nurse-initiated Kaiser Sepsis Calculator at a County Hospital. Hosp Pediatr . 2023 Jan 1;13(1):31-38. doi: 10.1542/hpeds.2022-006554. PMID: 36537146.

Yarnall JN, Seashore C, Phillipi CA, Hatch JE, King B, Hart C, Lohr JA, Vaccine Preferences Study Group. Timing of vaccine decision-making among first-time parents, Acad Pediatr . (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2021.10.004

Harrison WN, Ritter VS, Flower KB, Seashore CJ, McLaurin-Jiang S. The Association Between Routine Car Seat Screening and Subsequent Health Care Utilization, Hosp Pediatr. (2022), https://doi.org/10.1542/hpeds.2021-006509

Hoffman, B, & Vining, M. Continued Challenges of the Car Seat Tolerance Screen. Hosp Pediatr. (2022), https://doi.org/10.1542/hpeds.2022-006929

Pace RM, Williams JE, Jarvinen KM, Meehan CL, Martin MA, Ley SH, Barbosa-Leiker C, Andres A, Yeruva L, Belfort MB, Caffe B, Navarrete AD, Lackey KA, Pace CDW, Gogel AC, Fehrenkamp BD, Klein M, Young BE, Rosen-Carole C, Diaz N, Gaw SL, Flaherman V, McGuire MA, Mcguire MK, Seppo AE. Milk from women diagnosed with COVID-19 does not contain SARS-CoV-2 RNA but has persistent levels of SARS-CoV-2-Specific IgA antibodies. Front. Immunol. (2021). 12:801797. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.801797

Aragona E, West D, Loyal J. Well-Newborn unit director experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic: A BORN study. Hospital Pediatrics . 2021 September. 11(9): e170-e181. doi: https://doi.org/10.1542/hpeds.2021-005862

Wisniewski JA, Phillipi CA, Goyal N, Smith A, Hoyt AEW, King E, West D, Golden WC, Kellams A. Variation in newborn skincare policies across United States maternity hospitals. Hospital Pediatrics . 2021 September. 11(9): 1010-1019. doi: https://doi.org/10.1542/hpeds.2021-005948

Congdon JL, Kair LR, Flaherman VJ, Wood KE, LoFrumento MA, Nwaobasi-Iwuh E, Phillipi CA; Better Outcomes through Research for Newborns (BORN) Network. Management and Early Outcomes of Neonates Born to Women with SARS-CoV-2 in 16 U.S. Hospitals . Am J Perinatol. 2021 Mar 15. doi: 10.1055/s-0041-1726036. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 33723834.

2020 Laura R. Kair, Carrie A. Phillipi, Allison M. Lloyd-McLennan, Kimberly M. Ngo, Heather L. Sipsma, Beth A. King, Valerie J. Flaherman. Supplementation Practices and Donor Milk Use in US Well-Newborn Nurseries. Hospital Pediatrics. 2020, 10 (9) 767-773.

Natalie L. Davis, Benjamin D. Hoffman, Eric C. Eichenwald. Variation in Car Seat Tolerance Screen Performance in Newborn Nurseries. Pediatrics. 2020, 146 (2): e20193593.

Janelle Aby, Juliann Kim, Lillian Lai, Valerie Flaherman, Jaspreet Loyal. Variation in Management of Cutaneous Lumbosacral Findings in Newborns. Hospital Pediatrics. 2020, 10 (6) 496-501.

Afshar Y, Gaw SL, Flaherman VJ, Chambers BD, Krakow D, Berghella V, Sharmshirsaz AA, Boatin AA, Aldrovandi G, Greiner A, Riley L, Boscardin WJ, Jamieson DJ, Jacoby VL. Clinical Presentation of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Pregnant and Recently Pregnant People. Obstetrics & Gynecology , 136 (6), 1117–1125. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000004178.

Flaherman VJ, Afshar Y, Boscardin J, Keller RL, Mardy A, Prahl MK, Phillips C, Asiodu IV, Berghella WV, Chambers BD, Crear-Perry J, Jamieson DJ, Jacoby VL, Gaw SL. Infant Outcomes Following Maternal Infection with SARS-CoV-2: First Report from the PRIORITY Study. Clinical Infectious Diseases , Published: 18 September 2020.

2018 Jaspreet Loyal, James A. Taylor, Carrie A. Phillipi, Neera K. Goyal, Kelly E. Wood, Carl Seashore, Beth King, Eve Colson, Veronika Shabanova, Eugene D. Shapiro, on behalf of the BORN investigators. Factors Associated With Refusal of Intramuscular Vitamin K in Normal Newborns. Pediatrics . 2018, 142 (2): e20173743.

2017 Loyal J, Taylor JA, Phillipi CA, Goyal NK, Dhepyasuwan N, Shapiro ED, Colson E. Refusal of vitamin K by parents of newborns: A survey of the Better Outcomes through Research for Newborns (BORN) Network . Academic Pediatrics . 2017. 17(4): 368-373.

Bogen DL, Whalen B, Kair LR, Vining M, King BA. Wide variation found in care of opioid-exposed newborns. Academic Pediatrics . 2017. 17(4): 374-380.

2016 Taylor JA, Burgos AE, Flaherman V, Chung EK, Simpson EA, Goyal NK, Von Kohorn I, Dhepyasuwan N. Utility of decision rules for transcutaneous bilirubin measurements. Pediatrics. 2016. 137(5).

2015 Taylor JA, Burgos AE, Flaherman V, Chung EK, Simpson EA, Goyal N, Von Kohorn I, Dhepyasuwan N. Discrepancies between transcutaneous and serum bilirubin measurements. Pediatrics. 2015. 135(2):224-231.

Mukhopadhyay S, Taylor J, Von Kohorn I, Flaherman V, Burgos AE, Phillipi CA, Dhepyasuwan N, King E, Dhudasia M, Puopolo KM. Variation in sepsis evaluation across a national network of nurseries. Pediatrics . 2017. 139(3).

2014 Simpson E, Goyal N, Dhepyasuwan N, Flaherman V, Chung E, Von Kohorn I, Burgos T. E, Taylor J. Prioritizing a research agenda: a delphi study of the Better Outcomes Through Research for Newborns (BORN) network. Hospital Pediatrics . 2014. 4(4): 195-202.

Presentations

James-Davis LI, Drumm C, Krick J, Ulrich A, Tyrrell H, Phillipi C, Vereen R. Precious drops: Donor Human Milk Access and Provision within the Better Outcomes through Research for Newborns (BORN) Network. Poster Presentation, 2024 Pediatric Academic Societies Meeting, Toronto, Canada, May 5.

Graziose BB, Zven SE, Liggett C, Martin N, Joshi NS, Tyrrell H, Seashore C, Ahuja A, Loyal J, Zafar N, LoFrumento M, Abreu W, Lopreiato JO. Using an Innovative Teaching Bundle to Improve Performance of the Infant Hip Exam. American Academy of Pediatrics National Conference & Exhibition, Washington, DC, October 2023. (Recipient of the Leo Geppert Award for Innovation – Second Place)

James-Davis, L., Drumm, C., Krick, J., Ulrich, A., Phillipi, C., Tyrrell, H., & Vereen, R. (2023). Donor Human Milk Access and Utilization within Well Newborn Nurseries across Better Outcomes through Research for Newborn (BORN) Network sites in the United States. Poster Presentation, 2023 AAP National Conference & Exhibition, Washington, D.C.

Chung EK, Chang P, Goyal N. Marijuana Use During Pregnancy: Associated Factors and Neonatal Outcomes. Poster Presentation, 2023 Pediatric Academic Societies Meeting, Washington DC, May 1.

Joshi N, Zven S, Graziose B, Tyrrell H, Ahuja A, Loyal J, Zafar N, Lopreiato JO. Using an Innovative Model to Improve Performance of the Infant Hip Exam. Oral Abstract Presentation, 2023 Pediatric Academic Societies Meeting, Washington, DC, April 29.

Chung EK, Chang P, Goyal N. Marijuana use and breastfeeding: Knowledge, attitudes, and practices among new mothers. Poster Presentation, 2023 Pediatric Academic Societies Meeting, Washington DC, April 28.

McLaurin-Jiang S, Germana S, Goyal N, Gupta Basuray R, Gupta S, Hoyt-Austin A, Ibragimov A, Kohn M, Ritter V, Seashore C, Shaikh S, Flower K. Car seat tolerance screening implementation and outcomes: Findings from a multi-site study through the Academic Pediatric Association's BORN Network. Poster Presentation, 2023 Pediatric Academic Societies Meeting, Washington, DC, April 28.

Lopreiato J, Graziose B, Zven S, Joshi N, Tyrrell H, Ahuja A, Loyal J, Zafar N. Using an Innovative Teaching Bundle to Improve the Infant Hip Exam. Platform Presentation, 2023 APA Region IV Meeting, Charlottesville, VA, February 26.

Joshi NS, Flaherman V, Halpern-Felsher B, Lee H. Admission and care practices in United States nurseries: A BORN study. Poster Presentation, 2022 Pediatric Hospital Medicine Meeting, Lake Buena Vista, FL, July 29.

Loyal J, Wood KE, Goyal N, Wexeblatt S, Congdon J, Joshi NS, Hoffman B. Controversies in well newborn care debated. Debate/Pro-Con Discussion, 2022 Pediatric Academic Societies Meeting, Denver, CO, April 25.

Joshi NS, Flaherman V, Halpern-Felsher B, Lee H. Admission and care practices in United States nurseries: A BORN study. Platform Presentation, 2022 Pediatric Academic Societies Meeting, Denver, CO, April 25.

Chang PW, Goyal N, West D, Chung EK. Marijuana use during pregnancy and lactation: National survey of hospital practices and nursery director knowledge. Poster Presentation, 2022 Pediatric Academic Societies Meeting, Denver, CO, April 24.

Recio S, Kim HY, Wood KE, Goyal N, Huang JX, Garcia EFY, Nidey N, West D, Kair LR. Anticipatory guidance in the newborn nursery: A survey of the Better Outcomes through Research for Newborns Network. Poster Presentation, 2022 Pediatric Academic Societies Meeting, Denver, CO, April 23.

Lloyd-McLennan A, Phillipi CA, King BA, Sipsma HL, Flaherman VJ, and Kair LR. Personal Breastfeeding Experience and Clinical Care of Well Newborns: A Mixed-Methods Study of the BORN Research Network (Platform). Pediatric Academic Societies Annual Meeting. Baltimore, MD. April 28, 2019.

Kair LR, Sipsma H, Lloyd AM, Flaherman VJ, King BA, and Phillipi CA. Provider Opinions about Hospital Practices to Promote Breastfeeding: A Mixed-Methods Study of the BORN Network (poster). Pediatric Academic Societies. Toronto, Canada. May 8, 2018.

Kair LR, Phillipi CA, Lloyd AM, King BA, Sipsma HL, and Flaherman VJ. Variation in Newborn Breastfeeding Management in US Hospitals in the BORN Network (poster). Pediatric Academic Societies. Toronto, Canada. May 8, 2018.

Bogen DL, Whalen B, Vining M, Kair LR, Dhepyasuan N, and King BA. Variation in Care for NAS is Common among BORN Nurseries (Platform). Pediatric Academic Societies Annual Meeting. May 1, 2016. Baltimore, MD.

Sharifi M, Serwint J, Auger K, Kair L, Flaherman V, Goyal N, Yin HS, Ulrich A, and Tyrrell H. Collaborating with National Research Networks to Expand and Diversify the Reach of Your Research. Workshop at 2024 Pediatric Academic Societies’ Annual Meeting, Toronto, Ontario, May 4.

Managing Directors

Valerie Flaherman, MD, MPH University of California, San Francisco

L aura Kair, MD, MAS UC Davis

Steering Committee

Esther K. Chung, MD, MPH (APA Research Chair) University of Washington/Seattle Children's Hospital

Neera Goyal, MD (BORN Chair) Thomas Jefferson University, Nemours/AI duPont Hospital for Children

Nagma Zafar, MD University of Louisville

Adrienne Hoyt-Austin, DO, MAS, IBCLC UC Davis

Abieyuwa Iyare, MD Texas

Elena Aragona, MD, MS Yale

Neha Joshi, MD Stanford

Jayme Congdon, MD, MS UCSF Benioff Children's Hospital

Ian M. Paul, MD, MSc Penn State College of Medicine

Anne-Marie Rick, MD, MPH, PhD University of Pittsburgh

Cristina Fernandez, MD Columbia University

BORN Study Proposal Submission

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What does the noun Born mean?

There is one meaning in OED's entry for the noun Born . See ‘Meaning & use’ for definition, usage, and quotation evidence.

How is the noun Born pronounced?

British english, u.s. english, where does the noun born come from.

Earliest known use

The earliest known use of the noun Born is in the 1930s.

OED's earliest evidence for Born is from 1931, in Math. Proc. Cambridge Philos. Society 1930–31 .

From a proper name.

Etymons: proper name Born .

Nearby entries

boring, adj.¹ 1853–
boring, adj.² 1839–
boringness, n. 1893–
borish, adj. 1766–
borith, n. a1382–
borize, v. 1884–
Bork, v. 1987–
borking, n. 1988–
borley, n. 1864–
borlotti, n. 1932–
Born, n. 1931–
born, adj. Old English–
born, v. 1698–
Borna disease, n. 1898–
Borna disease virus, n. 1931–
born-again, adj. & n. 1895–
born alive, adj. 1957–
bornane, n. 1942–
bornavirus, n. 1927–
born brother, n. Old English–
borne, adj.¹ 1559–

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Pronunciation, entry history for born, n..

Born, n. was first published in March 2020.

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Definition of research noun from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary

scientific/medical/academic research
They are raising money for cancer research.
to do/conduct/undertake research
I've done some research to find out the cheapest way of travelling there.
research into something He has carried out extensive research into renewable energy sources.
research on something/somebody Recent research on deaf children has produced some interesting findings about their speech.
Research on animals has led to some important medical advances.
according to research According to recent research, more people are going to the movies than ever before.
Their latest research project will be funded by the government.
Are you hoping to get a research grant ?
a research fellow/assistant/scientist
a research institute/centre/laboratory
The research findings were published in the Journal of Environmental Quality.
formulate/advance a theory/hypothesis
build/construct/create/develop a simple/theoretical/mathematical model
develop/establish/provide/use a theoretical/conceptual framework
advance/argue/develop the thesis that…
explore an idea/a concept/a hypothesis
make a prediction/an inference
base a prediction/your calculations on something
investigate/evaluate/accept/challenge/reject a theory/hypothesis/model
design an experiment/a questionnaire/a study/a test
do research/an experiment/an analysis
make observations/measurements/calculations
carry out/conduct/perform an experiment/a test/a longitudinal study/observations/clinical trials
run an experiment/a simulation/clinical trials
repeat an experiment/a test/an analysis
replicate a study/the results/the findings
observe/study/examine/investigate/assess a pattern/a process/a behaviour
fund/support the research/project/study
seek/provide/get/secure funding for research
collect/gather/extract data/information
yield data/evidence/similar findings/the same results
analyse/examine the data/soil samples/a specimen
consider/compare/interpret the results/findings
fit the data/model
confirm/support/verify a prediction/a hypothesis/the results/the findings
prove a conjecture/hypothesis/theorem
draw/make/reach the same conclusions
read/review the records/literature
describe/report an experiment/a study
present/publish/summarize the results/findings
present/publish/read/review/cite a paper in a scientific journal
a debate about the ethics of embryonic stem cell research
For his PhD he conducted field research in Indonesia.
Further research is needed.
Future research will hopefully give us a better understanding of how garlic works in the human body.
Dr Babcock has conducted extensive research in the area of agricultural production.
the funding of basic research in biology, chemistry and genetics
Activists called for a ban on animal research.
Work is under way to carry out more research on the gene.
She returned to Jamaica to pursue her research on the African diaspora.
Bad punctuation can slow down people's reading speeds, according to new research carried out at Bradford University.
He focused his research on the economics of the interwar era.
Most research in the field has concentrated on the effects on children.
One paper based on research conducted at Oxford suggested that the drug may cause brain damage.
Research demonstrates that women are more likely than men to provide social support to others.
She's doing research on Czech music between the wars.
The research does not support these conclusions.
They are carrying out research into the natural flow patterns of water.
They lack the resources to do their own research.
What has their research shown?
Funding for medical research has been cut quite dramatically.
a startling piece of historical research
pioneering research into skin disease
They were the first to undertake pioneering research into the human genome.
There is a significant amount of research into the effects of stress on junior doctors.
He's done a lot of research into the background of this story.
research which identifies the causes of depression
spending on military research and development
the research done in the 1950s that linked smoking with cancer
The children are taking part in a research project to investigate technology-enabled learning.
The Lancet published a research paper by the scientist at the centre of the controversy.
Who is directing the group's research effort?
She is chief of the clinical research program at McLean Hospital.
James is a 24-year-old research student from Iowa.
You will need to describe your research methods.
Before a job interview, do your research and find out as much as you can about the company.
Most academic research is carried out in universities.
This is a piece of research that should be taken very seriously.
This is an important area of research.
There's a large body of research linking hypertension directly to impaired brain function.
In the course of my researches, I came across some of my grandfather's old letters.
demonstrate something
find something
identify something
programme/program
research in
research into
research on
an area of research
focus your research on something
somebody’s own research

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Is globalization in retreat? Here is what a new study shows

Sebastian franco bedoya.

3D rendering Network and data exchange over planet earth in space. Connection lines Around Earth Globe. Global International Connectivity, Elements of this image furnished by NASA

The debate is raging: Is globalization in retreat or not? If yes, to what extent, and what are the implications for global prosperity and poverty reduction? These aren’t easy questions to answer, largely because there are different definitions of globalization, which give rise to different ways of measuring it. Recent research at the World Bank, based on a new definition, suggests that globalization is alive and well.

But first, some context. For more than 50 years, globalization has been a catalyst for economic development, trade integration, and prosperity building. It has helped lift more than 1 billion people out of poverty. Since the 1990s, it has become a pathway for businesses in emerging economies to enter global value chains and nearly double their share of exports. Breathtaking advances in communications, transportation, and information technology have made it easier and cheaper for countries on opposite sides of the world to transact business, tap into each other’s markets, and share resources, knowhow, and technology. On the other hand, some critics in advanced economies blame globalization for the loss of manufacturing jobs, and others point to it as a source of greenhouse gas emissions.

Recently, the COVID-19 pandemic, the war in Ukraine, and China-US tensions have led countries and companies to rethink global strategies. But to what extent is globalization actually retreating? Some studies find little systematic evidence that it is, while others conclude that “trade openness” has recently fallen in some regions, coinciding with a slower pace of trade reforms and posing a threat to growth. This isn’t just an academic exercise. Accurately measuring globalization is necessary to understand the impact of the current challenges on the world economy. Economic policy cannot risk either overestimating deglobalization or underestimating the costs of such a scenario. For this reason, we need a clear definition with precise empirical applications that can guide economic policy.

The trade-to-GDP ratio — which calculates the relative importance of a country’s imports and exports to its economy — is one way to measure “openness” to trade . This ratio steadily rose until 2008, then suffered a sudden drop in 2009 following the global financial crisis. By 2011 it had recovered, but it lacked the same vigor as before the crisis, suggesting to some that globalization was waning.

Some economists continue to the use trade-to-GDP ratio as a measure of openness, although many others argue that it is an inadequate yardstick and doesn’t necessarily imply that high trade barriers exist. Instead, it could reflect factors such as the size or structure of the economy or its geographic proximity to trading partners.

So globalization is better understood as an extension beyond national borders of the same market forces operating at all levels of economic activity. Using this definition, we measured the intensity of globalization as the growth of international trade relative to domestic trade. For instance, automakers sell some cars in the domestic market and export the rest. Comparing the evolution of the exports of cars with domestic sales offers a better measure of globalization dynamics than the trade-to-GDP ratio. The model used to capture the relative dynamics of international and domestic trade is what economists call a structural gravity model. It allows for comparisons across countries and over time, capturing more intuitive globalization dynamics than the trade-to-GDP ratio. Among other factors, the reduction in trade barriers and advances in information technology make international trade grow faster than domestic trade, with the world becoming more globalized and with greater economic connectivity and cooperation among countries.

Based on this research, there is no evidence that the world economy has entered an era of deglobalization. China’s trade-to-GDP ratio, for example, has trended downward since 2006 and is now below both the world average and the level in 2001, when China entered the World Trade Organization. Yet even considering recent trade tensions with the United States, it would be difficult to argue that the Chinese economy is drastically less “open,” as the trade-to-GDP ratio would suggest. A better explanation is that trade has become less important to China’s GDP as its domestic economy has boomed.

A globalization analysis consistent with economic theory requires the study of sector-specific dynamics. For instance, manufacturing has traditionally been a more trade-intensive sector, but information and communication technology (ICT) advances seem to be making services more tradable, pointing to more globalization opportunities in the future. Figure 1 plots the main results of our research. It shows that globalization dynamics in manufacturing were already strong in 1965, while agriculture and services “took off” in the late 1970s and 1990s, respectively. There is no sign of a deglobalization trend post-2008.

Figure 1. Globalization took off at various times, depending on the sector and country.

Figure 1 (b) investigates manufacturing dynamics across countries. These results uncover differing dynamics, situating China as a globalization leader starting in the 1980s, outperforming the world economy significantly during the entire period. This story is different from the one told by the trade-to-GDP ratio. Other results also offer deep insights by illustrating how countries like India, while lagging in manufacturing globalization, have outperformed the world economy in services.

The debate on globalization uses various terms -- slowbalization, deglobalization, reglobalization. Each tells a very different story about changes in the world economy. Our research contributes to these debates by offering a globalization toolkit to understand where the world economy stands today and helping us to prepare for future dynamics.

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Definition of bear out

transitive verb

authenticate
corroborate
substantiate

Examples of bear out in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'bear out.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

15th century, in the meaning defined above

Dictionary Entries Near bear out

Cite this entry.

“Bear out.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bear%20out. Accessed 31 Mar. 2024.

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Researcher proposes a new definition of a human embryo from a legal perspective

by University of the Basque Country

Iñigo de Miguel-Beriain, researcher in the UPV/EHU's Research Group on Social and Legal Sciences applied to New Technosciences, has published a paper in EMBO Reports in which he provides a legal perspective to help identify a universally accepted definition of embryo, which could facilitate and standardize its regulation in different countries.

He is proposing that any cell structure with the capacity to develop and give rise to a born human being should be regarded as an embryo.

Biotechnology can make a decisive contribution towards improving knowledge and control of the early stages of human life. However, this scenario is fueling challenging controversies from an ethical and legal point of view.

Unsurprisingly, few biotechnology issues are more controversial than those relating to human embryos . However, there is one aspect that has remained underexplored in recent debates. Although the moral status of the embryo has been a crucial issue in public debates, what has emerged as being of paramount importance is the precise delimitation of what a human embryo is and its distinction from other similar entities. This is not just a semantic problem, but also a normative one that has significant practical implications for research.

In this respect, several scientific and technological advances in reproductive biology have forced a re-examination of the definition of human embryo in the last two decades. The possibility of generating human embryos through procedures other than fertilization, such as nuclear transfer , and the development of technologies that today make it possible to generate cell models capable of imitating embryonic structures have called into question the scientific term embryo, which has both ethical and legal repercussions.

"Technological developments sometimes create the need to rethink conceptual categories that were once taken for granted. Right now, it is no longer possible to maintain that an embryo is always and only the result of fertilization," said Iñigo de Miguel-Beriain, Ikerbasque Research Professor in the Department of Public Law at the UPV/EHU.

Together with Jon Rueda from the University of California-San Diego, and Adrian Villalba from the University of Granada, Iñigo de Miguel-Beriain has published a paper in which they reflect on different legal definitions of a human embryo and provide a solid definition from a legal perspective.

"The paper proposes an alternative view in which any cell structure that has the capacity to develop and give rise to a born human being should be regarded as an embryo, and that this capacity should be the cornerstone on which the definition is built, as is already the case in some countries in fact, and as the Court of Justice of the European Union has ruled."

According to De Miguel, "A universal and generally accepted legal definition of embryo would help to alleviate legal uncertainty and harmonize regulations."

"Our reflection aims to contribute towards consolidating a concept of embryo that is more capable of addressing the challenges posed by advances in biotechnology," he added, pointing out that the concept is one that "could have legal repercussions when it comes to consolidating a legal setup that is more coherent than the one that exists right now, and which is capable of connecting the idea of embryo with that of a born human being (which is what defines a person in Law)."

De Miguel believes that this definition "will also serve to emphasize that there is a discussion prior to the one that has traditionally been formulated around the embryo, its moral status, which has to do with the very definition of embryo. Before discussing what protection it deserves, we have to decide what an embryo is and what it is not, because a structure that is not capable of finishing a transfer process due to a defect in its DNA is not the same as another that is able to do so, for example."

Journal information: EMBO Reports

Provided by University of the Basque Country

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What is artificial general intelligence (AGI)?

You’ve read the think pieces. AI—in particular, the generative AI (gen AI) breakthroughs achieved in the past year or so—is poised to revolutionize not just the way we create content but the very makeup of our economies and societies as a whole. But although gen AI tools such as ChatGPT may seem like a great leap forward, in reality they are just a step in the direction of an even greater breakthrough: artificial general intelligence, or AGI.

Get to know and directly engage with senior McKinsey experts on AGI

Aamer Baig is a senior partner in McKinsey’s Chicago office; Federico Berruti is a partner in the Toronto office; Ben Ellencweig is a senior partner in the Stamford, Connecticut, office; Damian Lewandowski is a consultant in the Miami office; Roger Roberts is a partner in the Bay Area office, where Lareina Yee is a senior partner; Alex Singla is a senior partner in the Chicago office and the global leader of QuantumBlack, AI by McKinsey; Kate Smaje and Alex Sukharevsky are senior partners in the London office; Jonathan Tilley is a partner in the Southern California office; and Rodney Zemmel is a senior partner in the New York office.

AGI is AI with capabilities that rival those of a human . While purely theoretical at this stage, someday AGI may replicate human-like cognitive abilities including reasoning, problem solving, perception, learning, and language comprehension. When AI’s abilities are indistinguishable from those of a human, it will have passed what is known as the Turing test , first proposed by 20th-century computer scientist Alan Turing.

But let’s not get ahead of ourselves. AI has made significant strides in recent years, but no AI tool to date has passed the Turing test. We’re still far from reaching a point where AI tools can understand, communicate, and act with the same nuance and sensitivity of a human—and, critically, understand the meaning behind it. Most researchers and academics believe we are decades away from realizing AGI; a few even predict we won’t see AGI this century (or ever). Rodney Brooks, a roboticist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and cofounder of iRobot, believes AGI won’t arrive until the year 2300 .

If you’re thinking that AI already seems pretty smart, that’s understandable. We’ve seen gen AI do remarkable things in recent years, from writing code to composing sonnets in seconds. But there’s a critical difference between AI and AGI. Although the latest gen AI technologies, including ChatGPT, DALL-E, and others, have been hogging headlines, they are essentially prediction machines—albeit very good ones. In other words, they can predict, with a high degree of accuracy, the answer to a specific prompt because they’ve been trained on huge amounts of data. This is impressive, but it’s not at a human level of performance in terms of creativity, logical reasoning, sensory perception, and other capabilities . By contrast, AGI tools could feature cognitive and emotional abilities (like empathy) indistinguishable from those of a human. Depending on your definition of AGI, they might even be capable of consciously grasping the meaning behind what they’re doing.

The timing of AGI’s emergence is uncertain. But when it does arrive—and it likely will at some point—it’s going to be a very big deal for every aspect of our lives, businesses, and societies. Executives can begin working now to better understand the path to machines achieving human-level intelligence and making the transition to a more automated world.

Learn more about QuantumBlack, AI by McKinsey .

What is needed for AI to become AGI?

Here are eight capabilities AI needs to master before achieving AGI. Click each card to learn more.

How will people access AGI tools?

Today, most people engage with AI in the same ways they’ve accessed digital power for years: via 2D screens such as laptops, smartphones, and TVs. The future will probably look a lot different. Some of the brightest minds (and biggest budgets) in tech are devoting themselves to figuring out how we’ll access AI (and possibly AGI) in the future. One example you’re likely familiar with is augmented reality and virtual reality headsets , through which users experience an immersive virtual world . Another example would be humans accessing the AI world through implanted neurons in the brain. This might sound like something out of a sci-fi novel, but it’s not. In January 2024, Neuralink implanted a chip in a human brain, with the goal of allowing the human to control a phone or computer purely by thought.

A final mode of interaction with AI seems ripped from sci-fi as well: robots. These can take the form of mechanized limbs connected to humans or machine bases or even programmed humanoid robots.

What is a robot and what types of robots are there?

The simplest definition of a robot is a machine that can perform tasks on its own or with minimal assistance from humans. The most sophisticated robots can also interact with their surroundings.

Programmable robots have been operational since the 1950s. McKinsey estimates that 3.5 million robots are currently in use, with 550,000 more deployed every year. But while programmable robots are more commonplace than ever in the workforce, they have a long way to go before they outnumber their human counterparts. The Republic of Korea, home to the world’s highest density of robots, still employs 100 times as many humans as robots.

Circular, white maze filled with white semicircles.

Introducing McKinsey Explainers : Direct answers to complex questions

But as hardware and software limitations become increasingly surmountable, companies that manufacture robots are beginning to program units with new AI tools and techniques. These dramatically improve robots’ ability to perform tasks typically handled by humans, including walking, sensing, communicating, and manipulating objects. In May 2023, Sanctuary AI, for example, launched Phoenix, a bipedal humanoid robot that stands 5’ 7” tall, lifts objects weighing as much as 55 pounds, and travels three miles per hour—not to mention it also folds clothes, stocks shelves, and works a register.

As we edge closer to AGI, we can expect increasingly sophisticated AI tools and techniques to be programmed into robots of all kinds. Here are a few categories of robots that are currently operational:

Stand-alone autonomous industrial robots : Equipped with sensors and computer systems to navigate their surroundings and interact with other machines, these robots are critical components of the modern automated manufacturing industry.
Collaborative robots : Also known as cobots, these robots are specifically engineered to operate in collaboration with humans in a shared environment. Their primary purpose is to alleviate repetitive or hazardous tasks. These types of robots are already being used in environments such as restaurant kitchens and more.
Mobile robots : Utilizing wheels as their primary means of movement, mobile robots are commonly used for materials handling in warehouses and factories. The military also uses these machines for various purposes, such as reconnaissance and bomb disposal.
Human–hybrid robots : These robots have both human and robotic features. This could include a robot with an appearance, movement capabilities, or cognition that resemble those of a human, or a human with a robotic limb or even a brain implant.
Humanoids or androids : These robots are designed to emulate the appearance, movement, communicative abilities, and emotions of humans while continuously enhancing their cognitive capabilities via deep learning models. In other words, humanoid robots will think like a human, move like a human, and look like a human.

What advances could speed up the development of AGI?

Advances in algorithms, computing, and data have brought about the recent acceleration of AI. We can get a sense of what the future may hold by looking at these three capabilities:

Algorithmic advances and new robotics approaches . We may need entirely new approaches to algorithms and robots to achieve AGI. One way researchers are thinking about this is by exploring the concept of embodied cognition. The idea is that robots will need to learn very quickly from their environments through a multitude of senses, just like humans do when they’re very young. Similarly, to develop cognition in the same way humans do, robots will need to experience the physical world like we do (because we’ve designed our spaces based on how our bodies and minds work).

The latest AI-based robot systems are using gen AI technologies including large language models (LLMs) and large behavior models (LBMs). LLMs give robots advanced natural-language-processing capabilities like what we’ve seen with generative AI models and other LLM-enabled tools. LBMs allow robots to emulate human actions and movements. These models are created by training AI on large data sets of observed human actions and movements. Ultimately, these models could allow robots to perform a wide range of activities with limited task-specific training.

A real advance would be to develop new AI systems that start out with a certain level of built-in knowledge, just like a baby fawn knows how to stand and feed without being taught. It’s possible that the recent success of deep-learning-based AI systems may have drawn research attention away from the more fundamental cognitive work required to make progress toward AGI.

Computing advancements. Graphics processing units (GPUs) have made the major AI advances of the past few years possible . Here’s why. For one, GPUs are designed to handle multiple tasks related to visual data simultaneously, including rendering images, videos, and graphics-related computations. Their efficiency at handling massive amounts of visual data makes them useful in training complex neural networks. They also have a high memory bandwidth, meaning faster data transfer. Before AGI can be achieved, similar significant advancements will need to be made in computing infrastructure. Quantum computing is touted as one way of achieving this. However, today’s quantum computers, while powerful, aren’t yet ready for everyday applications. But once they are, they could play a role in the achievement of AGI.

Growth in data volume and new sources of data . Some experts believe 5G mobile infrastructure could bring about a significant increase in data. That’s because the technology could power a surge in connected devices, or the Internet of Things . But, for a variety of reasons, we think most of the benefits of 5G have already appeared . For AGI to be achieved, there will need to be another catalyst for a huge increase in data volume.

New robotics approaches could yield new sources of training data. Placing human-like robots among us could allow companies to mine large sets of data that mimic our own senses to help the robots train themselves. Advanced self-driving cars are one example: data is being collected from cars that are already on the roads, so these vehicles are acting as a training set for future self-driving cars.

What can executives do about AGI?

AGI is still decades away, at the very least. But AI is here to stay—and it is advancing extremely quickly. Smart leaders can think about how to respond to the real progress that’s happening, as well as how to prepare for the automated future. Here are a few things to consider:

Stay informed about developments in AI and AGI . Connect with start-ups and develop a framework for tracking progress in AGI that is relevant to your business. Also, start to think about the right governance, conditions, and boundaries for success within your business and communities.
Invest in AI now . “The cost of doing nothing,” says McKinsey senior partner Nicolai Müller , “is just too high because everybody has this at the top of their agenda. I think it’s the one topic that every management board has looked into, that every CEO has explored across all regions and industries.” The organizations that get it right now will be poised to win in the coming era.
Continue to place humans at the center . Invest in human–machine interfaces, or “human in the loop” technologies that augment human intelligence. People at all levels of an organization need training and support to thrive in an increasingly automated world. AI is just the latest tool to help individuals and companies alike boost their efficiency.
Consider the ethical and security implications . This should include addressing cybersecurity , data privacy, and algorithm bias.
Build a strong foundation of data, talent, and capabilities . AI runs on data; having a strong foundation of high-quality data is critical to its success.
Organize your workers for new economies of scale and skill . Yesterday’s rigid organizational structures and operating models aren’t suited to the reality of rapidly advancing AI. One way to address this is by instituting flow-to-the-work models, where people can move seamlessly between initiatives and groups.
Place small bets to preserve strategic options in areas of your business that are exposed to AI developments . For example, consider investing in technology firms that are pursuing ambitious AI research and development projects in your industry. Not all these bets will necessarily pay off, but they could help hedge some of the existential risk your business may face in the future.

Learn more about QuantumBlack, AI by McKinsey . And check out AI-related job opportunities if you’re interested in working at McKinsey.

Articles referenced:

“ Generative AI in operations: Capturing the value ,” January 3, 2024, Marie El Hoyek and Nicolai Müller
“ The economic potential of generative AI: The next productivity frontier ,” June 14, 2023, Michael Chui , Eric Hazan , Roger Roberts , Alex Singla , Kate Smaje , Alex Sukharevsky , Lareina Yee , and Rodney Zemmel
“ What every CEO should know about generative AI ,” May 12, 2023, Michael Chui , Roger Roberts , Tanya Rodchenko, Alex Singla , Alex Sukharevsky , Lareina Yee , and Delphine Zurkiya
“ An executive primer on artificial general intelligence ,” April 29, 2020, Federico Berruti , Pieter Nel, and Rob Whiteman
“ Notes from the AI frontier: Applications and value of deep learning ,” April 17, 2018, Michael Chui , James Manyika , Mehdi Miremadi, Nicolaus Henke, Rita Chung, Pieter Nel, and Sankalp Malhotra
“ Augmented and virtual reality: The promise and peril of immersive technologies ,” October 3, 2017, Stefan Hall and Ryo Takahashi

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1 in 10 Asian Americans live in poverty. Their experiences vary widely, research says

Juliana Kim

People walk through a busy street in Chinatown in New York City. About 11% of Chinese Americans live in poverty, according to a new analysis by the Pew Research Center. Spencer Platt/Getty Images hide caption

People walk through a busy street in Chinatown in New York City. About 11% of Chinese Americans live in poverty, according to a new analysis by the Pew Research Center.

A Nepalese immigrant in his early 40s described the stress and uncertainty he felt during college about how to afford rent, food and tuition despite having a scholarship.

A man of Hmong origin in his mid-30s said he struggled with the decision to either attend college or go straight into the workforce to provide for his family.

And a woman of Pakistani descent in her early 30s said she didn't see her father often while growing up because he worked constantly to support their family and other relatives in Pakistan.

These were some of the responses in a new report from the Pew Research Center about the wide variety of experiences among Asian Americans living in poverty, based on 18 focus groups in 12 languages with 144 participants.

The report was part of a set of research published Wednesday to capture Asian Americans in economic hardship on a quantitative and qualitative scale. The project drew from focus groups, as well as census and survey data.

Most Asian Americans say they face discrimination and are often treated as foreigners

Nationally, 1 in 10 people of Asian descent live at or below the poverty line. But the rate was vastly different depending on country of origin, researchers found . For instance, about 6% of Indian Americans live in poverty while the rate is 19% for Burmese Americans.

Through focus groups, researchers also found that the challenges and opinions around poverty for Asian Americans differed based on age and whether they were born in or immigrated to the U.S.

"There are also shared experiences among Asian Americans living in poverty such as day-to-day financial difficulties, assumptions by others that they do not need help because they are Asian, and the importance of financial security in achieving their American dream," said Neil G. Ruiz, who co-authored the set of Pew reports.

Burmese, Hmong and Mongolian Americans experience some of the highest poverty rates

About 17% of Hmong Americans and 16% of Mongolian Americans live at or below the poverty line, according to a Pew analysis of the 2022 American Community Survey.

The rate of poverty was between 10% and 13% across Korean, Malaysian, Laotian, Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai, Indonesian, Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Cambodian groups. The poverty rate for Nepalese, Japanese, Sri Lankan and Filipino American groups was between 6% and 9%.

Places across the U.S. are testing no-strings cash as part of the social safety net

The analysis also found that 26% of all Asians living below the poverty line are located in just three major cities: New York City, Los Angeles and San Francisco. High rates of poverty among Asian Americans also exist in Fresno, Calif.; Buffalo, N.Y.; and Pittsburgh, Penn., according to the analysis.

Within major cities, the rate of poverty among Asian groups can vary even further. For example, according to a 2021 report from the New York mayor's office, about 32% of Bangladeshi immigrants and 29% of Pakistani immigrants in the city experienced poverty.

About a fifth of survey respondents said they have never asked for help from family, friends or the government

When it came to finding help with bills, housing, food or jobs, Pew researchers found that 61% of Asian adults living in poverty turned to family or friends.

Nearly half of respondents said they also sought government assistance on a local, state or federal level. Meanwhile, 19% of respondents said they have never asked or received support from the government, nor from religious institutions or community organizations.

Every new mom in this U.S. city is now getting cash aid for a year

Some participants in Pew's focus groups shared that government programs were difficult to access, because they were not proficient in English and the programs were not translated in their native language, according to Ruiz.

He also found that Asian immigrants who were refugees or asylum seekers were more familiar with government assistance than Asians who moved to the U.S. for other reasons, such as educational opportunities.

Asian Americans spoke about not knowing how to save or invest

Fifty-seven percent of Asian adults living in poverty said they were unable to save for emergencies this past year, according to the Pew survey.

In focus groups from this past year, participants shared that part of the issue was simply not having enough money to set aside, according to Ruiz. Another factor was a lack of financial literacy.

"When they are able to save, we heard people just don't know how," he said.

Ruiz added that not knowing how to save or invest was an especially common frustration among focus groups participants who were born in the U.S.

A 2023 survey by JPMorgan Chase found that confidence in reaching retirement goals varied across cultures. While 68% of Indian participants and 59% of Vietnamese respondents said they were confident in saving for retirement, only 35% of Korean participants felt the same.

U.S.-born Asian Americans expressed skepticism that education guarantees success

The role and significance of education was a common theme in focus groups.

While many foreign-born Asian participants believed that education was a key to getting out of poverty, U.S.-born Asians respondents tended to believe that their future depended on the type of education they received, he said.

Affirmative action divided Asian Americans and other people of color. Here's how

"Some people were not necessarily saying a bachelor's degree is the best thing," he added. "But then you did hear about financial education and learning how to invest."

In the focus groups, U.S.-born Asians who could speak English discussed the feeling that education was not enough to succeed, adding that networking and financial literacy played a role, according to Ruiz.

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Creating a Corporate Social Responsibility Program with Real Impact

Emilio Marti,
David Risi,
Eva Schlindwein,
Andromachi Athanasopoulou

Lessons from multinational companies that adapted their CSR practices based on local feedback and knowledge.

Exploring the critical role of experimentation in Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), research on four multinational companies reveals a stark difference in CSR effectiveness. Successful companies integrate an experimental approach, constantly adapting their CSR practices based on local feedback and knowledge. This strategy fosters genuine community engagement and responsive initiatives, as seen in a mining company’s impactful HIV/AIDS program. Conversely, companies that rely on standardized, inflexible CSR methods often fail to achieve their goals, demonstrated by a failed partnership due to local corruption in another mining company. The study recommends encouraging broad employee participation in CSR and fostering a culture that values CSR’s long-term business benefits. It also suggests that sustainable investors and ESG rating agencies should focus on assessing companies’ experimental approaches to CSR, going beyond current practices to examine the involvement of diverse employees in both developing and adapting CSR initiatives. Overall, embracing a dynamic, data-driven approach to CSR is essential for meaningful social and environmental impact.

By now, almost all large companies are engaged in corporate social responsibility (CSR): they have CSR policies, employ CSR staff, engage in activities that aim to have a positive impact on the environment and society, and write CSR reports. However, the evolution of CSR has brought forth new challenges. A stark contrast to two decades ago, when the primary concern was the sheer neglect of CSR, the current issue lies in the ineffective execution of these practices. Why do some companies implement CSR in ways that create a positive impact on the environment and society, while others fail to do so? Our research reveals that experimentation is critical for impactful CSR, which has implications for both companies that implement CSR and companies that externally monitor these CSR activities, such as sustainable investors and ESG rating agencies.

EM Emilio Marti is an assistant professor at the Rotterdam School of Management (RSM) at Erasmus University Rotterdam.
DR David Risi is a professor at the Bern University of Applied Sciences and a habilitated lecturer at the University of St. Gallen. His research focuses on how companies organize CSR and sustainability.
ES Eva Schlindwein is a professor at the Bern University of Applied Sciences and a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Oxford. Her research focuses on how organizations navigate tensions between business and society.
AA Andromachi Athanasopoulou is an associate professor at Queen Mary University of London and an associate fellow at the University of Oxford. Her research focuses on how individuals manage their leadership careers and make ethically charged decisions.

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Punxsutawney Phil is a dad! See the 2 groundhog pups welcomed by Phil and his wife, Phyllis

Punxsutawney Phil 's life just got a whole lot busier. In addition to predicting the weather, the Pennsylvania-based groundhog now has a new title: father.

Phil and his wife, Phyllis, welcomed two new babies, the Punxsutawney Groundhog Club announced on social media Wednesday.

"We have Babies!! The Punxsutawney Groundhog Club is very excited to announce that Phil and Phyllis have given birth to two healthy baby Groundhogs! The babies are currently in with mom and dad at the zoo that is located at the Punxsutawney Memorial Library, and can be viewed thru the viewing window," the club posted on Instagram Wednesday.

Start the day smarter. Get all the news you need in your inbox each morning.

"When we went in to feed them their fresh fruits and vegetables, we found Phyllis with two little baby groundhogs. It was very unexpected, we had no idea that she was pregnant," Tom Dunkel, the president of the Punxsutawney Groundhog Club's Inner Circle, told CBS Pittsburgh .

The club also posted a video of the baby groundhogs Wednesday on Instagram, which you can watch below.

Dunkel told CBS Pittsburgh that "Phil hasn't decided yet" what to name the pups.

"He says as soon as they figure that out he will let us know and then we will let the world know. It's fun and it's such good news and fun news in times when we are getting a lot of bad news so we are happy that this is unfolding for Phil and Phyllis," Dunkel told the news outlet.

Did Phil see his shadow this year?

Phil did not see his shadow on Feb. 2 at Gobbler's Knob in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania, part of the annual Groundhog Day tradition celebrated in the U.S. and Canada. That means, according to the legend, Phil was predicting an early spring.

It was the first time since 2020 that Phil predicted an early spring, and the 21st time since records were kept.

If you look at the data, Punxsutawney Phil has a record of seeing his shadow more often than not. Prior to 2024, the groundhog had seen his shadow 107 times and not seen his shadow 20 times, according to the York Daily Record , part of the USA TODAY Network. There were a few years in the late 1800s where there was no record of his forecast, and 1943 was the only year he did not make an appearance.

How accurate is Punxsutawney Phil?: A question for America's favorite forecaster, Punxsutawney Phil

Punxsutawney Phil goes viral on TikTok

Phil captured the hearts and imagination of TikTok creatives in early February when user @olivesongs11 composed a song based on the lore that Punxsutawney Phil has been alive since 1886, and his longevity comes from an "elixir of life" that he takes a sip of every summer.

According to the Punxsutawney Groundhog Club , Phyllis is unfortunately not offered the same elixir and is not given her own immortality.

@olivesongs11, also known as the singer/songwriter Oliver Richman, composed a song based on this unbelievable idea.

"Nothing's supposed to live forever, Phyliss," a section of Richman's song, written from Phil's point of view goes in a ballad-like style. "Nothing's supposed to last that long. The burrows we made will eventually fade and I'll be left to sing the same old song."

The video went viral, with over 4.8 million views and 500,000 likes.

Other TikTok users jumped on the idea, posting duets on the app singing to Richman's song as their own version of Phyliss or even as the Punxsutawney Mayor.

Contributing: Emily DeLetter, USA TODAY

Gabe Hauari is a national trending news reporter at USA TODAY. You can follow him on X @GabeHauari or email him at [email protected].

This article originally appeared on USA TODAY: Punxsutawney Phil is a dad! See the 2 groundhog pups welcomed by Phil and his wife, Phyllis

Groundhog Club handler A.J. Dereume holds Punxsutawney Phil, the weather prognosticating groundhog, during the 137th celebration of Groundhog Day on Gobbler's Knob in Punxsutawney, Pa., Thursday, Feb. 2, 2023.

Read our research on: Abortion | Podcasts | Election 2024

Regions & Countries

How hispanic americans get their news, u.s.-born latinos overwhelmingly prefer to get their news in english; about half of immigrant latinos prefer it in spanish.

An image of a Hispanic woman looking at her smartphone.

Pew Research Center conducted this study to understand Hispanic Americans’ habits around news and information, including the languages in which they consume news and their engagement with Hispanic media outlets.

Most of the questions in this report are from Pew Research Center’s 2023 National Survey of Latinos, a survey of 5,078 U.S. Hispanic adults conducted Nov. 6-19, 2023. This includes 1,524 Hispanic adults on the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP) and 3,554 Hispanic adults on Ipsos’ KnowledgePanel . Respondents on both panels are recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. Recruiting panelists by phone or mail ensures that nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. This gives us confidence that any sample can represent the whole population, or in this case the whole U.S. Hispanic population. (For more information, watch our Methods 101 explainer on random sampling.)

To further ensure the survey reflects a balanced cross-section of the nation’s Hispanic adults, the data is weighted to match the U.S. Hispanic adult population by age, gender, education, nativity, Hispanic origin group and other categories. Read more about the ATP’s methodology . Refer to the topline for the questions used for our National Survey of Latinos , along with responses, and to methodology for more details.

The questions about how often people get news from various platforms, which platforms they prefer for getting news, and which social media sites people get news from are from an ATP survey of 8,842 U.S. adults, including 1,193 Hispanic adults, conducted Sept. 25-Oct. 1, 2023. Refer to the topline for t he questions used for this survey , along with responses, and to the methodology for more details.

Pew Research Center is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts, its primary funder. This is the latest report in Pew Research Center’s ongoing investigation of the state of news, information and journalism in the digital age, a research program funded by The Pew Charitable Trusts, with generous support from the John S. and James L. Knight Foundation.

The terms Hispanic and Latino are used interchangeably in this report.

Hispanic/Latino Americans, Hispanic/Latino adults , and Hispanics/Latinos are used interchangeably in this report to refer to survey respondents who self-identify as Hispanic or Latino in the United States. They include those who say their race is White, Black, Asian or some other race and those who identify as multiracial. Hispanic/Latino Americans live in the U.S. but are not necessarily U.S. citizens.

U.S. born refers to people born in the 50 states or the District of Columbia.

Immigrant refers to people born outside the 50 states or D.C. For the purposes of this report, immigrants include those born in Puerto Rico or another U.S. territory. Although individuals born in Puerto Rico are U.S. citizens by birth, they are grouped with immigrant respondents because they were born into a Spanish-dominant culture and because on many points their attitudes, views and beliefs more closely resemble those of Hispanics born outside the U.S. than Hispanics born in the 50 states or D.C., and even U.S.-born Hispanics who identify as being of Puerto Rican origin.

Second generation refers to people born in the 50 states or D.C. who have at least one parent born in a different country, Puerto Rico or another U.S. territory.

Third generation or higher refers to people born in the 50 states or D.C. who have two parents born in the 50 states or D.C.

Language dominance is a composite measure based on self-described assessments of speaking and reading abilities. Spanish-dominant people are more proficient in Spanish than in English (i.e., they speak and read Spanish “very well” or “pretty well” but rate their English ability lower). Bilingual refers to people who are proficient in both English and Spanish. English-dominant people are more proficient in English than in Spanish.

“Middle income” is defined here as two-thirds to double the median annual family income for panelists on the American Trends Panel. “Lower income” falls below that range; “upper income” falls above it. Refer to the methodology for more details.

Hispanic news outlets are those outlets that focus on providing news and information specifically to Hispanic audiences. These can include newspapers, radio or TV stations, podcasts, or social media accounts created for and by Hispanic people. Their content could be in Spanish, English, both languages or another language.

Country of origin refers to the country that survey respondents, their parents or their Hispanic ancestors came from.

A bar charts showing that About half of U.S. Latinos get news mostly in English and prefer it that way

Just over half of U.S. Hispanic adults (54%) get their news mostly in English – far higher than the share who get their news mostly in Spanish (21%). About a quarter of Hispanic Americans (23%) say they consume news in both languages about equally.

There is an almost identical pattern on the question of preferred language for news: 51% prefer to get their news in English, 24% prefer Spanish and 23% say they do not have a preference.

But a new Pew Research Center survey of adults who identify as Hispanic or Latino finds major differences in news consumption habits between U.S.-born Hispanics and those who immigrated from other countries .

While U.S.-born Latinos overwhelmingly get their news in English, and prefer it in English, those born outside the United States have much more varied habits: 41% get their news mostly in Spanish, 26% get it primarily in English and 31% do both about equally. Similarly, 47% of Latino immigrants prefer to get their news in Spanish, while 22% prefer English and 31% do not express a preference.

Among Latino immigrants, those who have spent more years in the U.S. are less inclined than more recent arrivals to get news in Spanish, and more inclined to get it in English. There is little difference in the shares who get news in both languages about equally.

Jump to more information on the languages in which U.S. Latinos consume news.

We asked these questions to better understand how a group that makes up nearly one-in-five Americans stays informed, especially as its demographics and use of Spanish continue to change. Immigrants are declining as a share of all U.S. Hispanics , and the share of Hispanics who speak Spanish at home has also dropped – even though the number of Hispanics who speak Spanish at home has increased due to overall growth in the Hispanic population.

Other key findings about Hispanics’ news consumption include:

Most Latino adults prefer digital devices for news

A bar chart showing that Most Latinos prefer digital devices for news

Latinos get their news from a variety of sources, but most say they prefer to use digital devices over other platforms. Nearly nine-in-ten (87%) say they get news from digital devices at least sometimes, and 65% say they prefer this form of news over TV, radio or print. Digital devices have become an increasingly common source for news among Latinos – and among Americans overall – in recent decades, a shift driven by the rise of the internet .

Latinos are more likely than White Americans (55%) and Black Americans (50%) to prefer getting news from digital devices. Latinos also are more likely than White and Black adults to get news from social media, at least in part because Latino adults tend to be younger than other groups, and young adults are more inclined to use social media for news.

Nearly three-quarters of Latino adults under 50 (73%) prefer to get their news on digital devices, including 27% who prefer social media specifically.

Jump to more information on the platforms where U.S. Latinos get news.

Attention to news is declining among U.S. Latinos

A line chart showing that Attention to news has declined since 2020 among U.S. Hispanics

About one-in-five Latino adults (22%) say they follow the news all or most of the time, while an additional 36% follow the news some of the time. The share of Latinos who follow the news all or most of the time has fluctuated in recent years but has dropped by 9 percentage points between 2020 (31%) and 2023 (22%), similar to a pattern seen across the general U.S. public .

In recent years, Hispanic Americans have followed the news less closely than Black and White Americans. Again, the high share of young adults within the Hispanic population plays a role, because young people are less likely to follow the news closely. Among Hispanic adults ages 18 to 29, just 10% say they follow the news all or most of the time – far below the share of Hispanics ages 65 and older who do so (44%).

Jump to more information on U.S. Hispanics’ news consumption habits.

Half of Hispanic adults get news from Hispanic news outlets

Bar charts showing that U.S.-born Hispanics less likely than immigrants to get news from Hispanic news outlets and about origin countries

Half of U.S. Hispanic adults say they at least sometimes get news from Hispanic news outlets – those that specifically cater to Hispanic audiences. This includes 21% who say they do this extremely or very often. Just over half of Hispanics (54%) get news about their or their family’s country of origin at least sometimes, including 24% who do this often.

Hispanic immigrants are much more likely than U.S.-born Hispanics to get news from Hispanic outlets and about their origin country. In both cases, about seven-in-ten immigrants say they at least sometimes get these types of news: 69% get news from Hispanic outlets and 72% get news about their country of origin. Among Hispanic adults who were born in the U.S., 33% at least sometimes get news from Hispanic outlets, and 38% get news about their family’s country of origin.

There are further differences among U.S.-born Hispanics: Those whose parents were also born in the U.S. are even less likely than those with one or more immigrant parent to get these types of news.

Jump to more information on Hispanic news outlets and news about Hispanic Americans’ origin countries.

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Table of contents, latinos’ views on the migrant situation at the u.s.-mexico border, 8 facts about black americans and the news, news platform fact sheet, latinos’ views of and experiences with the spanish language, hispanic and black news media fact sheet, most popular.

About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

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⭐ Explain the types of research. Research Design
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The Pew Research Center's approach to generational analysis involves tracking the same groups of people on a range of issues, behaviors and characteristics. Setting the bounds of generations is a necessary step for this analysis. It is a process that may be informed by a range of factors including demographics, attitudes, historical events ...
1.11: Developmental Research Designs
Longitudinal research designs Figure 2. Longitudinal research studies the same person or group of people over an extended period of time. Longitudinal research involves beginning with a group of people who may be of the same age and background (cohort) and measuring them repeatedly over a long period of time. One of the benefits of this type of research is that people can be followed through ...
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Gen Z is currently the second-youngest generation, with millennials before and Generation Alpha after. Like every generation, Gen Z's behaviors are shaped by how they grew up. Young people today have come of age in the shadow of climate doom, pandemic lockdowns, and fears of economic collapse. The first Gen Zers were born when the internet ...
APA Dictionary of Psychology
birth order. the ordinal position of a child in the family (first-born, second-born, youngest, etc.). There has been much psychological research into how birth order affects personal adjustment and family status, but the notion that it has strong and consistent effects on psychological outcomes is not supported. Early interest in birth order ...
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Abstractspiepr Abs1. Every day people do research as they gather information to learn about something of interest. In the scientific world, however, research means something different than simply gathering information. Scientific research is characterized by its careful planning and observing, by its relentless efforts to understand and explain ...
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It is an honor and privilege to offer a few thoughts and remarks on the award-winning paper by Gary Knight and Tamer Cavusgil, and especially their retrospective and account of research on born global firms as it has evolved in the 10 years after the paper's publication in the Journal of International Business Studies (JIBS).. In their retrospective, Cavusgil and Knight (2015) suggest that ...
Here Are the Age Ranges for Millennials, Gen Z, and Gen Alpha
Millennials. 1981-1996. 28-43 years old. Gen Z. 1997-2012. 12-27 years old. Gen Alpha. Early 2010s-2025. 0-approx. 11 years old.
RESEARCH
RESEARCH definition: 1. a detailed study of a subject, especially in order to discover (new) information or reach a…. Learn more.
research, n.¹ meanings, etymology and more
There are seven meanings listed in OED's entry for the noun research, three of which are labelled obsolete. See 'Meaning & use' for definitions, usage, and quotation evidence. See meaning & use. How common is the noun research? About 200 occurrences per million words in modern written English . 1750: 3.7: 1760: 5.7: 1770: 7.8: 1780: 11 ...
Population-Based Birth Cohort Studies in Epidemiology
Abstract. Birth cohort studies are the most appropriate type of design to determine the causal relationship between potential risk factors during the prenatal or postnatal period and the health status of the newborn up to childhood and potentially adulthood. To date, there has been a growth in interest regarding observational population-based ...
BORN
The BORN Network is a national collaborative of pediatric clinicians and researchers who evaluate care in the birth setting and in the transition to home. Goals. The overarching goal of the BORN Network is to conduct research to establish a firm evidence-base for the routine care of the term and late preterm infant.
Research Definition & Meaning
The meaning of RESEARCH is studious inquiry or examination; especially : investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws. How to use research in a sentence.
Born Digital
Born digital content expands. Recently, scholarly communications has come to refer to a variety of research outputs that are part of the scholar's workflow beyond publications. If these works in other formats are assigned DOIs they can become part of the research universe. And with the use of standard identifiers such as ORCID for authors ...
Age & Generations
How Pew Research Center will report on generations moving forward. When we study groups of similarly aged people over time, we won't always default to using the standard generational definitions and labels. 5 things to keep in mind when you hear about generations. Decoded: Assessing the effects of generation using age-period-cohort analysis.
PDF Defining "Born Digital"
The purpose of this document is to define "borndigital" and the various types of born-digital materials. It is intended to improve community discourse by encouraging caretakers of born-digital resources to specify what they mean when they use the term. Definition: Born-digital resources are items created and managed in digital form.
Born, n. meanings, etymology and more
1930s. The earliest known use of the noun Born is in the 1930s. OED's earliest evidence for Born is from 1931, in Math. Proc. Cambridge Philos. Society 1930-31. From a proper name. Etymons: proper name Born. See etymology. Born, n. meanings, etymology, pronunciation and more in the Oxford English Dictionary.
research noun
research on something/somebody Recent research on deaf children has produced some interesting findings about their speech. Research on animals has led to some important medical advances. according to research According to recent research, more people are going to the movies than ever before. Their latest research project will be funded by the ...
Human brains are getting larger. That may be good news for dementia risk
Study participants born in the 1970s had 6.6% larger brain volumes and almost 15% larger brain surface area than those born in the 1930s. The researchers hypothesize the increased brain size may lead to an increased brain reserve, potentially reducing the overall risk of age-related dementias. The findings were published in JAMA Neurology.
Is globalization in retreat? Here is what a new study shows
Recent research at the World Bank, based on a new definition, suggests that globalization is alive and well. But first, some context. For more than 50 years, globalization has been a catalyst for economic development, trade integration, and prosperity building. It has helped lift more than 1 billion people out of poverty.
Borne out Definition & Meaning
confirm, substantiate… See the full definition. Games & Quizzes ; Games & Quizzes; Word of the Day ... on the Web Hamas leaders have also said during conversations with The Post that the idea for the Oct. 7 attacks was born out of frictions that ... 2 Mar. 2024 The concept was born out of Royal Caribbean's research into what guests are ...
Researcher proposes a new definition of a human embryo from a legal
Iñigo de Miguel-Beriain, researcher in the UPV/EHU's Research Group on Social and Legal Sciences applied to New Technosciences, has published a paper in EMBO Reports in which he provides a legal ...
What is Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)?
The simplest definition of a robot is a machine that can perform tasks on its own or with minimal assistance from humans. ... It's possible that the recent success of deep-learning-based AI systems may have drawn research attention away from the more fundamental cognitive work required to make progress toward AGI. Computing advancements ...
Generational research using age-period-cohort analysis
In this context, "age" denotes a person's stage in the life cycle, "period" refers to when the data was collected, and "cohort" refers to a group of people who were born within the same time period. For this analysis, the cohorts we are interested in are generations - Generation Z, Millennials, Generation X and so on.
New Pew research explores the diverse experiences of Asian ...
While many foreign-born Asian participants believed that education was a key to getting out of poverty, U.S.-born Asians respondents tended to believe that their future depended on the type of ...
Creating a Corporate Social Responsibility Program with Real Impact
His research focuses on how companies organize CSR and sustainability. ES Eva Schlindwein is a professor at the Bern University of Applied Sciences and a postdoctoral fellow at the University of ...
Punxsutawney Phil is a dad! See the 2 groundhog pups welcomed by ...
Punxsutawney Phil 's life just got a whole lot busier. In addition to predicting the weather, the Pennsylvania-based groundhog now has a new title: father. Phil and his wife, Phyllis, welcomed two ...
How Hispanic Americans Get Their News
Just over half of U.S. Hispanic adults (54%) get their news mostly in English - far higher than the share who get their news mostly in Spanish (21%). About a quarter of Hispanic Americans (23%) say they consume news in both languages about equally. There is an almost identical pattern on the question of preferred language for news: 51% prefer ...