research paper about sports management

Sign in to save searches and organize your favorite content.
Not registered? Sign up

Journal of Sport Management

Official Journal of the North American Society for Sport Management

Indexed in: Web of Science, Scopus, ProQuest, EBSCOhost, EBSCO A-to-Z, Google Scholar

Print ISSN: 0888-4773 Online ISSN: 1543-270X

Get eTOC Alerts
Get New Article Alerts
Latest Issue TOC RSS
Get New Article RSS

Volume 38 (2024): Issue 3 (May 2024)

JSM is published bimonthly, in January, March, May, July, September, and November.

The Journal of Sport Management aims to publish innovative empirical, theoretical, and review articles focused on the governance, management, and marketing of sport organizations. Submissions are encouraged from a range of areas that inform theoretical advances for the management, marketing, and consumption of sport in all its forms, and sport organizations generally. Review articles and studies using quantitative and/or qualitative approaches are welcomed.

The Journal of Sport Management publishes research and scholarly review articles; short reports on replications, test development, and data reanalysis; editorials that focus on significant issues pertaining to sport management; articles aimed at strengthening the link between sport management theory and sport management practice; and book reviews ("Off the Press").

Ethics Policy

Please visit the Ethics Policy page for information about the policies followed by JSM.

Jeff James Florida State University, USA

Editors Emeriti

Gordon Olafson (Founding Editor: 1987–1991) Janet Parks (Founding Editor: 1987–1991) P. Chelladurai (1992–1993) Joy DeSensi (1994–1996) Trevor Slack (1996–2000) Wendy Frisby (2000–2003) Laurence Chalip (2003–2006) Lucie Thibault (2006–2009) Richard Wolfe (2009–2012) Marvin Washington (2012–2015) David Shilbury (2015-2018) Janet Fink (2018-2021)

Senior Associate Editor

Scott Tainsky Wayne State University, USA

Book Review Editor

Edward Horne University of New Mexico, USA

Associate Editors

Laura Burton University of Connecticut, USA

Marlene A. Dixon Texas A&M University, USA

Todd Donovan Colorado State University, USA

Shannon Kerwin Brock University, Canada

Daniel Mason University of Alberta, Canada

Heath McDonald RMIT University, Australia

Jon Welty Peachey Gordon College, USA

Steven Salaga University of Georgia, USA

Editorial Board

Nola Agha, University of San Francisco, USA

Kwame Agyemang, The Ohio State University, USA

Natasha Brison, Texas A&M University, USA

Adam Cohen, University of Technology Sydney, Australia

George Cunningham, University of Florida, USA

Elizabeth Delia, University of Massachusetts Amherst, USA

Timothy DeSchriver, University of Delaware, USA

Alison Doherty, University of Western Ontario, Canada

Brendan Dwyer, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA

Sheranne Fairley, University of Queensland, Australia

Lesley Ferkins, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand

Kevin Filo, Griffith University, Australia

Andrea N. Geurin, Loughborough University, UK

Heather Gibson, University of Florida, USA

Chris Greenwell, University of Louisville, USA

Kirstin Hallmann, German Sport University Cologne, Germany

Kate Heinze, University of Michigan, USA

Larena Hoeber, University of Regina, Canada

Michael Hutchinson, University of Memphis, USA

Yuhei Inoue, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK

Kyriaki Kaplanidou, University of Florida, USA

Matthew Katz, University of Massachusetts Amherst, USA

Timothy Kellison, Florida State University, USA

Lisa Kihl, University of Minnesota, USA

Jeeyoon (Jamie) Kim, Syracuse University, USA

Dae Hee Kwak, University of Michigan, USA

Sarah Leberman, Massey University, New Zealand

Dan Lock, Bournemouth University, UK

Brian McCullough, Texas A&M University, USA

Jennifer McGarry (Breuning), University of Connecticut, USA

Brian Mills, University of Texas, USA

Katie Misener, University of Waterloo, Canada

Calvin Nite, Texas A&M University, USA

Norm O’Reilly, Ohio University, USA

Milena Parent, University of Ottawa, Canada

Rodney Paul, Syracuse University, USA

Daniel Rascher, University of San Francisco, USA

Dominik Schreyer, WHU - Otto Beisheim School of Management, Germany

Nico Schulenkorf, University of Technology Sydney, Australia

Chad Seifried, Louisiana State University, USA

Sally Shaw, University of Otago, New Zealand

Emma Sherry, Swinburne University of Technology, Australia

Brian P. Soebbing, University of Alberta, Canada

Popi Sotiriadou, Griffith University, Australia

Per Svensson, Louisiana State University, USA

Nefertiti Walker, University of Massachusetts Amherst, USA

Marvin Washington, Portland State University, USA

Nicholas Watanabe, University of South Carolina, USA

Pamela Wicker, Bielefeld University, Germany

David Wooten, University of Michigan, USA

Masayuki Yoshida, Hosei University, Japan

James Zhang, University of Georgia, USA

Human Kinetics Staff Tammy Miller, Senior Journals Managing Editor

Prior to submission, please carefully read and follow the submission guidelines detailed below. Authors must submit their manuscripts through the journal’s ScholarOne online submission system. To submit, click the button below:

Page Content

Authorship guidelines, open access, manuscript guidelines, submit a manuscript, specific guidelines for special issues, additional resources.

Open Access Resource Center
Figure Guideline Examples
Copyright and Permissions for Authors
Editor and Reviewer Guidelines

The Journals Division at Human Kinetics adheres to the criteria for authorship as outlined by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors*:

Each author should have participated sufficiently in the work to take public responsibility for the content. Authorship credit should be based only on substantial contributions to:

a. Substantial contributions to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work; AND b. Drafting the work or revising it critically for important intellectual content; AND c. Final approval of the version to be published; AND d. Agreement to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Conditions a, b, c, and d must all be met. Individuals who do not meet the above criteria may be listed in the acknowledgments section of the manuscript. * http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authors-and-contributors.html

Authors who use artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technologies (such as Large Language Models [LLMs], chatbots, or image creators) in their work must indicate how they were used in the cover letter and the work itself. These technologies cannot be listed as authors as they are unable to meet all the conditions above, particularly agreeing to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

Human Kinetics is pleased to allow our authors the option of having their articles published Open Access. In order for an article to be published Open Access, authors must complete and return the Request for Open Access form and provide payment for this option. To learn more and request Open Access, click here .

All Human Kinetics journals require that authors follow our manuscript guidelines in regards to use of copyrighted material, human and animal rights, and conflicts of interest as specified in the following link: https://journals.humankinetics.com/page/author/authors

When preparing manuscripts for submission in the Journal of Sport Management, authors should follow the guidelines in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th edition; www.apa.org ). Manuscripts must be submitted in English. All manuscripts must be preceded by an abstract of no more than 150 words and three to six keywords chosen from terms not used in the title. If footnotes are used, they should be as few as possible and should not exceed six lines each. Figures should be created in Excel or saved as TIFF or JPEG files. All tables, figure captions, and footnotes must be grouped together on pages separate from the body of the text. Reference citations in the text must be accurate concerning dates of publication and spelling of author names, and they must cross-check with those in the reference list. Manuscripts will be summarily rejected if they do not follow the APA guidelines.

Manuscripts submitted will be judged primarily on their substantive content, but writing style, structure, and length are very important considerations. Poor presentation is sufficient reason for the rejection of a manuscript. When first received, manuscripts will be evaluated by the editor in terms of their contribution-to-length ratio . Thus, manuscripts should be written as simply and concisely as possible. Papers should be no longer than 40 double-spaced pages (using one-inch margins and Times New Roman 12-point font), inclusive of references, tables, figures, and appendices. However, we recognize that in rare circumstances, papers intended to make very extensive contributions may require additional space. Prior to submitting a manuscript, authors should consider the contribution-to-length ratio and ask themselves: "Is the paper long enough to cover the subject while concise enough to maintain the reader’s interest?" (This paragraph is based on the Information for Contributors of the Academy of Management Review.)

Please note that a blind review process is used to evaluate manuscripts. As such, any clues to the author’s identity should be eliminated from the manuscript. The first page of the manuscript must not include author names or affiliations, but it should include the title of the paper and the date of submission.

Manuscripts must not be submitted to another journal while they are under review by the Journal of Sport Management , nor should they have been previously published. Manuscripts are read by reviewers, and the review process generally takes approximately 12 weeks. Manuscripts will be evaluated in terms of topical relevance, theoretical and methodological adequacy, and clarity of explanation and analysis. Authors should be prepared to provide the data and/or research instrument(s) on which the manuscript is based for examination if requested by the editor. Comments from reviewers concerning manuscripts, along with the editorial decision, are made available to authors.

Questions about the journal or manuscript submission should be directed to the Editor of the journal, Professor Jeff James, at [email protected] .

Authors should submit their manuscript through ScholarOne (see submission button at the top of this page), the online submission system for the Journal of Sport Management . ScholarOne manages the electronic transfer of manuscripts throughout the article review process while providing step-by-step instructions and a user-friendly design. Please access the site and follow the directions for authors submitting manuscripts.

Authors of manuscripts accepted for publication must transfer copyright to Human Kinetics, Inc. This copyright form can be viewed by visiting ScholarOne and selecting "Instructions & Forms" in the upper-right corner of the screen. Also, any problems that may be encountered can be resolved easily by selecting “Help” in the upper-right corner.

The following guidelines are intended to help scholars prepare a special issue proposal. Proposals on time-sensitive topics may be considered for publication as a special series at the Editor’s discretion. In no more than four pages, author(s) should address the following questions using the headings provided.

In 150 words or less, what is your special issue about? Important: Be sure to include its main themes and objectives.
What are you proposing to do differently/more innovatively/better than has already been done on the topic (in JSM specifically, as well as in the field more generally)?
Why is now the time for a special issue on this topic?
Why is JSM the most appropriate venue for this topic?
What are the main competing works on the topic (e.g., edited books, other special issues)?
List up to five articles recently published on the topic that show breadth of scope and authorship in the topic.
Please provide your vitae.
Have you edited/co-edited a special issue before? If yes, please give the citation(s).
Do you currently serve on any journal editorial boards? If yes, please list.
Will there be one or more co-editors? If yes, please liste their names and professional affiliations.
If not, who do you suggest for a potential Guest Editor?
(a) Call for papers
(b) Submission deadline
(c) Review process (averages 4 months)
(d) Revision process (averages 3 months)
(e) Final editing and approval from JSM editor
(f) Completion and submission to Human Kinetics (must be at least 3 months prior to the issue cover month; e.g., completion by January 1 for the April issue)

Individuals

Online subscriptions.

Individuals may purchase online-only subscriptions directly from this website. To order, click on an article and select the subscription option you desire for the journal of interest (individual or student, 1-year or 2-year), and then click Buy. Those purchasing student subscriptions must be prepared to provide proof of student status as a degree-seeking candidate at an accredited institution. Online-only subscriptions purchased via this website provide immediate access to all the journal's content, including all archives and Ahead of Print. Note that a subscription does not allow access to all the articles on this website, but only to those articles published in the journal you subscribe to. For step-by-step instructions to purchase online, click here .

Print + Online Subscriptions

Individuals wishing to purchase a subscription with a print component (print + online) must contact our customer service team directly to place the order. Click here to contact us!

Institutions

Institution subscriptions must be placed directly with our customer service team. To review format options and pricing, visit our Librarian Resource Center . To place your order, contact us .

Environmental Sustainability and Sports Management: A Review of Marketing Contributions and Discussion of Future Research Opportunities

Conference paper
First Online: 05 September 2023
Cite this conference paper

Ricardo Roseira Cayolla ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4015-7363 7 , 8 &
Marco Escadas ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4661-947X 9 , 10

Part of the book series: Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies ((SIST,volume 344))

Included in the following conference series:

International Conference on Marketing and Technologies

410 Accesses

In this research, we provide an overview of the increasing area of environmental sustainability in the sports management field and discuss future research opportunities. Through a division of topics that we consider most impactful, a selection of the research that has been implemented is presented, as well as their results and possible future directions. We conclude with a final reflection to extend and deepen sustainability studies in sport management.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Available as PDF
Read on any device
Instant download
Own it forever
Available as EPUB and PDF
Durable hardcover edition
Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Belz, F. M. (2006). Editorial: Marketing in the 21st century. Business Strategy and the Environment, 15 (3), 139–144. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.529

Bunds, K. S., Kanters, M. A., Venditti, R. A., Rajagopalan, N., Casper, J. M., & Carlton, T. A. (2018). Organized youth sports and commuting behavior: The environmental impact of decentralized community sport facilities. Transportation Research Part D, 65 , 387–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2018.08.017

Article Google Scholar

Busch, T., & Hoffmann, V. H. (2009). Ecology-driven real options: An investment framework for incorporating uncertainties in the context of the natural environment. Journal of Business Ethics, 90 (2), 295–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-009-0043-y

Casper, J. M., McCullough, B. P., & Pfahl, M. E. (2020). Examining environmental fan engagement initiatives through values and norms with intercollegiate sport fans. Sport Management Review, 23 (2), 348–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2019.03.005

Cayolla, R., Quintela, J. A., & Santos, T. (2022). “If you don’t know me by now”—The importance of sustainability initiative awareness for stakeholders of professional sports organizations. Sustainability, 14 , 1–16.

Cayolla, R., Santos, T., & Quintela, J. A. (2021). Sustainable initiatives in sports organizations—Analysis of a group of stakeholders in pandemic times. Sustainability, 13 (16), 9122. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13169122

Cayolla, R., Kellison, T., McCullough, B. P., Biscaia, R., Escadas, M., & Santos, T. (2021). The rooted fan: Exploring suggested improvements to a professional sport team’s sustainability initiatives. Paper presented at the North American Society for Sport Management (NASSM) annual conference, 1 June–5 June, Atlanta, GA, United States.

Google Scholar

Ciletti, D., Lanasa, J., Ramos, D., Luchs, R., & Lou, J. (2010). Sustainability communication in North American professional sports leagues: Insights from web-site self-presentations. International Journal of Sport Communication, 3 (1), 64–91. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.3.1.64

Dolf, M., & Teehan, P. (2015). Reducing the carbon footprint of spectator and team travel at the University of British Columbia’s varsity sports events. Sport Management Review, 18 (2), 244–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2014.06.003

Inoue, Y., & Kent, A. (2012). Investigating the role of corporate credibility in corporate social marketing: A case study of environmental initiatives by professional sport organizations. Sport Management Review, 15 (3), 330–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2011.12.002

Inoue, Y., & Kent, A. (2012). Sport teams as promoters of pro-environmental behavior: An empirical study. Journal of Sport Management, 26 , 417–432.

Inoue, Y., & Kent, A. (2014). A conceptual framework for understanding the effects of corporate social marketing on consumer behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 121 (4), 621–633. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1742-y

Janssen, E., Kann, D. V., De Vries, H., Lechner, L., & Van Osch, L. (2014). Sun protection during snow sports: An analysis of behavior and psychosocial determinants. Health Education Research, 30 (3), 380–387. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyv013

Johnson, J., & Ali, A. E. (2018). Sustainability, greenwashing, and the light green approach to sport environmentalism. In B. P. McCullough & T. Kellison (Eds.), Routledge handbook of sport and the environment (pp. 319–329). Routledge.

Kellison, T. B., & Kim, Y. K. (2014). Marketing pro-environmental venues in professional sport: Planting seeds of change among existing and prospective consumers. Journal of Sport Management, 28 (1), 34–48. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2011-0127

Kellison, T. B., Trendafilova, S., & McCullough, B. P. (2015). Considering the social impact of sustainable stadium design. International Journal of Event Management Research, 10 , 63–83.

Küskü, F. (2007). From necessity to responsibility: Evidence for corporate environmental citizenship activities from a developing country perspective. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 14 , 74–87. https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526157089.00011

Mallen, C., Adams, L., Stevens, J., & Thompson, L. (2010). Environmental sustainability in sport facility management: A Delphi study. European Sport Management Quarterly, 10 (3), 367–389. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184741003774521

Mallen, C., & Chard, C. (2011). A framework for debating the future of environmental sustainability in the sport academy. Sport Management Review, 14 (4), 424–433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2010.12.002

Mallen, C., & Chard, C. (2012). ‘What could be’ in Canadian sport facility environmental sustainability. Sport Management Review, 15 (2), 230–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2011.10.001

Mallen, C., Stevens, J., Adams, L., & Mcroberts, S. (2010). The assessment of the environmental performance of an international multi-sport event. European Sport Management Quarterly, 10 (1), 97–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184740903460488

McCullough, B. P., Orr, M., & Watanabe, N. M. (2020). Measuring externalities: The imperative next step to sustainability assessment in sport. Journal of Sport Management, 34 (5), 393–402. https://doi.org/10.1123/JSM.2019-0254

McCullough, B. P., Pfahl, M. E., & Nguyen, S. N. (2016). The green waves of environmental sustainability in sport. Sport in Society, 19 (7), 1040–1065. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2015.1096251

Mccullough, B. P., & Kellison, T. B. (2016). Go green for the home team: Sense of place and environmental sustainability in sport. Journal of Sustainability Education, 11 , 1–14.

Pereira, R. P. T., Camara, M. V. O., Ribeiro, G. M., & Filimonau, V. (2017). Applying the facility location problem model for selection of more climate benign mega sporting event hosts: A case of the FIFA world cups. Journal of Cleaner Production, 159 , 147–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.05.053

Samuel, S., & Stubbs, W. (2013). Green Olympics, green legacies? An exploration of the environmental legacies of the Olympic Games. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 48 (4), 485–504. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690212444576

Sartore-Baldwin, M. L., & McCullough, B. P. (2018). Equity-based sustainability and ecocentric management: Creating more ecologically just sport organization practices. Sport Management Review, 21 (4), 391–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2017.08.009

Shah, D. (2016). Online education: Should we take it seriously? Climacteric, 19 (1), 3–6. https://doi.org/10.3109/13697137.2015.1115314

Sutton, W. A., McDonald, M. A., Milne, G. R., & Cimperman, J. (1997). Creating and fostering fan identification in professional sports. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 6, 15–22.

Trail, G. T., & McCullough, B. P. (2020). Marketing sustainability through sport: Testing the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model. European Sport Management Quarterly, 20 (2), 109–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2019.1580301

Trail, G. T., & Mccullough, B. P. (2020). A longitudinal study of sustainability attitudes, intentions, and behaviors: An abstract. In S. Wu, F. Pantoja, & N. Krey (Eds.), Marketing opportunities and challenges in a changing global marketplace. AMSAC 2019. Developments in marketing science: Proceedings of the academy of marketing science (pp. 147–148). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39165-2_64

Trendafilova, S., & Babiak, K. (2013). Understanding strategic corporate environmental responsibility in professional sport. International Journal Sport Management and Marketing, 13 (1/2), 1–26.

Trendafilova, S., & McCullough, B. P. (2018). Environmental sustainability scholarship and the efforts of the sport sector: A rapid review of literature. Cogent Social Sciences, 4 (1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2018.1467256

Triantafyllidis, S. (2018). Carbon dioxide emissions research and sustainable transportation in the sports industry. Journal of Carbon Research, 4 (57), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.3390/c4040057

Triantafyllidis, S., Ries, R. J., & Kaplanidou, K. (2018). Carbon dioxide emissions of spectators’ transportation in collegiate sporting events: Comparing on-campus and off-campus stadium locations. Sustainability, 10 (241), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10010241

Wall-Tweedie, J., & Nguyen, S. N. (2018). Is the grass greener on the other side? A review of the Asia-Pacific sport industry’s environmental sustainability practices. Journal of Business Ethics, 152 (3), 741–761. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3320-6

Wicker, P. (2019). The carbon footprint of active sport participants. Sport Management Review, 22 (4), 513–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2018.07.001

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

REMIT/UPT, Universidade Portucalense, Porto, Portugal

Ricardo Roseira Cayolla

GOVCOP, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal

School of Economics and Management, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal

Marco Escadas

Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Hospitality and Tourism School, Barcelos, Portugal

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ricardo Roseira Cayolla .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

University of Maia-ISMAI, Maia, Portugal

José Luís Reis

Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

Marisa Del Rio Araujo

University of Porto, Porto, Portugal

Luís Paulo Reis

University of Maia - ISMAI, Maia, Portugal

José Paulo Marques dos Santos

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

About this paper

Cite this paper.

Cayolla, R.R., Escadas, M. (2024). Environmental Sustainability and Sports Management: A Review of Marketing Contributions and Discussion of Future Research Opportunities. In: Reis, J.L., Del Rio Araujo, M., Reis, L.P., dos Santos, J.P.M. (eds) Marketing and Smart Technologies. ICMarkTech 2022. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol 344. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0333-7_23

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0333-7_23

Published : 05 September 2023

Publisher Name : Springer, Singapore

Print ISBN : 978-981-99-0332-0

Online ISBN : 978-981-99-0333-7

eBook Packages : Engineering Engineering (R0)

Share this paper

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Find a journal
Track your research

An Analysis of the Geographic Distribution of Minor League Sports Teams

Authors: Dr. Mark Mitchell 1 , Richard Flight 2 , and Sara Nimmo 3

Corresponding Author:

Mark Mitchell, DBA

Professor of Marketing

Associate Dean, Wall College of Business

NCAA Faculty Athletics Representative (FAR)

Coastal Carolina University

P. O. Box 261954

Conway, SC 29528

[email protected]

(843) 349-2392

1 Mark Mitchell, DBA is Professor of Marketing at Coastal Carolina University in Conway, SC.

2 Richard Flight, PhD is Associate Professor of Marketing at Coastal Carolina University in Conway, SC. He previously worked in minor league baseball with the Memphis Redbirds and Birmingham Barons as well as in DI collegiate athletics at Samford University.

3 Sara Nimmo currently serves as Assistant Director of Marketing for San Diego State University Athletics. She previously served as a Fan Engagement Assistant with MiLB’s Myrtle Beach Pelicans.

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to evaluate the geographic distribution of minor league sports teams in the United States and Canada.

Methods: A census of minor league sports teams was assembled by collecting data from league websites and other sources. Then, the data was sorted by city and state (or Canadian province). This process allowed the identification of the cities and states/provinces that host the largest number of minor league teams and leagues.

Results: Minor league sports teams can be found in 43 of 50 U.S. states (86%) and the District of Columbia (i.e., Washington, DC) and 8 of 10 (80%) Canadian provinces. There are 12 North American cities or metropolitan areas that host four or more minor league teams: Atlanta, GA; Austin, TX; Birmingham, AL; Dallas-Fort Worth, TX; Des Moines, IA; Las Vegas, NV; New York, NY; Oklahoma City, OK; Salt Lake City, UT; San Antonio, TX; San Jose, CA; and Toronto, Ontario. Additionally, there are 24 cities that host three minor league teams that are distributed across 20 different states and provinces.

Conclusions: While select cities have attracted multiple minor league teams to their communities, these teams tend to be dispersed all over the United States and Canada. As expected, states with larger populations tend to host more teams. States with weather that allows year-round outdoor play tend to host more teams. Cities with successful franchises can use that demonstrated fan support to attract new teams and leagues to their communities.

Applications in Sport: In addition to offering family entertainment, the minor leagues offer both players and professional staff the opportunity to enter the business of professional sports and work toward careers at the major league level. The results of this study illustrate where minor league teams can be found in the United States and Canada. From this list of cities, sports fans can watch up-and-coming players develop. Furthermore, sport educators can direct their students (i.e., aspiring sport administrators) to the cities and teams that may provide them with an entry-point into the field of sports administration.

Key Words: Minor league sports, sports expansion possibilities, minor league team affiliations

INTRODUCTION

Organized sports may be thought of as the games people play. However, there is a very large business and financial infrastructure behind the scenes to allow those games to be played and the related fan experiences to be realized. Plunket Research estimated the total U.S. sports and recreation industry to be valued at over $550 billion in 2020 with the global market estimated to be worth $1.5 trillion (28).

Players making it to the major league of their sport have had to successfully navigate a developmental path by playing in the minor league system and earning successive promotions to earn a spot on a major league roster. In some cases, such as baseball, basketball, and hockey, these minor league teams represent hierarchical levels in a player development path that is clearly laid out. This focus on player development prompted Major League Baseball to restructure its minor league system beginning with the 2021 season. The new model provided for increased player salaries, modernized facilities, and reduced travel time and costs. The restructuring reduced the number of affiliated teams from 160 to 120 (12, 20).

Many colleges and universities offer sport management programs to serve interested students. Currently, there are 421 sport management programs in the United States at the Associates, Bachelors, Masters, and Doctoral levels (33). At the undergraduate level, Sport Management is the 38th most popular major among students. Each year, over 11,000 bachelor’s degrees in sport management are awarded (10). Furthermore, students from other disciplines (e.g., business, physical therapy, nutrition, hospitality, and others) often seek to apply their skills in the business and operation of sports teams. Much like athletes who seek to secure a position in the minor leagues to begin their hopeful path to the major leagues, many people interested in careers in sports administration and sports management begin their careers in the minor leagues as well.

The purpose of this study is to conduct an analysis of the geographic distribution of minor league sports teams and leagues in the United States and Canada. The results of this study will illustrate the cities, states, and provinces that currently host the most minor league teams. From this data, sports fans can incorporate a minor league game into their travel plans while prospective employees can see where their opportunities may be found and focus their job search activities accordingly. First, a broad overview of major and minor league sports is provided, including a look at the possible affiliations between major and minor league teams. Second, the geographic distribution of minor league teams will be provided to illustrate those states and cities that host multiple teams. Finally, the matrices of major and minor league cities are examined to identify the communities most likely to be discussed as expansion cities for major league sports.

THE ORGANIZATION OF MAJOR LEAGUE AND MINOR LEAGUE SPORTS

In the sections that follow, the teams and leagues involved in the major spectator team sports are profiled. Sports that have a longer professional history (such as football, baseball, or basketball) have a clear path of player development and a delineation between their ‘major’ and ‘minor’ leagues. For these sports, the minor league teams are included in this study.

Other newer professional leagues (such as women’s soccer, women’s ice hockey, or men’s lacrosse), have not yet established a hierarchical path for player development. Rather, it is evolving and, in some cases, changing annually. As such, the athletes who do progress to compete at the highest available professional level (i.e., NWSL, PWHL, or NLL) do realize a pinnacle or ‘major’ achievement. However, these teams and leagues are more similar operationally (attendance, budgets, etc.) to minor league sports rather than the traditional major league sports of football, baseball, or basketball. For these sports, these teams and leagues are included in this study. In the future, with the stability and expansion of these leagues, these sports may attain the classification of ‘major’ league sports.

Men’s Baseball

There are currently 30 Major League Baseball (MLB) teams operating in the United States and Canada (18). Each of these teams has an affiliated Triple-A, Double-A, High-A, and Low-A team. Additionally, MLB operates two leagues for first-year players: Arizona Complex League (ACL) and the Florida Complex League (FCL) where games are played at the Spring Training sites of MLB teams. Additional teams bring the total to 179 teams across 17 leagues in 43 states and 4 provinces (20). A list of minor league baseball teams is provided in Appendix A.

Appendix A: Major League Baseball and Minor League Affiliates

Source: (20).

Men’s Basketball

There are currently 30 National Basketball Association (NBA) teams playing in the United States and Canada; 28 of these teams have an affiliated G-League (or, minor league) team (27). Two teams (G League Ignite of Las Vegas, NV; Capitanes Ciudad De Mexico of Mexico City) operate independently and without NBA team affiliation (1). A profile of NBA G-League teams is provided in Appendix B.

Appendix B: G-League Teams and NBA Affiliations

Source: (27).

Women’s Basketball

There are currently 12 Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) teams playing in the United States (40). There is no existing minor league development system for the WNBA. With just 12 teams and a maximum of 12 roster spots per team (compared to 15 roster spots for the NBA), the competition for one of these coveted roster spots is intense. Players selected in the three-round draft are not guaranteed a roster spot. There has not been any recent expansion of the WNBA despite calls to expand opportunities for women athletes (39).

Men’s Hockey

There are currently 32 National Hockey League (NHL) teams playing in the United States and Canada (24). The American Hockey League (AHL) serves as the top development league for the NHL. There are currently 32 AHL teams playing in the United States and Canada (6). The vast majority of AHL players were selected in the NHL draft and have been signed to player development contracts (17). A level below the AHL is the ECHL (formerly known as the East Coast Hockey League) with 28 teams, with each team affiliated with an AHL and NHL team (11). A list of AHL and ECHL teams is provided in Appendix C.

Appendix C: American Hockey League Teams and Affiliated NHL Teams

Source: (13).

Men’s Soccer

There are currently 29 Major League Soccer (MLS) teams playing in the United States and Canada (19). The USL Championship League is sanctioned by the U.S. Soccer Federation as a Division II professional league. The USL Championship League includes 24 teams located in the United States with expansion teams planned. A level below, the USL League One has 12 teams with 2 expansion teams planned. (36). A list of USL Championship and USL League One teams is provided in Appendix D.

Source: (36).

Women’s Soccer

There are currently 14 National Women’s Soccer League (NWSL) teams competing in the United States (26). A list of NWSL teams is provided in Appendix E. The United Soccer League (USL) is introducing the USL W League in Summer 2024. There are plans for 44 teams located in 20 different states. The USL W League hopes to “bring elite women’s soccer to communities across the U.S., creating more opportunities to play, watch and work in the women’s game.” The USL W league will be introduced as a para-professional league, meaning the players will retain their amateur status (37). For this reason, these teams are not included in this analysis.

Men’s Football

There are currently 32 National Football League (NFL) teams competing in the United States (23) and 9 Canadian Football League (CFL) teams competing in Canada (9). Over time, there have been competing and/or feeder leagues to the NFL, including the World Football League (WFL), the United States Football League (USFL), the Extreme Football League (XFL), and the Spring League. In December 2023, it was announced that the USFL and XFL would merge to create the United Football League (UFL) and begin play in the spring of 2024 (32). Through the merger process, eight teams were retained and eight teams ceased operations. One city (Houston, TX) previously hosted both USFL and XFL teams prior to the merger. The XFL Houston Roughnecks ‘survived’ the merger while the USFL Houston Gamblers did not. The following cities lost their USFL and XFL teams beginning in the 2024 season (16):

New York/New Jersey Metro

New Orleans, LA

Philadelphia, PA

Pittsburgh, PA

Orlando, FL

Seattle, WA

Las Vegas, NA

Indoor or Arena Football has been played in various locations since the mid-1980s with the Indoor Football League (IFL) being the longest-running league. There are 16 IFL teams playing in 2024. IFL personnel, including players, coaches, scouts and front office professionals have transitioned to the National Football League (15). In addition, the National Arena League (NAL) operates a 6-team league (22). A review of the various non-NFL football teams is provided in Appendix F.

Men’s Lacrosse

There are currently 15 National Lacrosse League (NLL) teams competing in the United States and Canada (25). The league plays its games in indoor arenas, often the same arenas that host minor league hockey and NBA G-League basketball teams. A list of NLL teams is provided in Appendix G. Beginning in Summer 2023, the Premier Lacrosse League started play with 8 teams in the United States. In its inaugural season, all 8 teams travelled to a select city for competition each weekend. City names are not attached to teams (29). As such, these teams are not included in this analysis.

Women’s Professional Hockey

The Professional Women’s Hockey League (PWHL) began its inaugural season in January 2024. The newly-created league consists of 6 teams across the United States and Canada with teams located in Boston, Minneapolis, Montreal, New York City, Ottawa, and Toronto (30).

Miscellaneous: Athletes United

Since 2020, Athletes Unlimited has introduced professional leagues in women’s basketball, volleyball, lacrosse, and softball. The leagues state they are ‘player-centric’ while avoiding the traditional model of city-identified teams. With this model, many American athletes can play professionally in their home country rather than competing abroad (7). However, teams are not based in home cities. As such, these teams are not included in this analysis.

METHODOLOGY

The minor league teams and leagues profiled above that operated in the 2023-24 seasons were identified and assembled into a database to allow the analysis of the location of the teams. The sorting function in Microsoft Excel allowed the researchers to identify the frequency of occurrence for city, state, and province, resulting in the identification of the following groups:

States and/or provinces that host the most minor league teams;
Cities that host the most minor league teams;
Cities that are most likely to be considered for league expansion in the future.

While select cities have attracted multiple minor league sports teams to their communities, these teams tend to be dispersed all over the United States and Canada. In the United States, 43 of 50 states (86%) host at least one minor league team. The states that do not current host a team are Alaska, Hawaii, Louisiana, Montana, North Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming. In the Lower 48 states (excluding Alaska and Hawaii), minor league sports can be found in 43 of 48 (90%) of the states with the missing states being sparsely populated (with the notable exception of Louisiana).

In Canada, minor league teams can be found in 8 of 13 Canadian Provinces or Territories. The provinces that do not current host a team are New Brunswick, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Yukon. Similar to the pattern found in the United States, teams can be found in 8 of 10 Canadian provinces (80%) with no teams located in the three more sparsely-populated Canadian Territories of Northwest, Nunavut, and the Yukon.

A city-by-city mapping of each minor league team located in the United States and Canada is presented in Figure 1. The heat mapping function in Microsoft Excel was used to generate Figure 2, a visual presentation of the frequency of location of minor league teams per state and province.

Interestingly, minor league teams have been located previously in Hawaii (baseball), Louisiana (baseball), Montana (baseball), North Dakota (indoor football), Vermont (baseball), and Wyoming (baseball). However, no teams existed in these states during the 2023-24 season. In fact, some of these baseball teams were among the 40 teams affected by the realignment of minor league baseball to begin the 2021 season (see 20, 31).

State-by-State Analysis

The following states host the largest number of minor league teams:

California (26 teams in 17 different communities)

Texas (25 teams in 15 different communities)

Florida (23 teams in 16 different communities)

New York (19 teams in 12 different communities)

North Carolina (17 teams in 12 different communities)

Pennsylvania (12 teams in 9 different communities)

Ohio (10 teams in 7 different communities)

Georgia (9 teams in 8 different communities)

Iowa (8 teams in 5 different communities)

Michigan (8 teams in 5 different communities)

South Carolina (8 teams in 4 different communities)

Oklahoma (7 teams I 2 different communities)

Washington (7 teams in 4 different communities)

Arizona (7 teams in 3 different communities)

Indiana (7 teams in 3 different communities)

Virginia (7 teams in 5 different communities)

Province-by Province Analysis

The following Canadian provinces host the largest number of minor league teams:

Ontario (6 teams in 3 communities)

British Columbia (3 teams in 2 communities)

Quebec (3 teams in 2 communities)

Alberta, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, and Saskatoon (1 team each)

It must be noted that junior hockey is a very popular spectator sport in Canada. However, most junior hockey players are classified as ‘amateurs’ (2). For this reason, Canadian junior hockey teams are not included in this analysis.

City-by-City Analysis

As illustrated above, many communities host more than one minor league team. Furthermore, some cities with minor league teams also host major league sports teams. For example, Charlotte, North Carolina hosts an NFL team (Carolina Panthers), an NBA team (Charlotte Hornets), and an MLS team (Charlotte FC) in addition to hosting minor league teams in baseball, hockey, and soccer. Nearby Greensboro, North Carolina also hosts three minor league teams in basketball, indoor football, and baseball but hosts no major league teams.

Table 1 provides an overview of the 12 cities that host four or more minor league teams. The reader will note that some the cities are larger metropolitan areas with teams located both in the city and the suburbs. Atlanta, for example, has one team in the city but four teams in its suburbs in close proximity to central Atlanta. These communities with a concentration of minor league teams often host additional sporting events, such as golf tournaments, auto races, or college football bowl games.

San Diego is an interesting case. In addition to hosting the San Diego Padres (MLB), the city previously hosted an NFL team (San Diego Chargers) and two NBA teams (San Diego Rockets and San Diego Clippers). All three of these professional teams continue to exist but relocated to other cities. San Diego has effectively attracted minor league teams to fill the voids left by the departure of these teams. Recently, the San Diego Loyal soccer team (USL Championship League) ceased operations after the 2023 season after failing to find a long-term home stadium option (14). However, an MLS expansion team (to be known as San Diego FC) will begin play in the 2025 season (34).

Table 2 provides an overview of cities that host three minor league teams. Included in Table 2 is each city’s ranking in size as a media market (21). Also, any professional teams in these same cities are shown with their table cell shaded. Sports not currently playing in those communities represent opportunities to expand a city’s minor league sports portfolio. It is interesting to note that some of these 3-team cities (such as Worchester, MA or Tacoma, WA) are very close to neighboring cities of top 15 media markets.

DISCUSSION

As expected, larger states with larger populations tend to host more minor league teams. Concurrently, cities with larger populations (and larger media markets) tend to host more minor league teams. The three states with largest number of minor league teams (California, Texas, and Florida) also offer a climate conducive to year-round outdoor activities. Cities with successful franchises can use that demonstration of fan support to attract new teams and leagues to their communities. Furthermore, shared facilities (such as an arena that can host basketball, hockey, and arena football) can help bring new teams to a community.

As previously noted, many cities host both major and minor league teams. Intuitively, these locations should attract the most attention should leagues consider expansion as the fan bases have demonstrated sufficient levels of support to sustain a major league team. These cities are listed in Table 3. Additionally, these cities tend to be the larger media markets with larger numbers of consumers. As an illustration, at the time of this writing the Oakland Athletics are strongly considering moving to Las Vegas, NV and have already received the approval to move by Major League Baseball owners (3-5).

INSERT TBL3

A Cautionary Note – Minor League Baseball Relocations

In 2020, Major League Baseball issued new facility standards for minor league teams, including: minimum clubhouse sizes for both home and visiting teams; food preparation and dining areas attached to clubhouses; better field lighting; more and better training space for players; separate space for female staffer, and others (31). Given that many minor league stadiums are municipally-owned, some communities may be unwilling or unable to make the needed investments in upgrades and may see their teams migrate to other communities, particularly at the A- and AA-levels.

In fact, some team movement has already been announced as the Kinston, North Carolina team (now known as the Down East Wood Ducks) have been purchased by Diamond Baseball Holdings (the largest owner of minor league baseball franchises) and will relocate to a new yet-to-be-built stadium in Spartanburg, South Carolina and assume a new team name as early as the 2025 season (8). This move marks the return of minor league baseball to Spartanburg, which previously hosted the Spartanburg Phillies from 1963-1980 and again from 1986-1994 (38).

CONCLUSIONS

Minor league sports teams are widely distributed across the United States and Canada with 86% of U.S. states and 80% of Canadian provinces hosting at least one minor league team. These 43 U.S. states host 97% of the U.S. population while the 8 provinces host 96% of the Canadian population. The highest concentration of teams can be found in four geographic areas in the United States: (1) the southeast Atlantic corridor from Virginia south through Florida; (2) the eastern Midwest and Northeast including Pennsylvania, New York, and Massachusetts; (3) the Southwest including Texas and its border states; and (4) the West coast primarily concentrated in California. In Canada, Ontario (i.e., the Toronto area), British Columbia (i.e., the Vancouver area), and Quebec host more minor league teams than the other provinces.

In addition to offering family entertainment, the minor leagues offer both players and professional staff the opportunity to enter the business of professional sports and work toward careers at the major league level. The results of this study illustrate where minor league sports teams can be found in the United States and Canada. From this list of cities, sports fans can watch up-and-coming players develop. Furthermore, sport educators can direct their students (i.e., aspiring sport administrators) to teams for internships and entry-level employment opportunities.

APPLICATION IN SPORT

In team sports, most professional athletes go through a player development process that includes some stint in the minor leagues in the hopes of earning a spot on a major league team. Similarly, many sport administrators begin their careers working for minor leagues and affiliated teams as they learn their craft and assemble the needed experiences for (hopeful) promotion to the major league level. The results of this study allow interested parties to easily identify the communities with greater access to minor league sports (for both fans and prospective employees). Sports fans should find this information helpful as minor league sports provide a good financial value in family entertainment. College students may find internship and employment opportunities with these minor league teams to aid their entry into a career of sport administration and management. Sport administration educators may find this information helpful as they advise and counsel their students for internships, co-operative employment opportunities, and job placement after graduation.

The communities identified here with multiple sports properties may allow a student to work in multiple sports in the same city (say, basketball in winter and baseball in spring, summer, and fall). In many instances, there may be an overlap in the ownership groups of minor league teams. This overlap in ownership may expand professional opportunities for employees as well-performing employees are offered additional positions and responsibilities elsewhere in the organization.

These communities also tend to host other events, such as college football bowl games or golf tournaments. These special events will need qualified staff to deliver these events, which will include people already living and working in those communities in the sports industry. Much like athletes in the minor leagues work to advance toward the major league ranks, so, too, can staff personnel ‘climb the ladder’ toward careers in the major leagues.

Adams, Luke (2022, November 6). NBA G League affiliate players for 2022/23. Retrieved from: https://www.hoopsrumors.com/2022/11/nba-g-league-affiliate-players-for-2022-23.html
Adkisson, Dan (2022, May 10). Junior hockey: Understanding the path to the NHL. Retrieved from: https://mayorsmanor.com/2022/05/junior-hockey-understanding-the-path-to-the-nhl/
Akers, Mick (2023a, April 19). Major-league deal: A’s to purchase land near Strip for new ballpark. Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved from: https://www.reviewjournal.com/sports/athletics/major-league-deal-as-to-purchase-land-near-strip-for-new-ballpark-2764701/
Akers, Mick (2023b, July 15). A’s to Vegas: What’s next in the relocation process? Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved from: https://www.reviewjournal.com/sports/athletics/as-to-vegas-whats-next-in-the-relocation-process-2872485/
Akers, Mick (2023c, November 16). ‘A great asset’: A’s move to Las Vegas approved; Strip ballpark on horizon. Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved from: https://www.reviewjournal.com/sports/athletics/a-great-asset-as-move-to-las-vegas-approved-strip-ballpark-on-horizon-2940262/
American Hockey League (2023). 2023-24 NHL affiliations. Retrieved from: https://theahl.com/nhl-affiliations-2023-24
Athletes Unlimited (2023). Who are we? A network of next generation professional sports leagues. Retrieved from: https://auprosports.com/who-we-are/
Boschult, C. (2023, October 3). Spartanburg baseball team’s new GM talks new role, new team name. Charleston Post and Courier. Retrieved from: https://www.postandcourier.com/spartanburg/news/spartanburg-baseball-team-s-new-gm-talks-new-role-new-team-name/article_f72e79e2-6122-11ee-9f13-d3cd51788fa7.html
Canadian Football League (2023). List of teams. Retrieved from: https://www.tsn.ca/cfl/teams
College Factual (2022). 2022 most popular bachelor’s degree colleges for sports management. Collegefactual.com. Retrieved from: https://www.collegefactual.com/majors/parks-recreation-fitness/health-and-physical-education/sports-management/rankings/most-popular/bachelors-degrees/
ECHL (2023). NHL/AHL affiliates. Retrieved from: https://echl.com/teams/nhl-ahl-affiliations
ESPN.com. (2021, February 12). Minor league affiliates tracker: How MLB’s restructure shakes out. ESPN.com. Retrieved from: https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/_/id/30484549/minor-league-affiliates-tracker-how-mlb-restructure-shakes-out
FloHockey (2023, January 20). Minor league hockey team affiliates breakdown. Retrieved from: https://www.flohockey.tv/articles/10384919-nhl-minor-league-hockey-team-affiliates-breakdown
Hernandez, C. (2023, August 4). Landon Donovan’s San Diego Loyal USL team to fold after 2023. ESPN.com. Retrieved from: https://www.espn.com/soccer/story/_/id/38251432/landon-donovan-san-diego-loyal-usl-team-fold-2023
Indoor Football League (2024). List of teams. Retrieved from: https://goifl.com/sports/2020/11/19/current-teams.aspx
Kasabian, P. (2024, January 1). UFL announces teams, conferences for 2024 season after XFL, USFL merger. Bleacher Report. Retrieved from: https://bleacherreport.com/articles/10103209-ufl-announces-teams-conferences-for-2024-season-after-xfl-usfl-merger
Keshavjee, K. (2020, October 31). A comprehensive guide to all hockey leagues in North America. The Win Column. Retrieved from: https://thewincolumn.ca/2020/10/31/a-comprehensive-guide-to-all-the-hockey-leagues-in-north-america/
Major League Baseball (2024). MLB team contact information. Retrieved from: https://www.mlb.com/team
Major League Soccer (2024). List of clubs. Retrieved from: https://www.mlssoccer.com/clubs/
Mayo, T. (2021, May 2). Minors return with new look, structure: New model includes player salary increases, modernized facility standards, reduced travel. MLB.com. Retrieved from: https://www.mlb.com/news/new-minor-league-baseball-structure
My Media Jobs (2023). 2022-23 DMA market rankings. Retrieved from: https://mymediajobs.com/market-rankings
National Arena League (2024). List of teams. Retrieved from: https://www.nationalarenaleague.com/stats#/1200/teams?division_id=28829
National Football League (2023). List of teams. Retrieved from: https://www.nfl.com/teams/
National Hockey League (2024). List of teams. Retrieved from: https://www.nhl.com/info/teams
National Lacrosse League (2024). List of teams. Retrieved from: https://www.nll.com/nll-teams/
National Women’s Soccer League (2024). List of teams. Retrieved from: https://www.nwslsoccer.com/
NBA G League (2024). List of teams. Retrieved from: https://gleague.nba.com/
Plunket Research (2021). Complete guide to the sports & recreation industry from Plunkett Research 2022. Retrieved from: https://www.plunkettresearch.com/complete-guide-to-the-sports-recreation-industry-from-plunkett-research-2022/
Premiere Lacrosse League (2023). List of teams. Retrieved from: https://premierlacrosseleague.com/
Professional Women’s Hockey League (2024). List of teams. Retrieved from:
https://www.thepwhl.com/en/stats/standings
Reichard, K. (2020, November 2). MiLB facility guidelines released, owners sanguine. Ballpark Digest. Retrieved from: https://ballparkdigest.com/2020/11/02/milb-facility-guidelines-released-owners-sanguine/
Seifert, K. (2023, December 21). Merged XFL-USFL to be rebranded as United Football League. ESPN.com. Retrieved from: https://www.espn.com/xfl/story/_/id/39215302/merged-xfl-usfl-rebranded-united-football-league
Sport Business Journal (2023). Search for sport management programs. Retrieved from: https://www.sportsbusinessjournal.com/College-University/Sports-Management-Programs.aspx
Taddeo, F. (2023, October 21). San Diego’s MLS expansion team unveiled its logo, and fans roasted it mercilessly. SI.com. Retrieved from: https://www.si.com/soccer/2023/10/21/san-diegos-mls-expansion-team-unveiled-its-logo-and-fans-roasted-it-mercilessly
United Football League (2024). The teams. Retrieved from: https://www.theufl.com/teams
United Soccer League Championship (2024). 2024 Clubs. Retrieved from: https://www.uslchampionship.com/league-teams
United Soccer League – W (2024). About the league. Retrieved from: https://www.uslwleague.com/about
Visit Spartanburg (2021, August 25). Spartanburg’s baseball past, present and future. Retrieved from: https://www.visitspartanburg.com/embracing-spartanburgs-baseball-past-and-present/
Voepel, M.A. (2023, May 12). WNBA expansion is coming, but when and where? ESPN.com. Retrieved from: https://www.espn.com/wnba/story/_/id/37602441/wnba-expansion-everything-know-2023-season
Women’s National Basketball Association (2024). List of teams. Retrieved from: https://www.wnba.com/tickets

Decision-making on injury prevention and rehabilitation in professional football – A coach, medical staff, and player perspective

Authors: Mads Røgen Noesgaard 1 & Stig Arve Sæther 2

1 Department of Sociology and Political Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway 2 Department of Sociology and Political Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway

Stig Arve Sæther Department of Sociology and Political Science Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, Dragvoll, 7491 Trondheim, Norway E-mail: [email protected], https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1429-4746

Mads Røgen Noesgaard is educated as a physiotherapist and holds a master’s degree in sport science from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. He has an extent experience as a physiotherapist from professional sports especially related to football and handball.

Stig Arve Sæther is an associate professor in sport science at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, with an extensive research portfolio in talent development within sports and especially football. Sæther is head of the sport science staff, head of education at the department of Sociology and Political science and head of the research group Skill and Performance Development in Sports and School (SPDSS).

Purpose The aim of this study is to research how the decision-making on RTP from the medical staff impact on the perceived short- and long-term performance of the player and the team, from a coach, medical staff, and player perspective. Methods: Two professional football players, one physical coach, one physiotherapist and one assistant coach were interviewed in-depth and recruited because of their insight, experience, and expertise from one Norwegian premiere league club. Results: The decision-making process on RTP in the club were partly based on the hierarchy in the club, where the coach was on the top among these actors. Despite that the actor´s describes the process as a natural dynamic, and felt a shared responsibility in the process, their different roles impact on the decisions. The RTP decision was affected by aspects such as the period in the season, earlier injury experience of the player and the medical staff and coach collaboration. Conclusions: Even though the medical staff and the injury prevention could mean that the player could have a longer career, the choices made in the process of RTP is often based on short term player and team performance. Applications in sport: Professional football players have competition as a living and are expected to enjoy and embrace competing against both other teams related to winning trophies and teammates related to a place on the team in matches. This degree of competition was also seen as a part of the RTP process since the competition with teammates gave the players motivation to overcome their injury situation and get back to compete for their “spot” on the team. Even though this study only includes experiences from one professional football club, it gives insight into how the RTP process is done in a professional football context. Future studies should consider recruiting representatives from the club management, which also could give insight on how the macro aspects of a club impact on the RTP decisions in the coaching team of a professional football club.

Keywords : return-to-play, professional sports, communication

The development of professional football player is complex and consist of a myriad of factors, including injury prevention and rehabilitation through the return to play (RTP) (38). Even though the development of injuries in European professional football has decreased over the last two decades (10), the impact of injuries still plays a major role in both team and individual player development and success (7). Time loss in on field training and matches may have a negative impact on the players development, which makes it vital to minimize the duration of rehabilitation and RTP process. The responsibility of injury prevention, treatment and following RTP has in the literature been described as the responsibility of the medical staff, even though a strong coach and player involvement has been recommended (10). Even so, lack of needed authority in this process, have been highlighted as a challenge since both the coaching team and especially the head coach, and the players are expected to be a part of the decision process, hereby creating a dilemma (26). The need for a high performing medical team is thereby indicated crucial for the present success, but also future accomplishments (7).

Knowing that the major predictor in future injury being previous injury (13, 27-28, 35, 45), it has become standard procedure in European professional football clubs to screen and evaluate both in-squad players and potential investments even though research points to a lack of predictive capabilities (29, 46). Hereby the screening process is arguably/potentially increasing the consequences of previous injuries and treatment of such and the importance of injury preventive measures. In the pursuit of securing the best possible squad at all times injury preventive programmes such as FIFA11+, seems common but often adjusted based on either screening results or coaches’ preferences and hereby losing its evidence-based merits (29-30, 34, 46). Another promising preventive strategy is tracking and managing of load and restitution of the individual player and indicated to both increase the “here and now” short-term performance and the long-term performance. The main aim is to reduce the risk of injuries and illness (19, 24, 36), but it also presents a risk of withdrawing players from training and matches unnecessary.

The rehabilitation process of a player must address and manage the psychological and sociological health of the player (12). Though the general plan and goals of the rehabilitation is clear there is a lack of gold-standard and consensus for RTP which complicates the last steps before returning to training and competition (22). The literature advocates a shared-decision-making process to optimize this process. Coaches, medical staff, physical coaches, and the individual player all possess insight about the state of the player seen in a bio-psycho-social framework (5-6, 8, 47). A process as such is nonetheless challenged by the different profession’s confidence in their own decision, but also potentially with a lack of trust in others, hereby creating a dilemma where authority and power becomes more important than teamwork (9-10, 20). To increase the overall medical effort, the literature advocates an SDM-approach to minimize injuries and rehabilitation periods and improve RTP (1). Still, Paul et al. newly published editorial are highlighting that there has been identified concerns surrounding the social complexities of elite sports and the difficulties of truly applying this concept in practice (37).

Most of the research on this subject and in professional football have used a quantitative approach (7) and there seems to be a need of qualitative insight on how this process unfolds in practice, and how and by whom the decisions are made. An exception is Law and Bloyce (25) who interviewed professional football managers behavior towards injured players. The results indicated that managers at the lower levels felt more constrained to take certain risks related to injured players. The aim of this study is to research how the decision-making on RTP from the medical staff impact on the perceived short- and long-term performance of the player and the team, from a coach, medical staff, and player perspective.

Participants

Two professional football players, one physical coach, one physiotherapist and one assistant coach were interviewed in-depth and chosen based on strategic selection because of their insight, experience, and expertise in the field and their long-term involvement within one Norwegian premiere league club. The two players have in total more than 15 years in the club, while the physiotherapist and the physical coach has been in the club’s medical team for more than five years and altogether more than 20 years of experience in the field. The assistant coach has more than seven years of coaching experience. The participants are described in table 1.

All interviews were conducted in person and the location chosen by the interviewee. The length of each interview varied from 50 to 90 minutes with a mean at 70 minutes. Each interview was initiated with general questions to start the conversation and to get more background information on each participant. Prior to the interviews the questions were largely prepared to facilitate the conversation into different themes and topics of interest, with prepared follow up questions when depth and more context was needed. The questions varied specificity from general questions about the interviewee’s thoughts on the injury-period (e.g. “How do you think a player can develop while injured”) to more defined questions about the different actors’ actual role in the decision-making process about RTP (e.g. What role does the player has in the RTP-decisions). With these types of specific questions, the former mentioned extensive experience and expertise in the field was highly prioritized in the selection of participants. This made the insight in the specific club more extensive and gave the answers more depth. In addition, all participants were giving the opportunity to read through the transcript and afterwards able to withdraw parts or the interview in full, which none of the participants did. None of the participants neither wanted to alter the transcription. All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. By using pseudonyms for each participant, the transcriptions ensured the interviewee’ confidentiality and furthermore, ethical approval was in accordance with and approved by the Norwegian Social Sciences Data Services (number: 678375).

Analysis The analysis of data was done with the six steps of theme-centred approach as described by Braun and Clarke (2-3). The process was initiated by the transcription by the first author who afterwards read and reread the data twice. This was followed by initial coding, phase two of the chosen method. In this process the transcription was revisited multiple times until the final codes were discovered and presented to the second writer for discussion. The total of 47 codes were structed using a mind-map, which visualised the third phase of the process and used to structure the data into nine higher-order themes. Phase four was a back-and-forth process rereading the transcript, revising the raw material for clarifying questions, reviewing the codes all in all to elaborate the emerged themes. Through dialog and discussion within the research group the final three/four themes were identified, and subgroups reviewed and hereby phase five concluded. Finally, phase 6 was a detailed process and highly interwoven with the analysis of data. To present the findings in an argumentation related to research question and to illustrate the story of the data it was important to revise the extracts and go back to the both the higher order themes and the final themes in the writing of the report to ensure that the essence of the data was captured and presented. The final report presents the experienced everyday life of the participants in this specific Norwegian Premier League football club, how they perceive the decision-making process in the context of both development and performance and how the structure and reality of modern football plays and important role in both injury prevention and RTP after injury.

The actors in the RTP process – the club hierarchy According to the actors (medical staff, coach and players), the prevention of injury and RTP practice has changed throughout the last decades, from a collective focus to a more specific and individual practice, described as a positive change by all the actors. RTP was described as a process, with benchmarks which was considered a motivational factor in the overall rehabilitation process. The decision-making process in the professional football club related to decisions on injured players and their capacity to play were affected to some degree by a hierarchy in the club. Even though the actor´s in the present study describes the process as a natural dynamic, and that they agree on their shared responsibility of the process, the different roles impact on the decisions.

Highest in the hierarchy are the coaches, and even though they highlight that the medical staff has an impact on their decision, the coaches seem to be the final decision maker in the process. This is indicated as a natural order because the coach is the one to take the ”fall” when the decisions shows to be wrong or more precisely have a negative output and also the final responsibility for the team performance. The coach described therefor a need to keep the medical staff on their toes, which the medical staff described as a challenge of their decisions, often based on what they considered external pressure on performance and results. This again meant that the medical staff had to make the “right” decision to keep their authority in the collaboration with the coaches.

The players felt in this regard that the medical staff had a two-sided role or responsibility both towards the coaches and the players, but that they still according to the players weigh the perspective of the player the heaviest. This double role was considered challenging and could mean lack of support in cases of doubt, while the medical staff considered that the final decision was taken by the coaches and the player. From the player perspective the trust was described as essential in this process. So even though trust, communication and collaboration are fundamental elements to keep a squad of players performing, there is also a need for a trust in the actors’ competencies and loyalty, both highlighted by the coach Lars: “Despite thinking about the result, first and foremost, we of course think: “The best for the player”. Because the player performs best when he is 100% healthy, both physically and mentally.” The physical coach Thomas stated this on the matter:

Thomas: “Because the vast majority of players understand deep down what the point is. They know when they shouldn’t go out there. They want to have hope, that: “yeah, it’s allright” and so sometimes our job is actually just to say: “Yes, it’s actually allright”, even if it’s 50/50, if it’s the last match on the season and they wanna take the chance anyways. Okay, then we have to see that and then just say: “This is allright”.

Thomas argued that their role in the process was to inform the coaches and even though the decision was not always in line with their suggestions, they felt that their opinions was considered vital for the final decision-making.

The factors that impact the decision process

Because of the complexity and uncertainty of who decides which players could play, the medical staff experience situations where at times they felt pressured to clear a player for playing, which in their experience often leads to a longer injury period. And despite the open communication, the pressure got more intense especially before important matches and at the end of the season, as this conversation and the following quotes indicates: Physiotherapist Hans: “You get a player who runs at 60%?”, Coach Lars: “Yes, but he is so important for us in set-pieces, so we have to have him”. This becomes even more prominent at the end of the season as physical coach Thomas highlights: “The fewer matches left, the greater chances you are willing to take with the athlete’s health”.

The decision to deny a player to train or play a match based on the risk of injury, was considered difficult for the medical staff because of uncertainty of the outcome. The coach describes how they in some cases start the player and see how it goes. Even though this was described as happening seldom and especially since this could be considered treating the players differently, which potentially could impact the team dynamic:

Lars: “If you and I play in the same position, and you train 3 times a week but you are a little better than me. I’m training every single day, and then you get to play matches. I train more than you, twice a week, and then arrangements will be made for you to play. That could become a conflict.”

The medical staff points out how this load-management strategy is potentially positive for RTP, the coach argument furthermore how this might add pressure for the next matches both for the player and the medical staff. If the team loses, one could consider that being in minus and that means that the next match must be won. This adds on to the earlier statement that an injury might be a heavy process for a player:

David: “From the moment you feel that you are a part of something, then you will show up the day after you have been injured, then you show up for work. You eat breakfast, you go to the locker room and then the rest of the team go out on field and do what you love the most, they play football. But you wander into a dark gym alone and do what all footballers think is the most boring job, cycling and doing rehab training. As boring as it gets. But you have to do it. You go into such a lonely and confined, empty mental phase, it’s really hard.”

What was considered the “right” decision depended on the perspective, even though obviously the most impacted part is the player:

Niels: “Perhaps I have been lucky in that I have not had so many major injuries, but at the same time the one injury I have had, where it was done the way it was done, that was enough for me to think: “yes, I lost some good matches that year”, then you can think of those who have been injured longer and have had more injuries, how much it has affected them.”

Injuries are however also described by all actors as a natural part of professional football, and that this often means taking risks to be able to perform on the highest level. One of the players, David, describes it as following:

David: “At the top level, you are balancing on a knife’s edge much more often, because you are pushing boundaries all the time and then the need for medical help is all the greater than when you operate at a not so fully professional level.”

It could seem from a professional players perspective that the players consider their everyday life as a footballer as finding the optimal balance to be able to stay fit and avoid injuries, and that this situation is difficult and that they need help from the medical staff to be able to keep staying “in the game”. Even so, the physical coach Lars highlights the difference between pain and injury:

Lars: “I think when you play football and it’s one-on-one, it’s dueling, you can get a knee in the side, you can get hit by an elbow, so after a football match, you might have a bruise here and a little bit of swelling there and you can have, stiffness in generel. That doesn’t mean you need 2-3 days to recover because that pain you feel”.

Protecting the players

The coach stated that it was important to protect the players and not introduce them for unnecessary risk, even though he pointed out that there is a limit in terms of how much consideration one could do for each player. In this regard did the physical coach acknowledges that there had not been a reduction in the number of injuries despite the heavy number of added resources to prevent them. The injuries have changed but one has not been able to eliminate the incident rate:

Thomas: “There is much less ankel rolls, but there are more hamstring injuries and groin injuries because there is more sprinting in the matches and the matches are closer schedueled. And you can’t quite solve that. Even with sufficient sleep, enough nutrition, tablets in the fusion of plasma, i.e. “you name it”, game ready – the player still breaks down and then you see that if you train very well, then maybe you will go through the season with very little damage.”

This was also something the players describes as problematic in certain situations, as stated by Niels: “Coach, physio and they, they really push you back in and then it’s difficult as a player to sit there and say: “I’m not healthy”, it’s difficult!”

The physical coach recons it is all about the time spent on the pitch to improve RTP and the high amount of matches impact on the possibilities for the medical staff to schedule and complete the injury preventions and rehabilitation. One example mentioned are an away match where the travel time is the reason for the player not attending enough training sessions, even though he is ready to train. Furthermore, the game importance is an important factor because of the impact on the results sportingly and economically and has been found to be the reason as to why players play partly injured, or at least adding on to the pressure on the medical staff and their decision on every player potentially injured.

Also, one of the players described how he perceived that the players are at their best when the get to train and play matches as much as possible:

David: “All footballers perform at their best when they get the opportunity to play football every day. Play every match. That’s when you get into a rhythm, where you act on intuition in battle and in that moment. In order to do that, you have to have continuity in your training and to have that, you have to be good at taking care of your body, to manage and last through a tough week of training, to perform in every match. So it’s definitely important. You profit from doing a good job (ed. injury prevention) in order to be able to perform in the best possible way. It is absolutely indisputable.”

Both the players and the medical staff highlights that the injury prevention is important for the players to be able to train more. The physical coach highlights that this injury prevention training has a direct impact on the player opportunity to run faster and develop more power.

One of the players mentions how each club and their culture try to maximise the development and that the club culture is impacting the performance. This was also mentioned by the coach who stated that building the club is one of the most important tasks for the club, which is considered difficult since both players and coaches comes and goes. Another challenge is the impact the head coaches have on how the club perceive injury and development. The physiotherapist describes how the many changes also impact on the medical staff and their way of working:

Hans: “I think that, the biggest challenge in all of this is the constant change in player material, the constant change, at least as it has been in X, that coaches change, and therefore you constantly have different routines. It is natural that a coach who comes in and is boss wants to have it his way, and then a new coach comes in who wants it his way. Then there will always be changes and that means that what you tested on last year will be tested in a different way this year.”

Both players and the physical coach add on to this position, even though they also see positive outputs when new people are trying to collaborate:

Thomas: “Things that work well can also be diluted by poor execution. I think we make it work. I think so. that’s how it is when you bring new things to the table. Basically, it should be a good thing and if you manage to get best out of it, then it will be beneficial.”

The injury situation as an opportunity for development

All the actors thought of the injury period as a period for potential development of performance level of the player. So even though the players considered it as a tough and challenging period, it also contains opportunities. The coach highlighted that this motivation and opportunity had to come from within, and that he medical staff and the coach’s role was to facilitate and further motivate. In that way the injury period can be effective and also an opportunity, which could be considered a win-win situation both for the player and the team.

Still, at times the players felt pressured to play, and sometimes felt alone and “naked” in the discussion between them, the medical staff and the coaches. This was partly confirmed by the physiotherapist, who described football as being black or white at times, and that he felt the need to protect the player:

Hans: “A player who is out several times and often… It can very quickly become black and white in a football club, “This player is always injured. No, we’ll give up on him a little”, and then it’s challenging to say: “You mustn’t give up on him, even if he’s a bit injured now. There are several factors that cause him to be injured and we have to look at ourselves as well, all of us.” What we have often done is to look at the coach and say: “If we are going to get him out of this, we’ll have to make a change. What we are doing now is not good enough. So we have to take him out of training and have to do this instead of that. He can’t play every game and at the moment”.

However, at other times the medical staff also feel the need to push the players to return to ordinary training or playing matches. They feel the need to be careful since they might misstep. Some players might get pushed back to soon, while others need a push.

Lars: “Sometimes where you have to push a little, and we really do that for the sake of the player, not because we absolutely have to. We don’t take any chances with players, that is. But if we see that he has done what he is supposed to and at the same time it is a player who is a bit more careful with himself. Because that too, you have to know the group, you have to know the player, because there are some who can be too tough too early, and then there are some who are actually ready, but holding back. So you can say that sometimes we have to try and push them in a positive way too, I think. Without us doing anything wrong.”

One of the players Niels stated that for some of the players, they need to be more included in the decision-making-process. One example mentioned by one of the players was the importance to get into the pre-season together with the squad, to be able to compete about his playing position.

The medical staff clearly stated that they did not consider themselves having the definitive solution in every case. They also mentioned the fact that holding a player back from a match based on the fear of being injured might deprive the player from development and potentially economic gain (e.g. club transfer, bonuses etc.) or the team’s performance or the club’s economic gains. Many of the actors highlighted that if the player felt ready to play, and the coaches meant that he would have an impact on the game, the medical staff would take that into consideration. This position of taking a decision which is good for all the actors both in a short-term and long-term perspective was considered a difficult dilemma for the medical staff, since they feel an extra responsibility related to the players health.

Keeping the players on their toes but still together

The coach also highlighted that the competition between players could challenge the individuals in the club. Internal competition is essential and when a player is injured, that could create an opportunity for other players. This competition was also highlighted by the two players, however as a stressor for the injured player. The coach however stated that this type of competition must be present and that it makes the players push each other, and fight for a place on the team. This type of pressure, trying to withhold your place on the team, having the right attitudes, frequent changes in the coaching staff, and short-term results, was describes from all the actors as impacting the medical staff’s opportunity to impact the decision for players to play matches and their development. Both the coach and the medical staff highlighted that this might impact the decision, but never determined the RTP, while the players could consider this as a weighty stressor

The players point out a potential isolation of the injured players by dividing the players into two groups: those who are injured and those who are not, but this division is described differently based on the perspective. They also describe the rehabilitation as lonely, heavy, and boring, especially the acute phase, and experience that the injured players not to be a part of the community in the club, which the player Niels described in the following: “But I want to put it this way, you are down in hell and then you start the ascent from there, and then it becomes a bit like tunnel vision. You don’t see the light at the start, but you see it eventually”. The coach, however, does not describe this as an isolation or division of the team, but rather a natural part of the everyday life in a club, but highlight the importance of joint meals and meeting schedules. The medical staff have another nuance of this division, since an injury might be challenging and create a sense of exclusion, while this could also be good for the team, since the negativity which often comes with an injury does not get spread among the other team members. The physical coach highlights the same and furthermore that it should be attractive not to be injured.

All the actors describe the deprivation from matches in times of doubt about a player’s availability have both sportingly and economic negative impact on the player’s career:

David: “Football can be so simpel that if you, how should I put it , score a hat-trick in the right match against the right team, you can be like… And the salaries are so high, so if you end up in the right place then you, then you can in a way support the whole family for the rest of your life. So it’s quite clear that injuries affect the course of a career.”

Injuries means less time to train, and the actors agree that the time for the specific football training and matches are essential for a player’s individual development. Both the coach and the physiotherapist highlighted however the importance of making the most of the injury period, which could be considered as a window of opportunity to focus on individual skill development, which normally one does not have time for. The physical coach stated however that it might be difficult for a player to develop largely during the rehabilitation process. And this could be related to the somewhat black-white perspective the medical staff and the coach has on injuries. The physiotherapist meant that this approach might have a positive consequence for a player who have experienced an injury. They often work harder than before to be able to get back to football. At the same time Hans also pointed to the fact that the players could be “forgotten” by the coaches if they achieve a “bad” reputation: “But if you first get a reputation of being.. that the coach gets the feeling that he is not available, then it can often be difficult. A fight really. That is my experience”. The coach Lars partly confirmed this by stating that the coaches are aware of players who have a history of injuries, which often mean that they cannot play all matches during a season:

Lars: “In other words, injury follows injury. It’s a bit like that. So there are certain players that you know more or less that he is not going to play 100% of the games. Let’s say there is an exclusive player who often gets hamstring issues, then you know that during the season he will play 70% of the games. It may happen that we have players, who we know are like that.”

In a long-term perspective and focusing on the players career, the coach also highlighted that the players are screened and assessed by clubs if a club transfer is in motion, that a player with a large injury history would be considered as less interesting to recruit:

Lars: “[…] But the more players who don’t have an injury history.. So if you’re going to build a team then you have to get as few players as possible with an injury history, because often you see that those type of issues, especially if it’s the groin or hamstring or those types of injuries, they often come back.”

The coach described players’ injury history as essential when clubs assess which player they could recruit, and that injured players must convince the coaches to become relevant for a club transfer. These types of assessment are important for coaches in their process of building a squad both in a short-term and long-term perspective.

The aim of this study is to research how the decision-making on RTP from the medical staff impact on the perceived short- and long-term performance of the player and the team, from a coach, medical staff, and player perspective. The decision-making process on RTP in this professional football club were partly based on the hierarchy in the club (40). So, despite that the actor´s in the present study describes the process as a natural dynamic, and felt a shared responsibility in the process, their different roles impact on the decisions. The coaches were described highest in the hierarchy and related to them being responsible for the sportingly results and the performance of the team. The players were described as having a say in the decision of his availability, even though they often highlighted an experience of being pressured to play in certain situations (9). The medical staff was considered to have a two-sided role, since they were employed and a part of the coaching team and naturally felt a responsibility on behalf of the coaches and the club, they also felt the need to protect the players and their health as professional health workers (20). Their decisions would often mean that they had to “disappoint” the coaches or the player, by denying the player to play or the availability of a player in a match.

Responsibility was a term especially the medical staff used to describe how they felt about their role, but also when taking part in the final decision in the RTP process. This responsibility became important in the process of making “the right” call based on the information available while trying to account for the interests of all the actors. This might mean that they let a player play, with a “let´s see how it goes” approach, and that the outcome of the decision was described as “right” if the player played the whole game. A dilemma in the process was also related to the natural part of pain and injury as part of professional football described by all the actors in the process (31). So even if protecting the players was important, time spent on the pitch is the main goal for both the individual players and the team’s development and performance. Even so, earlier research (41) has indicated that elite sports have a pain culture where pain is a natural and expected part of elite sports, which could have a negative impact on the players development, if this means that the players do not communicate when feeling injured or unavailable for training and matches.

Professional football is all about results and performance (32). So, a characteristic off successful environments is their constant search of areas to develop further (14). This seemed to be the case in this club as well since a period of injury was considered an opportunity for the player to develop. The players are competing about a place in the starting line-up and need to pick up the glow to get back into the team. Still, there was also a mutual understanding that each RTP case might be different and had to be considered individually. So, in some cases both the medical staff and the coaches felt that some players needed a push to get back. This may in many cases also be in the best interest of the player since it could mean that they in example get identified by scouts, impacting their career by a club transfer. Furthermore, this pressure could mean that the players are willing to take a higher risk by playing while injured. The players in this study described being injured as lonely and feeling isolated from the team, as found in earlier studies (32), which could be perceived as an increased motivation to RTP potentially even before the mind or body are ready.

In accordance with the focus on results and performance in professional football are also the high degree of uncertainty in this professional context (15). This could be related to the small margins between success and failure. This is also related to the RTP process, since all actors in the process of RTP must make the best decision for both the individual and teams’ performance. Still, there is a lack of knowledge related to the potential outcome of the decision. This means that the actors must “take risks” to be able to maximize the opportunity to succeed. While it was not a part of the study, the obvious economically benefits of decreasing time loss in training and competition on both an individually (players, medical team, and coaching team) and club level (potential sale of players), also makes both the rehabilitation and preventive strategies important. The club perspective might conflict with the individual actors in the RTP process, with the example of the club winning the league, while a player got injured because of the overload and hereby potentially ending his career.

All the actors in this study highlight that football is a sport where you must expect to feel pain regularly and that injury is a part of being a professional football player. So even though the medical staff and the injury prevention could mean that the player could have a longer career, the choices made in the process of RTP is often based on short term player and team performance. Professional football players have competition as a living and are expected to enjoy and embrace competing against both other teams related to winning trophies and teammates related to a place on the team in matches. This degree of competition was also seen as a part of the RTP process since the competition with teammates gave the players motivation to overcome their injury situation and get back to compete for their “spot” on the team. Even though this study only includes experiences from one professional football club, it gives insight into howe the RTP process is done in a professional football context. Future studies should consider recruiting representatives from the club management, which also could give insight on how the macro aspects of a club impact on the RTP decisions in the coaching team of a professional football club.

Bizzini, M., Hancock, D., & Impellizzeri, F. (2012). Suggestions from the field for return to sports participation following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: soccer. journal of orthopaedic & sports physical therapy, 42(4), 304-312.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative research in psychology, 3(2), 77-101.
Braun, V., Clarke, V., & P. Weate (2016) Using thematic analysis in sport and exercise research. In B. Smith & A. C. Sparkes (Eds.), Routledge handbook of qualitative research in sport and exercise (pp. 191-205). New York, NY: Routledge.
Della Villa, S., Boldrini, L., Ricci, M., Danelon, F., Snyder-Mackler, L., Nanni, G., & Roi, G. S. (2012). Clinical outcomes and return-to-sports participation of 50 soccer players after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction through a sport-specific rehabilitation protocol. Sports health, 4(1), 17-24.
Dijkstra, H. P., Pollock, N., Chakraverty, R., & Ardern, C. L. (2016). Return to play in elite sport: a shared decision-making process. British Journal of Sports Medicine 51(5), 419-420.
Dingenen, B., & Gokeler, A. (2017). Optimization of the return-to-sport paradigm after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a critical step back to move forward. Sports Medicine, 47(8), 1487-1500.
Drew, M. K., Raysmith, B. P., & Charlton, P. C. (2017). Injuries impair the chance of successful performance by sportspeople: a systematic review. British journal of sports medicine, 51(16), 1209-1214.
Dunlop, G., Ardern, C. L., Andersen, T. E., Lewin, C., Dupont, G., Ashworth, B., . . . McCall, A. (2019). Return-to-Play Practices Following Hamstring Injury: A Worldwide Survey of 131 Premier League Football Teams. Sports Medicine, 1-12.
Ekstrand, J., Lundqvist, D., Davison, M., D’Hooghe, M., & Pensgaard, A. M. (2019). Communication quality between the medical team and the head coach/manager is associated with injury burden and player availability in elite football clubs. British journal of sports medicine, 53(5), 304-308.
Ekstrand, J., Lundqvist, D., Lagerbäck, L., Vouillamoz, M., Papadimitiou, N., & Karlsson, J. (2018). Is there a correlation between coaches’ leadership styles and injuries in elite football teams? A study of 36 elite teams in 17 countries. British journal of sports medicine, 52(8), 527-531.
Ekstrand, J., Spreco, A., Bengtsson, H., & Bahr, R. (2021). Injury rates decreased in men’s professional football: an 18-year prospective cohort study of almost 12 000 injuries sustained during 1.8 million hours of play. British journal of sports medicine, 55(19), 1084-1091.
Erickson, L. N., & Sherry, M. A. (2017). Rehabilitation and return to sport after hamstring strain injury. Journal of sport and health science, 6(3), 262-270.
Esmaeili, A., Hopkins, W. G., Stewart, A. M., Elias, G. P., Lazarus, B. H., & Aughey, R. J. (2018). The individual and combined effects of multiple factors on the risk of soft tissue non-contact injuries in elite team sport athletes. Frontiers in Physiology, 9, 1280.
Eubank, M., Nesti, M., & A. Cruickshank. (2014) Understanding high performance sport environments: Impact for the professional training and supervision of sport psychologists. Sport and Exercise Psychology Review 10(2), 30-37.
Fasey, K.J., Sarkar, M., Wagstaff, C.R.D. & Johnston, J. (2022) Understanding organizational resilience in elite sport: An exploration of psychosocial processes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 62, 2022.
Faude, O., Rommers, N., & Rössler, R. (2018). Exercise-based injury prevention in football. German Journal of Exercise and Sport Research, 48(2), 157-168.
Faude, O., Rössler, R., Petushek, E. J., Roth, R., Zahner, L., & Donath, L. (2017). Neuromuscular adaptations to multimodal injury prevention programs in youth sports: a systematic review with meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Frontiers in Physiology, 8, 791.
Fuller, C. W. (2019). Assessing the return on investment of injury prevention procedures in professional football. Sports Medicine, 49(4), 621-629.
Gabbett, T. J., & Whiteley, R. (2017). Two training-load paradoxes: can we work harder and smarter, can physical preparation and medical be teammates? International journal of sports physiology and performance, 12(2), 250-254.
Ghrairi, M., Loney, T., Pruna, R., Malliaropoulos, N., & Valle, X. (2019). Effect of poor cooperation between coaching and medical staff on muscle re-injury in professional football over 15 seasons. Open access journal of sports medicine, 10, 107.
Gokeler, A., Benjaminse, A., & Dingenen, B. (2020). Return to Play After Sport Injuries. i W. Krutsch, H. O. Mayr, V. Musahl, F. Della Villa, P. M. Tscholl, & H. Jones (Red.), Injury and Health Risk Management in Sports (s. 91-96). Berlin: Springer.
Hickey, J. T., Timmins, R. G., Maniar, N., Williams, M. D., & Opar, D. A. (2017). Criteria for progressing rehabilitation and determining return-to-play clearance following hamstring strain injury: a systematic review. Sports Medicine, 47(7), 1375-1387.
Jones, A., Jones, G., Greig, N., Bower, P., Brown, J., Hind, K., & Francis, P. (2019). Epidemiology of injury in English Professional Football players: A cohort study. Physical therapy in sport, 35, 18-22.
ones, C. M., Griffiths, P. C., & Mellalieu, S. D. (2017). Training load and fatigue marker associations with injury and illness: a systematic review of longitudinal studies. Sports Medicine, 47(5), 943-974.
Law, G. & Bloyce, D. (2019) ‘Pressure to play?’ A sociological analysis of professional football managers’ behaviour towards injured players, Soccer & Society 20(3), 387-407, DOI: 10.1080/14660970.2017.1321540
Loose, O., Achenbach, L., Fellner, B., Lehmann, J., Jansen, P., Nerlich, M., Angele P. & Krutsch, W. (2018). Injury prevention and return to play strategies in elite football: no consent between players and team coaches. Archives of orthopaedic and trauma surgery, 138(7), 985-992.
McCall, A., Carling, C., Davison, M., Nedelec, M., Le Gall, F., Berthoin, S., & Dupont, G. (2015). Injury risk factors, screening tests and preventative strategies: a systematic review of the evidence that underpins the perceptions and practices of 44 football (soccer) teams from various premier leagues. British journal of sports medicine, 49(9), 583-589.
McCall, A., Carling, C., Nedelec, M., Davison, M., Le Gall, F., Berthoin, S., & Dupont, G. (2014). Risk factors, testing and preventative strategies for non-contact injuries in professional football: current perceptions and practices of 44 teams from various premier leagues. British journal of sports medicine, 48(18), 1352-1357.
McCall, A., Davison, M., Andersen, T. E., Beasley, I., Bizzini, M., Dupont, G., . . . Dvorak, J. (2015). Injury prevention strategies at the FIFA 2014 World Cup: perceptions and practices of the physicians from the 32 participating national teams. British journal of sports medicine, 49(9), 603-608.
McCall, A., Dupont, G., & Ekstrand, J. (2016). Injury prevention strategies, coach compliance and player adherence of 33 of the UEFA Elite Club Injury Study teams: a survey of teams’ head medical officers. British journal of sports medicine, 50(12), 725-730.
Murphy, P. & Waddington, I. (2007) Are Elite Athletes Exploited?. Sport in Society 10,(2), 239-255, DOI: 10.1080/17430430601147096
Nesti, M. (2010) Psychology in football: Working with elite and professional players. Routledge.
Niederer, D., Wilke, J., Vogt, L., & Banzer, W. (2018). Return to play after injuries: A survey on the helpfulness of various forms of assistance in the shared decision-making process in semiprofessional athletes in germany. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation, 99(4), 690-698.
O’Brien, J., Young, W., & Finch, C. (2017). The use and modification of injury prevention exercises by professional youth soccer teams. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports, 27(11), 1337-1346.
Orchard, J. W. (2001). Intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors for muscle strains in Australian football. The American journal of sports medicine, 29(3), 300-303.
Owen, A. L., Dunlop, G., Rouissi, M., Haddad, M., Mendes, B., & Chamari, K. (2016). Analysis of positional training loads (ratings of perceived exertion) during various-sided games in European professional soccer players. International journal of sports science & coaching, 11(3), 374-381.
Paul, D.J., Jones, L. & Read, P. (2022) Shared Decision-Making: Some cautionary observations in the context of elite sport”. Sports Medicine – Open 8(44). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-022-00413-2.
Raysmith, B. P., & Drew, M. K. (2016). Performance success or failure is influenced by weeks lost to injury and illness in elite Australian track and field athletes: a 5-year prospective study. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 19(10), 778-783.
Read, P. J., Jimenez, P., Oliver, J. L., & Lloyd, R. S. (2018). Injury prevention in male youth soccer: current practices and perceptions of practitioners working at elite English academies. Journal of sports sciences, 36(12), 1423-1431.
Relvas, H., Littlewood, M., Nesti, M., Gilbourne, D. & Richardson, D. (2010) Organizational Structures and Working Practices in Elite European Professional Football Clubs: Understanding the Relationship between Youth and Professional Domains. European Sport Management Quarterly, 10(2), 165-187, DOI: 10.1080/16184740903559891
Roderick, M., Waddington, I., & Parker, G. (2000) PLAYING HURT: Managing Injuries in English Professional Football. International Review for the Sociology of Sport 35(2), 165–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/101269000035002003
Shrier, I., Safai, P., & Charland, L. (2014). Return to play following injury: whose decision should it be? British journal of sports medicine, 48(5), 394-401.
Shultz, R., Bido, J., Shrier, I., Meeuwisse, W. H., Garza, D., & Matheson, G. O. (2013). Team clinician variability in return-to-play decisions. Clinical journal of sport medicine, 23(6), 456-461.
Silvers-Granelli, H. J., Bizzini, M., Arundale, A., Mandelbaum, B. R., & Snyder-Mackler, L. (2017). Does the FIFA 11+ injury prevention program reduce the incidence of ACL injury in male soccer players? Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 475(10), 2447-2455.
Toohey, L. A., Drew, M. K., Cook, J. L., Finch, C. F., & Gaida, J. E. (2017). Is subsequent lower limb injury associated with previous injury? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med, 51(23), 1670-1678.
Van Crombrugge, G., Duvivier, B. M., Van Crombrugge, K., Bellemans, J., & Peers, K. (2019). Hamstring injury prevention in Belgian and English elite football teams. Acta orthopaedica Belgica, 85(3), 373-380.
Van Der Horst, N., Backx, F., Goedhart, E. A., & Huisstede, B. M. (2017). Return to play after hamstring injuries in football (soccer): a worldwide Delphi procedure regarding definition, medical criteria and decision-making. British journal of sports medicine, 51(22), 1583-1591.
Waldén, M., Hägglund, M., Magnusson, H., & Ekstrand, J. (2016). ACL injuries in men’s professional football: a 15-year prospective study on time trends and return-to-play rates reveals only 65% of players still play at the top level 3 years after ACL rupture. British journal of sports medicine, 50(12), 744-750.
Zaffagnini, S., Grassi, A., Muccioli, G. M., Tsapralis, K., Ricci, M., Bragonzoni, L., . . . Marcacci, M. (2014). Return to sport after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction in professional soccer players. The Knee, 21(3), 731-735.

An analysis of the factors impacting win percentage and change in win percentage in women’s Division 1 college lacrosse

Authors: Christiana E. Hilmer 1

1 Department of Economics, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA

Christiana Hilmer, PhD 5500 Campanile Drive San Diego, CA 92182-4485 [email protected] 619-301-9388

Christiana E. Hilmer, PhD, is a Professor of Economics at San Diego State University in San Diego, CA. Her research interests include the economics of sports, applied econometrics, labor economics, and resource and environmental economics.

What factors in women’s NCAA Division 1 college lacrosse led to an increase in win percentage in a single season and a change in win percentage across two consecutive seasons? Do these factors differ between teams at the top and the bottom ends of the win distributions? Using data from the 2023 and 2022 lacrosse seasons, we find that goals, assists, unassisted goals, and participation in the NCAA Championship tournament have a positive impact on win percentage, while opponent’s goals and if the team was new in 2023 have a negative impact on win percentage. The most crucial factor that explains the change in win percentage between the 2022 and 2023 lacrosse seasons is an improvement in the change in total shots ratio, while changes in attacking efficiency and defending efficiency are also important, all together explaining 58% of the variation. Teams at the bottom of the distributions have similar characteristics for both win percentage and change in win percentage as those teams in the middle and the top of the distributions, although there are some slight differences in the magnitudes of the statistically significant variables. These results suggest that lacrosse players and coaches should focus on obtaining additional goals and assists while concurrently minimizing the opponent’s goals to increase win percentage and changes in win percentage.

Keywords : distributional impacts, quantile regression, women’s college lacrosse

Since the advent of sabermetrics pioneered by Bill James and the popularity of Lewis’s (5) Moneyball, the use of statistics to analyze sports has exploded in popularity. Reep and Benjamin (7) applied statistical analysis to team-wide factors in soccer where they investigated how the passing skill and position of a player on the field impacts goals. When analyzing a team’s performance, it is essential to determine which factors lead to a team’s success. Most research in this field has focused on professional sports. Busca et al. (1) examine eleven high-stakes international soccer tournaments to determine where a penalty kick is most likely to be struck. Pelechrinis and Winston (6) develop a framework that is comprised of publicly available data to determine the expected contribution of an individual professional soccer player to the probability of his team winning the game. Alberti et. al. (1) examine goal-scoring patterns in four different professional soccer leagues and find that the majority of goals are scored in the second half of the game with the most goals being scored in the last fifteen minutes of play. Castellano et. al. (3) analyze professional soccer match statistics to determine which factors impact winning, drawing, and losing a game and find that shots, shots on goal, and ball possession are important on the offensive end of the field, while total shots received and shots on target received are important on the defensive end of the field. A notable departure from research that focuses on professional soccer is Joslyn et al. (4), who examines the factors that improve the change in win percentage in men’s Division 1 (D1) college soccer. They find that improving shots, attacking, and defending positively impact the change in win percentage between two consecutive seasons.

This research utilizes the tools found in the team-focused literature from soccer and extends it to lacrosse. Soccer and lacrosse have many similarities, especially regarding possession, assists, goals, and defense. There are also marked differences between the two sports in addition to the obvious one: in soccer the ball is kicked while in lacrosse the ball is played with a net attached to a stick. Lacrosse is a higher-scoring game due to the presence of a 90-second shot clock and defending a women’s lacrosse player is more difficult in lacrosse than it is in soccer. One reason for this is that in lacrosse it is a foul to “move into the path of an opponent without giving the opponent a chance to stop or change direction, and causing contact” (page 51, 2022 and 2023 NCAA Women’s Lacrosse Rules Book (6)), while there is no such rule in soccer. Another reason is due to a rule in women’s lacrosse called shooting space (page 54, NCAA 2022 and 2023 Women’s Lacrosse Rules Book (6)), which states that “with any part of one’s body, guarding the goal outside or inside the goal circle so as to obstruct the free space to goal, between the ball and the goal circle, which denies the attack the opportunity to shoot safely and encourages shooting at a player” while soccer does not have a comparable rule. According to NCAA Statistics (7), the average number of goals per game scored in D1 women’s college lacrosse in 2023 was 12, while the average number of goals per game scored in D1 women’s college soccer in 2023 was 1.39. Another notable difference between lacrosse and soccer is that the offside rules are very different. The offsides rule in lacrosse states that there must be at least five defenders behind their defensive restraining line and at least four offensive players behind their offensive restraining line (page 61, NCAA 2022 and 2023 Women’s Lacrosse Rules Book (6)). The offsides rule in soccer is much less stringent and it states that when in the opponent’s half of the field “the player is not closer to the opponent’s end line than at least two opponents” (page 52, NCAA 2022 and 2023 Soccer Rules Book (7)). These disparities between lacrosse and soccer may result in differences in which factors impact win percentages and changes in win percentages.

This research examines which factors lead to an increase in win percentage and change in win percentage for women’s Division 1 college lacrosse teams. We also seek to determine if these factors differ among teams in the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles for win percentage and the change in win percentage. Using data from the 2023 women’s D1 college lacrosse season, we explain 86% of the variation in win percentage. Goals, unassisted goals, and participation in the NCAA Championship tournament have a statistically significant positive impact on win percentage, while opponent’s goals and if the team was new in 2023 have a statistically significant negative impact on win percentage. The most crucial factor explaining the change in win percentage between the 2022 and 2023 lacrosse seasons is an improvement in the change in total shots ratio, while changes in attacking efficiency and defending efficiency are also statistically significant, all together explaining 58% of the variation. The variables that explain both win percentage in a single season and the change in win percentage between seasons are similar between the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles. This suggests that teams at the bottom of the distributions should focus on the same factors as those at the top when they seek to improve during a season and between seasons.

Data Source Win percentage was collected from the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) archives for the 2023 and 2022 seasons. A win was awarded one point while a loss was awarded zero points. Offensive and defensive statistics for the 2023 and 2022 seasons were collected from each University’s women’s lacrosse website housed in the season’s cumulative statistics. It is important to note that these data are provided by individual institutions and therefore the statistical findings of this research is dependent on the accuracy of the information provided by each school. In addition to winning percentage, data was collected on goals, assists, shots, opponent’s goals, opponent’s shots, unassisted goals, ground balls, turnovers, caused turnovers, draw controls, whether the team was new to NCAA D1 lacrosse in the 2023 season, and if the team made the NCAA Championship tournament in 2023. Of the 126 D1 women’s lacrosse teams, 123 had information on every variable listed above.

Variables and Distributions

This analysis aims to determine what factors impact a single season winning percentage and which factors impact the change in win percentage across two consecutive seasons. Figure 1 is a histogram of win percentage for the 2023 women’s lacrosse season. The average win percentage was close to 50% at 48.27%; the minimum win percentage was 0 for the two teams that lost every game during the season, while the maximum win percentage was from a team that won 95.65% of their games. The team with the second-highest win percentage won the 2023 NCAA National Championship tournament.

Summary statistics for the 2023 D1 women’s lacrosse 2023 season are found in table 1. The average number of goals and opponent’s goals nearly offset each other at 211 and 210, respectively. There was an average of 495 shots with a large standard deviation of 105. Below half the goals were aided by an average of 92 assists, while over half of the goals resulted from an average of 119 unassisted goals. There were nearly twice as many turnovers as there were caused turnovers, 7% or a total of 8 teams were new D1 lacrosse teams in 2023, and 24% of the D1 lacrosse teams made the NCAA end-of-season tournament.

Figure 2 contains a histogram of win percentage change, which is constructed by taking the win percentage in the 2023 lacrosse season and subtracting the win percentage in the 2022 lacrosse season. There are fewer observations in the change in win percentage because the seven teams who were new in the 2023 season did not have any statistics for the 2022 season. On average, most teams had a similar win percentage in 2023 as they did in 2022, with an average change in the win percentage of .16. The team with the lowest change in win percentage between the two seasons of -51.47 had a win percentage of 75% in 2022, dropping to 24% in 2023. At the other end of the spectrum, the team with the highest change in win percentage won 12% of their games in 2022 and improved to winning 50% of their games in 2023.

Following Joyce et al. (4), we construct three measures of team success to explain the change in winning percentage: total shots ratio, attaching scoring efficiency, and defending scoring efficiency. The first measure, total shots ratio, is constructed as

The total shots ratio in both 2022 and 2023 is .5, which means, on average, teams are matching their opponent’s shots with their own shots with a range in values from .23 to .7 in 2023 and .3 to .63 in 2022. This finding for lacrosse compares favorably to what Joyce et al. (4) found for D1 college soccer, where the total shots ratio ranged from .24 to .69 in D1 men’s soccer.

The second measure of team success is attacking scoring efficiently or goals to shots ratio.

The average attaching scoring efficiency for 2023 and 2022 was .42. This measure had a relatively smaller variability than the total shots ratio, with a minimum of around .3 for both years and a maximum of .5 in 2023 to .58 in 2023. This maximum means that the teams with the highest attacking scoring efficiency earn an average of one goal for every two shots. Being able to convert shots into goals is an essential aspect of winning games. Lacrosse teams are much more likely to convert shots into goals, as Joyce et al. (4) found an average attacking scoring efficiency of .1 or 1 goal for every ten shots in D1 men’s soccer.

The third measure of team success is the defending scoring efficiency, which is contracted as

This final measure determines if teams can prevent opponents from turning shots into goals. The average values for defending scoring efficiency are slightly higher than attaching scoring efficiency, with an average of .43 in 2023 and .44 in 2022. The variability is higher for defending scoring efficiency than attacking scoring efficiency, with a minimum of .31 in 2023 and .34 in 2022 and a maximum of .66 in 2023 and .77 in 2022. Teams that are better at preventing shots from being converted into goals typically have a higher win percentage.

Regression Model The first step in our regression analysis is to empirically estimate the degree to which offensive and defensive statistics impact the win percentage for the 2023 lacrosse season. The win percentage regression model takes the form:

The second part of the analysis follows Joyce et. al. (4) to determine what factors impact the change in win percentage between the 2023 and 2022 lacrosse seasons. The regression model is as follows

where ε_i is the error term and i is the individual women’s lacrosse team. As with the individual season analysis, this model is estimated using ordinary linear regression and quantile regression at the 50th, 25th, and 75th percentiles.

Table 3 contains the results for the estimation of equation (4) from the 2023 lacrosse season with robust standard errors in parentheses. Looking first at the results from the ordinary least squares model, 86% of the variation in win percentage is explained by the 11 independent variables. Turning to the variables that are statistically significant, each additional goal results in an increase of .18 in win percentage, while each opponent’s goal results in a decrease of .2 in win percentage, with goals and opponent’s goals nearly offsetting each other. On average, one additional unassisted goal results in an increase of .13 in win percentage. Being a new D1 women’s lacrosse team in 2023 results in a 9 point marginally statistically significant decrease in win percentage relative to teams that have been in the league in previous years. This result suggests that new D1 teams have a difficult time navigating their first year likely due to players and coaches lacking experience and chemistry, making obtaining wins more difficult. Women’s lacrosse teams who participated in the 2023 NCAA Championship Tournament have a statistically significant almost 5 point higher win percentage than those who did not participate in the tournament. This finding is not surprising given that the two ways to get a team into the tournament are to either receive an automatic bid by winning their conference tournament or earn an at-large bid by having a compelling enough record during the regular season and conference playoffs.

The last three columns of table 3 contain quantile regression results at the 50th, 25th, and 75th percentiles of the win percentage distribution. Opponent’s goals are the only statistically significant factor to explain wins across all three percentiles. The magnitude of opponent’s goals is largest at the 25th percentile at -.24 and is -.20 for both the 50th and 75th percentile. Teams at the 25th and 50th percentiles of the win percentage distribution that participates in the NCAA end-of-season tournament has a statistically significant 7 point and 6 point higher win percentage, respectively, relative to those who did not participate, while this variable is not statistically significant at the 75th percentile. This may be because most, 73%, of the tournament participants come from the teams at the top 25% of the win percentage distribution, while most teams at the middle and bottom of the distribution did not participate in the tournament. Aside from this difference, the results are similar between the models at the three points in the win percentage distribution.

Table 4 contains the second part of the regression analysis which estimates equation (5) that attempts to determine what factors impact the change in win percentage between the 2023 and 2022 seasons. The variables contained in this analysis mimic those in Joyce et. al. (4) for men’s D1 college soccer. Looking at the OLS results, teams that had a one unit increase in the change in total shots ratio between the two seasons had a 2.4 increase in the change in win percentage. Teams with a 1 unit increase in the change in attacking efficiency had a 1 unit increase in the change in win percentage, and teams with a one unit increase in the change in defending efficiency decreased the change in win percentage by 1.2 points. The statistical significance between these lacrosse results and those found for soccer by Joslyn et al. (4) are identical, suggesting that even though there are many differences between the two sports, the same factors are important in explaining the change in win percentage between consecutive years. Comparing magnitudes between the two applications is not possible because the estimation methods differed. The statistical significance of the variables included in the quantile regression evaluated at the 50th, 25th, and 75th percentiles were the same as in the OLS regression. The quantile regression performed at the 25th percentile of the change in win percentage had the highest impact for the change in total shots ratio and the change in attacking efficiency, while the change in defending efficiency had the smallest impact. The change in total shots ratio and the change in attacking efficiency had the smallest impact for those teams at the 75th percentile, while the change in defending efficiency had the largest impact for those teams at the 50th percentile. These results suggest that the factors that impact the change in win percentage are similar across teams at the bottom and the top of the change in win percentage distribution, although the marginal impacts differed slightly between the percentiles.

It is not surprising that additional goals led to an increase in win percentage and an increase in opponent’s goals led to a decrease in win percentage. However, it was unanticipated that many of the other offensive and defensive statistics included in the regression were not statistically significant. It is likely that these other factors either lead to the team’s ability to score goals, such as shots, ground balls, and caused turnovers, or lead to the opponent’s goals, such as turnovers. One drawback of this research is that it does not investigate how these other factors impact goals and opponent’s goals. One adage in lacrosse is “win the draw, win the game.” Even though draw controls are not statistically significant in explaining win percentage, there was no information contained in the box scores on how many goals were obtained when the team won the draw control or how many goals were conceded when the team lost the draw control. More detailed information would be needed to investigate this relationship further. Other factors that likely explain win percentage and changes in win percentage such as team chemistry, the presence of a star player, the experience of the players and the coaches, and how different game management strategies, such as the usage of substitutes and quickness of play, are not included because they are difficult to measure, not included in the box scores, or both.

For a lacrosse coach or lacrosse player who is looking to improve win percentage between seasons, it is comforting to note that focusing on improving the changes in total shots ratio, attacking scoring efficiency, and becoming better at defending by decreasing the opponent’s goal-to-shot ratio will lead to an increase in the change in win percentage. One major drawback of this research is that it does not point to the factors that cause improvements in these variables and how they feed into additional goals or fewer conceded goals.

This study is the first to analyze which factors impact win percentage and changes in win percentage for NCAA D1 women’s lacrosse. The regression results suggest that goals, unassisted goals, and those who competed in the NCAA tournament had a positive impact on win percentage, while opponent’s goals and teams that were new in 2023 had a negative impact on win percentage. These factors were similar across the distribution of win percentage at the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles. Changes in win percentage between the 2023 and 2022 seasons are positively impacted by the change in the total shots ratio and attacking scoring efficiency and negatively impacted by the change in defending scoring efficiency. Even though there are many differences between lacrosse and soccer, the findings of this research and those of Joyce et. al. (4) that focus on college soccer suggest that the factors that explain changes in win percentage are similar between the two sports. These results also suggest that the statistics that explain win percentage and change in win percentage are similar between teams at the bottom, at the middle, and at the top of the distributions.

Applications In Sport

Women’s lacrosse programs at the collegiate level as well as at the national level can use these results to determine which factors to focus on when attempting to improve their win percentage within a specific year or over the course of several years. This research suggests that teams should emphasize their efforts in practice and in games on factors that increase goals as well as those factors that prevent goals. The lack of empirical analysis at the collegiate level, especially for women’s sports, can be rectified using available data. Additional publicly available information would make individual game analysis more informative such as how winning a draw control impacts goals as well as how focusing on specific factors such as caused turnovers or increasing assists increases goals and therefore positively impacts a team’s chances of winning.

(1) Alberti, G., Iaia, F. M., Arcelli, E., Cavaggioni, L., Rampinini, E. (2013). Goal scoring patterns in major European soccer leagues. Sport Sciences for Heath, 9(3), 151-153.
(2) Buscà, B., Hileno, R., Nadal, B., & Serna, J. (2022). Prediction of the penalty kick direction in men’s soccer. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 22(4), 571–582.
(3) Castellano, J., Casamichana, D., Penas, C. (2012). The use of match statistics that discriminate between successful and unsuccessful soccer teams, Journal of Hunan Kinetics, 31, 137-147.
(4) Joslyn, M.R., Joslyn, N. J. & Joslyn, M. R. (2017). What delivers an improved season in men’s college soccer? The relative effects of shots, attacking and defending scoring efficiency on year-to-year change in season win percentage. The Sport Journal, 24, 1-12.
(5) Lewis, M. (2004). Moneyball: The art of winning an unfair game. WW Norton & Company.
(6) NCAA 2022 and 2023 Women’s Lacrosse Rule Book. https://www.usalacrosse.com/sites/default/files/documents/Rules/WLC23.pdf
(7) NCAA 2022 and 2022 Soccer Rules Book. https://www.ncaapublications.com/productdownloads/SO23.pdf
(8) NCAA Statistics, Women’s Lacrosse and Women’s Soccer http://stats.ncaa.org/rankings/conference_trends
(9) Pelechrinis, K., & Winston, W. (2021). A Skellam regression model for quantifying positional value in soccer. Journal of Quantitative Analysis in Sports, 17(3), 187–201.
(10) Reep, C., & Benjamin, B. (1968). Skill and chance in association football. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A (General), 131(4), 581-585.
(11) Waldmann E. (2018). Quantile regression: A short story on how and why. Statistical Modelling. 18(3-4): 203-218.

The Real Cause of Losing Sports Officials

Authors: Matthew J Williams D.S.M., M.B.A. M.S.

Department of Education, The University of Virginia’s College at Wise, Wise, VA, USA

Dr. Matthew Williams The University of Virginia’s College at Wise 2001 Greenbriar Drive Bristol, VA 24202

Matthew J. Williams D.S.M., M.B.A., M.S., is an Associate Professor of Sport Management at The University of Virginia’s College at Wise. His areas of research interest include NASCAR, COVID-19, college athletics, professional sports, and sport management issues..

Recreational Sports, Junior Highschool Sports, and Highschool Sports are witnessing across all types of sports a decline in sports officials. Athletic directors in all three levels have seen a steadily declined in sports officials in the last twenty years. But since the COVID-19 Pandemic, the lack of sports officials has increased so rapidly that it could eventually become a nationwide crisis. The pandemic may have caused the decline of sports officials but it was not the only cause. The age of the sports officials has played a role in the decline of the sport’s officials. But the true main cause of losing sports officials has been the lack of respect for the sport’s officials through the behavior of players, coaches, family members, and sports fans.

Keywords Sports Officials, Players, Coaches, Fans, COVID-19 Pandemic, Respect.

Introduction

Recreational Sports, Junior High School Sports, and High School Sports are all witnessing a lack of sports officials all across the United States. There are so many theories out there on why we are losing sports officials so rapidly. If you have attended a sporting event lately and looked at the sports officials, a constant trend you will witness is the sports officials’ increasing ages and the lack of sports officials that are able to cover the sporting events. The repercussions of the lack of sports officials are already being felt. What is the true reason we are losing sports officials? Did COVID-19 Pandemic play a role in the loss of sports officials, the current age of sports officials, or the constant verbal abuse or threats to sports officials?

Even before the 2020 COVID-19 Pandemic Virus, it was apparent to recreational athletic directors, and athletic directors at both junior high and high school that they were already seeing a steady decline in sports officials across the United States over the past decade. The scarcity of officials is a long-running problem in high school sports. (6) From the 2018-19 school year to 2021-22, 32 of 38 states reporting statistics have seen registration numbers of officials drop, according to the National Federation of State High School Associations data. (1) Over the last decade, there has been a steady decline in the amount of referees available. In 2018, the Michigan High School Athletic Association reported that amount of referees available dropped from 12,400 to around 10,000 over the previous decade. (11)

The start of the COVID-19 Pandemic in the spring of 2020 forced a majority of recreational sports, junior high and high school sports across the United States to cease operations and shut down all games until further notice. This action of shutting down all games caused some officials to walk away from officiating. Simply because there were no games for the sports officials to work. As a result of the shutdown, officials had a chance to evaluate if they wanted to return to officiating. So many sports officials did not return to officiate games because of numerous reasons in the fall of 2020 or the spring of 2021. The Alabama High School Athletic Association is working hard to recruit and retain officials in all sports after losing more than 1,000 after the COVID-19 shutdown in the spring of 2020. (2) Washington said the association lost more than 1,100 officials after the COVID-19 shutdown. (2)

In the fall of 2020 and spring of 2021, some of the COVID-19 Pandemic restrictions were lifted and sports returned to somewhat normalcy. However, some officials decided not to return to officiating simply because of their age. There is a concern by some the impact of COVID-19 might hasten the retirement of older officials. (8)

The average age of the sports official was between 45 and 60 and it played a major role in the sports officials’ decision either to continue to be sports officials or not to be a sports official. Officials tend to be near or beyond retirement age the median age for a football referee is 56, according to the National Association of Sports Officials survey. (6) 77% of current officials are over the age of 45, with slightly more than half over the age of 55. (12)

The average age of the sports officials was at least 45 or older during the COVID-19 Pandemic. The COVID-19 Pandemic forced some older sports officials to choose not to return to officiating because simply of the underlying healthcare issues from the COVID-19 Pandemic. Some officials chose not to work during the pandemic because of health/safety concerns, and some of them chose not to return at all. (17) “In talking to some of the state directors, many of these losses are people who were probably on the brink of retirement, and then COVID kind of forced the issue,” explains Dana Pappas, NFHS director of officiating services. (15) The pandemic has also pushed a growing number of referees out, with officials leaving out of fear of getting sick. (16)

During the fall of 2021, some governors across the United States mandated that state employees must be fully vaccinated to prevent and/or limit the spread of the COVID-19 virus. This mandate forced many officials to choose whether to get the COVID-19 vaccination or not get the COVID-19 vaccination. If the sport’s official chose not to take the COVID-19 vaccination due to fears of the side effects of the COVID-19 vaccination or for religious beliefs, they would be banned from officiating junior high school and/or high school games. This mandate forced many officials to stop officiating resulting in a smaller pool of available officials to officiate games. “We already have a shortage of officials, not just in football but other sports,” Weber said”. “That (vaccine requirement) will reduce our numbers, based on what we’re hearing from our officials.” (3) The COVID-19 Pandemic resulted in some officials deciding not to return to officiating, creating an already smaller pool of available officials to officiate games. COVID-19 accelerated the problem, without question. (9)

Today’s parents are more invested financially than ever in their children’s sports careers. Parents are financially supporting their children’s sports careers through travel teams, summer leagues, specialized camps, personal training, and individual lessons. In the hopes that their child will either be drafted into professional sports or earn a college scholarship. Parents being so financially invested has caused an explosion of verbal abuse or threats toward officials from parents. Parents want the best outcomes for their children and are not afraid to voice their opinion to officials either by verbal abuse or threatening officials. Barrett theorized that the rise of travel teams in baseball —not to mention AAU teams in basketball and specialized camps for young football players — has caused parents to feel much more invested in their kids’ athletic careers, both financially and emotionally. (9) The parents feel more emboldened now than ever and are not afraid to voice their opinion verbally toward officials due to the fact they are so financially invested in their children’s sports careers. The parents feel strongly that they deserve the best officials to call the games because they have invested so much financially. “Parents have this sense of entitlement,” Barrett said. “They’re paying so much money, they think they should have better umpires.” (9) “These parents have this mentality of. ‘We pay all this money and travel all this way we expect the best, and referees can’t make mistakes.’ It’s based on society saying it’s okay to yell at people in public if they’re not giving you what they want. It’s asinine.” (13) “The problem is that, as parents spend more time and money on children’s sports, families are “coming to these sporting events with professional-level expectations,” said Jerry Reynolds, a professor of social work at Ball State University who studies the dynamics of youth sports and parent behavior. (7)

Aggressive behavior of abuse toward officials from coaches, players, parents, and fans started well before the COVID-19 Pandemic of 2020. “Before COVID, I felt like this behavior was reaching its peak,” Barlow said. (13) The aggressive behavior toward officials did not stop after the COVID-19 Pandemic was over. But some feel that the abuse of officials has increased resulting in the loss of more officials. Society of today has now become a custom of unruly behavior toward officials, players, and fans. The old saying, I paid my general admission ticket, gives me the right to berate an official, an opposing player, or a coach. This mentality has allowed more aggressiveness toward officials. Parents, coaches, and fans are increasingly aggressive toward officials. (4) People have had seemingly free license to scream, taunt and hurl insults at sporting events — acting out in ways they never would at work, the grocery store, or the dentists office. (14)

Officials have had enough of this type of abusive behavior, which is a major reason why we are losing officials so quickly. No official wants to be verbally abused, harassed, or threatened. Such unruly behavior is the driving force, referees say, behind a nationwide shortage of youth sports officials. (7) We have had the problem of losing officials because of the lack of respect toward officials from parents, family members, and fans well before the COVID-19 Pandemic. The shortfall has persisted for years, as rowdy parents, coaches, and players have created a toxic environment that has driven referees away and hampered the recruitment of new ones, referees say. (7)

The coaches, athletes, parents, family members, and fans of today no longer value or demand sportsmanlike behavior. We now accept unsportsmanlike behavior. Which consists of disrespect or lack of respect for officials through verbal abuse, threats, or harassment. Because we are accepting and allowing this type of behavior from coaches, athletes, parents family members, and fans. This is one of the main reasons why we are losing so many sports officials. “The un-sportsman like conduct of coaches, as well as some parents put people off and they don’t want to come back, they don’t want to return. They get yelled at during their days at work,” added Gittelson. (5) The shortage of officials in high school – and middle school – sports has been a growing concern for several years – in large part due to unsportsmanlike behavior by parents and other adult fans. (10)

Conclusions

The lack of sports officials is becoming a critical situation that recreational athletic directors, junior high school, and high school athletic directors will be facing in the coming years. Some sports officials are deciding to retire because of their age or knowing that their bodies can no longer keep pace with the speed of the game that they are officiating. This is creating a smaller pool of officials from the standpoint that the average age of the sport’s official is at least 45.

The COVID-19 pandemic did play somewhat of a role in reducing of sports officials that we are in right now. The pandemic brought health scares and mandatory COVID-19 vaccinations to some sports officials resulting in these officials making the decision to not return to officiating. But the real cause of the shortage of sports officials is simply the respect that is not given to the sports official by coaches, parents, family members, and fans. The behavior from coaches, parents, family members, and fans of yelling at sports officials, questioning sports officials’ calls, threats of violence towards sports officials, cursing at sports events, and even battery towards sports officials is out of control. No sports official wants to deal with this type of behavior at all nor should this type of behavior be allowed. This is the main reason why we are seeing the pool of sports officials becoming smaller. State legislation, superintendents of schools, principals of schools, and county commissioners need to address this issue of out-of-control behavior toward sports officials. If they do not, we will witness games being canceled, cancellation of seasons, and drastic pay increases that will be demanded by sports officials for the abuse.

Aldam, W. (2022, July 30). Why number of high school officials is declining in Connecticut and what’s being done to fix it. Retrieved from CT Insider: https://www.ctinsider.com/gametimect/article/Why-number-of-high-school-officials-is-declining-17339698.php#:~:text=The%20primary%20contributing%20factor%20to,abuse%20from%20fans%20and%20coaches.%E2%80%9D
Anonymous. (2022, August 16). AHSAA trying to replace more than 1,000 high school sports officials. Retrieved from Al.com: https://www.al.com/sports/2022/08/ahsaa-trying-to-replace-more-than-1000-high-school-sports-officials.html
Arnold, G. C. (2021, September 21). Shortage of high school sports officials expected to worsen as Oregon’s vaccination mandate approaches. Retrieved from The Oregonian: https://www.oregonlive.com/highschoolsports/2021/09/shortage-of-high-school-sports-officials-expected-to-worsen-as-oregons-vaccination-mandate-approaches.html
Davis Jr., M. A. (2021, November 5). No refs, no games: Can people play nice? Retrieved from The Christian Science Monitor: https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Society/2021/1105/No-refs-no-games-Can-people-play-nice
De La Fe, R. (2022, August 20). Nationwide referee shortage impacting hgh school and youth sports. Retrieved from CBS8: https://www.cbs8.com/article/news/local/nationwide-referee-shortage-impacting-high-schools/509-ce465d36-7a4a-419c-8671-a19711ca1cd9#:~:text=According%20to%20the%20National%20Federation,moved%20to%20Thursdays%20and%20Saturdays.
Keilman, J. (2021, August 10). Friday night slights: referees, feeling unappreciated, underpaid and unnerved by COVID-19, are fleeing high school football and other youth sports. Retrieved from gmtoday: https://www.gmtoday.com/news/illinois/friday-night-slights-referees-feeling-unappreciated-underpaid-and-unnerved-by-covid-19-are-fleeing-high/article_bf377e00-010a-11ec-8f40-cf2c2f39f0d2.html
Medina, E. (2022, April 21). Bad Behavior Drove a Referee Shortage. Covid Made It Worse. . Retrieved from New York Times: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/21/sports/referee-shortage-youth-sports.html
Miller, M. (2023, June 2). Return to Play Concerns for Youth and High School Sports Officials. Retrieved from SportsEngine: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwi3uJqCxqCAAxW3l2oFHSYSAiMQFnoECBwQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sportsengine.com%2Freturn-to-play%2Freturn-play-concerns-youth-and-high-school-sports-officials&usg=AOvVaw0
Newberry, P. (2022, April 23). Column: Amid increasing abuse, officials flee youth sports. Retrieved from The Bulletin: https://www.bendbulletin.com/ap/column-amid-increasing-abuse-officials-flee-youth-sports/article_eb67df8f-5782-5e4b-8fba-1dc3cd756bde.html
Niehoff, K. (2021, September 1). Poor Sportsmanship, Pandemic Contributing to Shortage of Officials . Retrieved from National Federation of State High School Associations: https://www.nfhs.org/articles/poor-sportsmanship-pandemic-contributing-to-shortage-of-officials/#:~:text=Poor%20Sportsmanship%2C%20Pandemic%20Contributing%20to%20Shortage%20of%20Officials,-By%20Dr.&text=As%20high%20schools%20begin%20a,to%20officiate%20all
Purcell, J. (2022, January 10). High school referee shortage ‘as bad as it’s been’ as COVID-19 continues to impact Metro Detroit. Retrieved from Michigan Live: https://www.mlive.com/highschoolsports/2022/01/high-school-referee-shortage-as-bad-as-its-been-as-covid-19-continues-to-impact-metro-detroit.html
Saunders, C. (2023, February 2). Shortage of local sports officials in ‘a crisis mode’. Retrieved from The Outer Banks Voice: https://www.outerbanksvoice.com/2023/02/02/shortage-of-local-sports-officials-in-a-crisis-mode/#:~:text=Local%20referees%20and%20officials%20say,dealing%20with%20increasingly%20bad%20behavior.
Solomon, J. (2022, April 15). Roughing Up the Refs: Abusive Behavior is Driving Youth Sports Officials Away From the Game. Retrieved from Global Sports Matter: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiFi8L5wKCAAxWnmmoFHSdIAVQQFnoECBsQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fglobalsportmatters.com%2Fbusiness%2F2022%2F04%2F15%2Fabusive-behavior-driving-youth-sports-officials-away%2F&us
Stanmyre, M. (2022, March 29). It’s never been uglier on N.J. sports fields as bad behavior explodes. Retrieved from Nj.com: https://www.nj.com/sports/2022/03/its-never-been-uglier-on-nj-sports-fields-as-bad-behavior-explodes.html
Thiede, D. (2022, August 18). SportsLife: Officials shortage impacting youth, high school sports. Retrieved from Kare 11: https://www.kare11.com/article/sports/local-sports/sportslife/sportslife-official-shortage-impacting-youth-high-school-sports/89-61bde5cf-6dcd-4d76-92e5-722bed0ac53a#:~:text=A%20recent%20survey%20by%20the,year%20unaffected%20by%20the%20pandemic.
Voigt, K. (2021, December 5). Youth sports referees are quitting in droves due to a toxic combination of abuse from coaches and parents, low salaries, and COVID-19. Retrieved from iSport360: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwich4n_vKCAAxWqk2oFHfO2DF0QFnoECBMQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fisport360.com%2Fyouth-sports-referees-are-quitting-in-droves%2F&usg=AOvVaw0UL4DhXYHn35R0v1Ek0ISO&cshid=16899659
Woelfel, R. (2022, July 15). Why is there a Shortage of Officials? Retrieved from Stack: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwj5i_K_y6CAAxVBk2oFHUOkAAsQFnoECA0QAw&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.stack.com%2Fa%2Fwhy-is-there-a-shortage-of-officials%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThe%2520Covid%252019%2520pandemic%2

BOOK REVIEW: Organizational Behavior in Sport Management: An Applied Approach to Understanding People and Groups

Authors: Chenghao Ma

School of Humanities and Social Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China

Chenghao Ma 2001 Longxiang Blvd., Shenzhen, China 518172 [email protected]

Chenghao Ma is now at the School of Humanities and Social Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen.

Barnhill, C. R., Smith N. L., & Oja, B. D. (2021). Organizational behavior in sport management: An applied approach to understanding people and groups. Palgrave Macmillan.

How it works

Useful Links

How much will your dissertation cost?

Have an expert academic write your dissertation paper!

Dissertation Services

Get unlimited topic ideas and a dissertation plan for just £45.00

Order topics and plan

Get 1 free topic in your area of study with aim and justification

Yes I want the free topic

Sports Management Topics for Dissertation

Published by Owen Ingram at January 2nd, 2023 , Revised On October 9, 2023

There is a wide range of dissertation topics in sports management that can be researched at the college and university levels. International sports are extremely popular worldwide, making sports management research issues very prominent.

The importance of finding solid sports management research topics cannot be overstated because if your chosen topic lacks focus and clarity, you will not be able to achieve the highest possible academic grade.

Hire an Expert Writer

Orders completed by our expert writers are

Formally drafted in an academic style
Free Amendments and 100% Plagiarism Free – or your money back!
100% Confidential and Timely Delivery!
Free anti-plagiarism report
Appreciated by thousands of clients. Check client reviews

Below you will find a comprehensive list of sports management dissertation ideas we have compiled for the benefit of our clients and students.

Sports Management Dissertation Ideas

An investigation of cases of corruption in the field of international sports management.
The part that a nation’s reputation plays in sports management.
Why do most sports focus on a younger audience, and how does it help them make money? A case study of Southern Asian cricket management.
A correlational analysis is being done to investigate the connection between event management and sports management.
Sports management in X countries and key sustainable practices.
Focus on the difficulties and methods when determining the moral foundation of sports management.
Comparison research to determine the benefits and drawbacks of well-known football players switching teams on sports business management tactics.
The impact of international laws on how international athletic events are run.
A qualitative investigation of the correlations between sports management, seating capacity, and ticket prices.
A correlational investigation of international sports management and athletes’ reputations abroad.
A quantitative investigation of elite sports management and performance.
Investigating how sports management and sports administration interact.
Concentrating on the moral guidelines for experts in sports management: a qualitative approach.
Investigating the connection between the fields of intellectual property and sports management.
Effects of the theories of human and social capital in sports management.
Sports organizations in industrialized versus poor nations have different management techniques.
A descriptive approach to the association of marketing and management domains in international sporting events.
A correlational examination of human resource management and sports management.
Review of empirical data on the impacts of management, optimization, and economics on international sports.
An in-depth examination of elite achievement in sports in the United Kingdom
Examining the Effect of Corporate Social Responsibility on Fan Loyalty in Collegiate Sports Innovative research avenues in sport management
The part that decision-making plays in managing the global sports industry.
Concentrate on identifying, assessing, and managing concussions in sports-related injuries.
An international viewpoint on the connection between sports management and sports finance.
Understanding Consumer Motivations and Engagement with Professional Sports Teams
Exploratory research of sporting events looks into how the physical environment affects the consumption of hedonic services.
Measures of professional sports fan happiness and the quality of the services provided
International sports management historical analysis: tying the past, present, and future together.
Investigating the possibilities for career advancement in the field of sports management.
The contribution of business administration to sports management.

You can choose from any of these sports management dissertation ideas . Feel free to contact us if you experience any trouble choosing a topic for your dissertation.

Sports management is a field that has attracted a lot of academic attention in recent times thanks to the growing popularity of sporting events worldwide. If you need help with topic selection or writing your research proposal or the full dissertation paper, ResearchProspect provides all the necessary thesis writing solutions. Read about our research proposal writing service and thesis writing service to see how we can help you manage your workload.

Frequently Asked Questions

List 5 best sports management topics for dissertation.

Certainly! Here are 5 great Sports Management dissertation topics: 1. Athlete Branding Strategies 2. Sports Sponsorship ROI Analysis 3. Ethical Issues in Sports Governance 4. Fan Engagement in the Digital Era 5. Sports Analytics for Performance Optimization.

Free Dissertation Topic

Phone Number

Academic Level Select Academic Level Undergraduate Graduate PHD

Academic Subject

Area of Research

International Reserve Management under Rollover Crises

This paper develops a framework to study the management of international reserves when a government faces the risk of a rollover crisis. In the model, it is optimal for the government to reduce its vulnerability by initially lowering debt, and then increasing both debt and reserves as it approaches a safe zone. Furthermore, we find that issuing additional debt to accumulate reserves can lead to a reduction in sovereign spreads.

We are especially grateful to Manuel Amador for numerous conversations. We also thank Alessandro Dovis, Tim Kehoe and seminar participants at the “Rethinking Sovereign Debt Sustainability and Crises” workshop at EUI, SAET, University of Florida, Rice University, and the Trade Workshop at the University of Minnesota for helpful comments. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis, the Federal Reserve System, or the National Bureau of Economic Research.

MARC RIS BibTeΧ

Download Citation Data

More from NBER

In addition to working papers , the NBER disseminates affiliates’ latest findings through a range of free periodicals — the NBER Reporter , the NBER Digest , the Bulletin on Retirement and Disability , the Bulletin on Health , and the Bulletin on Entrepreneurship — as well as online conference reports , video lectures , and interviews .

15th Annual Feldstein Lecture, Mario Draghi, "The Next Flight of the Bumblebee: The Path to Common Fiscal Policy in the Eurozone cover slide

Frontiers in Pain Research
Geriatric Pain
Research Topics

Behavioural Approaches to Management of Pain in Later Life

Total Downloads

Total Views and Downloads

About this Research Topic

Chronic pain is the leading cause of disability worldwide and is particularly common among older adults where it is associated with increased healthcare utilization, as well as significant decrements in mental health, physical mobility, and social functioning. Despite the prevalence and impact of chronic ...

Keywords : Geriatric Pain, Pain Research, Bio-behavioral Interventions

Important Note : All contributions to this Research Topic must be within the scope of the section and journal to which they are submitted, as defined in their mission statements. Frontiers reserves the right to guide an out-of-scope manuscript to a more suitable section or journal at any stage of peer review.

Topic Editors

Topic coordinators, recent articles, submission deadlines, participating journals.

Manuscripts can be submitted to this Research Topic via the following journals:

total views

Demographics

No records found

total views article views downloads topic views

Top countries

Top referring sites, about frontiers research topics.

With their unique mixes of varied contributions from Original Research to Review Articles, Research Topics unify the most influential researchers, the latest key findings and historical advances in a hot research area! Find out more on how to host your own Frontiers Research Topic or contribute to one as an author.

Review of Myopia Management

Myopia research highlights from the arvo 2024 meeting.

May 10, 2024

By Dwight Akerman, OD, MBA, FAAO, FBCLA, FIACLE

Once again, myopia research took center stage at the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (ARVO) Meeting , held May 5–9, 2024, in Seattle, WA. The meeting featured more than 150 posters and papers on various aspects of myopia and myopia management. Here are 20 noteworthy myopia-related posters and papers:

3-year myopia control efficacy can be predicted from 1-year data https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4036500&external=true
A Century of Myopia in the Netherlands: Unveiling the Emerging Epidemic https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4048429&external=true
Efficacy of a next-generation design of ophthalmic lenses for myopia control: Six-month results of the CEME Study https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4045244&external=true
Predictive factors associated with incident myopia in childhood. https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4047734&external=true
Dietary Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids as a Protective Factor of Myopia: Hong Kong Children Eye Study. https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4045255&external=true
A Randomized Controlled Trial for Myopia Progression Control Using Catenary Power Profile Contact Lenses: 12-month Effectiveness and Safety. https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4049857&external=true
Assessing the 2-year Efficacy of Atropine, Orthokeratology, and Combined Therapies: Myopia Control and Choroidal change – Insights from an Age-stratified Randomized Controlled Trial https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4043459&external=true
Biometrically defining myopia with the Refractive Mechanism Map: Relationship with myopia progression and treatment efficacy. https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4048987&external=true
Control of Myopia Using Diffusion Optics Technology (DOT) Spectacle Lenses in a Chinese population. https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4048229&external=true
Defocus Incorporated Multiple Segment lenses and 0.025% atropine for myopia control in a European population: 12-month results of a randomized clinical trial https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4045828&external=true
Do past axial elongation and myopia progression predict the future? Results from the BLINK Study https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4049687&external=true
Five-Year Clinical Trial of Low-concentration Atropine for Myopia Progression (LAMP) Study: Phase 4 Report. https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4048205&external=true
Highly Aspherical Lenslet Target (HALT) technology in combination with low-dose atropine to control myopia progression https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4049211&external=true
Incidence and progression of myopia in young adults. https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4050576&external=true
Increased prevalence of myopia in the United States between 1971-1972 and 1999-2004—A reappraisal and model https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4027817&external=true
Influence of first-time correction on myopia progression and axial elongation in myopic children wearing spectacle lenses with and without aspherical lenslets https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4049944&external=true
The myopia control effect in children wearing orthokeratology lenses with different back optical zone diameters https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4027873&external=true
Myopia control efficacy through Emmetropic Progression Ratio:1-year of spectacle wear with cylindrical annular refractive elements (CARE). https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4035816&external=true
The short-term effects of spectacle-based myopia management interventions on dynamic vision. https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4045535&external=true
Projection of Glaucoma Burden Worldwide in 2060 with Myopia Surge https://eppro02.ativ.me/web/page.php?nav=false&page=IntHtml&project=ARVO24&id=4050544&external=true

Recommended for you

How Is Canada Addressing Myopia? Find Out From CORE’s Dr. Debbie Jones

sponsored content April 15, 2024 Following her recent studies on “Myopia in Practice” and...

Chinese Conference Covers ‘Frontier in Vision Science Summit – Myopia Research’

April 15, 2024 SHANGHAI, China – The Asia Optometric Management Academy (AOMA) in partnership...

CooperVision Releases New MiSight 1 Day QuickStart Training Program

April 11, 2024 SAN RAMON, Calif. — In an effort to make the entry...

IMAGES

(PDF) Perception of Success in Sports Engagement among Athletes in
6 key elements to consider when deciding to study sport management
😂 Sports research paper. Women's Sports Foundation Research. 2019-01-21
Sports Management Essay Example
(PDF) A Study of Sports Management and Student Players Satisfaction in
Fys sports research paper

VIDEO

course (BPED) paper sports management
How to make paper sports card holders easy
What is Sports Management?
IB Business Management Paper 3 HL Examination Technique
Financial Management
How To Develop Resilience In Sport

COMMENTS

Sport management: mission and meaning for a new era
The papers included in this special issue provide but a small sample of the 'generative' type of research that we feel the sport management scholarly community needs. As the articles illustrate, there are many complex and interesting avenues of inquiry that warrant further investigation.
Journal of Sport Management
The Journal of Sport Management publishes research and scholarly review articles; short reports on replications, test ... Thus, manuscripts should be written as simply and concisely as possible. Papers should be no longer than 40 double-spaced pages (using one-inch margins and Times New Roman 12-point font), inclusive of references, tables ...
17923 PDFs
Dec 2023. Jia Xu. Based on the SQL Server2000 database, this paper integrates the advantages of C/S and B/S structure to develop a sports management system oriented to big data. The system ...
Tracing the state of sport management research: a ...
This article presents a state-of-the-art overview of the sport management research discipline through a bibliometric analysis of publication data from the top five sport management journals in the decade 2011-2020. The analysis includes citation and productivity analysis of journals, institutions, countries, and articles, author citation and output analysis, and title and abstract (co-)word ...
Using Sports Data to Advance Management Research: A Review and a Guide
Management research leveraging sports data has increased steadily in recent years. Of the 249 studies using sports data we identified in our sample (i.e., management journals included in the Financial Times 50 list—hereafter "FT50"—in the 50 years from January 1, 1972, to December 31, 2021) 52% have been published since 2010 and 34% since 2015.
Critical Social Science in Sport Management Research: A Scoping Review
Abstract. Sport management scholars have called for the application of broader research approaches, including critical social science. Such approaches help uncover the less-desirable aspects of sport and, therefore, offer a basis for positive change. While there have been advancements in the use of innovative research approaches over time ...
Sport Management Review
Contemporary Qualitative Research Methods in Sport Management. Edited by Larena Hoeber, Sally Shaw. February 2017. Doping in Sport: Current Issues and Challenges for Sport Management. ... Resources for authors Track your accepted paper Journal Finder Researcher Academy Rights and permissions Journal Article Publishing Support Center.
Contemporary qualitative research methods in sport management
1. Introduction. Although qualitative research methods are more common in sport management compared to 20-30 years ago (see Inglis, 1992, Olafson, 1990, Paton, 1987), and despite calls for more inventive and critical approaches to research in the field (Amis and Silk, 2005, Frisby, 2005, Skinner and Edwards, 2005), we argue that there is still a lack of variety in the types of qualitative ...
Journals
The official research journal of the North American Society for Sport Management, Journal of Sport Management (JSM), aims to publish innovative empirical, theoretical, and review articles focused on governance, management, and marketing of sport organizations.Paper submissions are encouraged from all areas that inform theoretical advances for the management, marketing, and consumption of sport ...
Theorizing Community for Sport Management Research and Practice
Community is a context for much research in sport, sport management, and sport policy, yet relatively few authors explicitly articulate the theoretical frameworks with which they interrogate the concept. In this paper, we draw from communitarian theory and politics in order to contribute to a robust discussion and conceptualization of community ...
Environmental Sustainability and Sports Management: A Review ...
In this research, we provide an overview of the increasing area of environmental sustainability in the sports management field and discuss future research opportunities. Through a division of topics that we consider most impactful, a selection of the research that has been implemented is presented, as well as their results and possible future ...
(PDF) Issues and new ideas in international sport management
PDF | On Feb 17, 2021, James J. Zhang and others published Issues and new ideas in international sport management | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate
Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Sport Research: An
In the last two decades, artificial intelligence (AI) has transformed the way in which we consume and analyse sports. The role of AI in improving decision-making and forecasting in sports, amongst many other advantages, is rapidly expanding and gaining more attention in both the academic sector and the industry. Nonetheless, for many sports audiences, professionals and policy makers, who are ...
Sport management: mission and meaning for a new era
Sport management has developed as a scholarly discipline in an era marked by increasing professionalization, commercialization, commoditization, and globalization of sport (Shilbury, 2022). Put differently, since sport management became a eld of study 'fi ' at the end of 1980s (Costa, 2005), the sport ecosystem has seen tremendous expansion ...
Sports Management
Jon Lim, EdD is an Associate Professor of Sport Management at Minnesota State University in Mankato, MN. His research interests include technology use in education and college choice decisions of NCAA athletes. Agatha Ampaire, PhD is the Career Education Coordinator at South Dakota State University in Brookings, SD.
Theorizing Community for Sport Management Research and Practice
Community is a context for much research in sport, sport management, and sport policy, yet relatively few authors explicitly articulate the theoretical frameworks with which they interrogate the concept. In this paper, we draw from communitarian theory and politics in order to contribute to a robust discussion and conceptualization of community in and for sport management research and practice.
Research on the Management of Sports Organizations
University "Valahia" of Târgovi te, Târgovite Bd. Carol I, Nr. 2,130024, România. Abstract. This study is a part of a broader research approach that was undertaken to develop a strategy for ...
Sports Management Topics for Dissertation
Sports Management Topics for Dissertation. Published by Owen Ingram at January 2nd, 2023 , Revised On October 9, 2023. There is a wide range of dissertation topics in sports management that can be researched at the college and university levels. International sports are extremely popular worldwide, making sports management research issues very ...
Research Paper (docx)
STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP 2 Performance Improvement In the world of sports, strategic leadership plays a crucial role in the success of teams and organizations in today's competitive landscape. The responsibility of developing an effective strategy, a plan of action to achieve a major aspiration, is daunting. It requires addressing how an organization will grow itself, satisfy customers, outcompete ...
International Reserve Management under Rollover Crises
This paper develops a framework to study the management of international reserves when a government faces the risk of a rollover crisis. In the model, it is optimal for the government to reduce its vulnerability by initially lowering debt, and then increasing both debt and reserves as it approaches a safe zone.
Behavioural Approaches to Management of Pain in Later Life
Keywords: Geriatric Pain, Pain Research, Bio-behavioral Interventions . Important Note: All contributions to this Research Topic must be within the scope of the section and journal to which they are submitted, as defined in their mission statements.Frontiers reserves the right to guide an out-of-scope manuscript to a more suitable section or journal at any stage of peer review.
Myopia Research Highlights from the ARVO 2024 Meeting
May 10, 2024 By Dwight Akerman, OD, MBA, FAAO, FBCLA, FIACLE Once again, myopia research took center stage at the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (ARVO) Meeting, held May 5-9, 2024, in Seattle, WA. The meeting featured more than 150 posters and papers on various aspects of myopia and myopia management. Here are 20 noteworthy myopia-related posters and papers: 3-year ...
Exploring the nexus of digital technology and organizational change in
ABSTRACT. The sport industry is not immune to the force digital technology brings in facilitating organizational change in sport organizations. Consequently, the purpose of the study was to explore the nexus of digital technology and organizational change in sport organizations, specifically identifying the presence of smaller digital changes and larger digital transformations.

Recently viewed (0)