a long essay about computers

Essay on Computer and its Uses for School Students and Children

500+ words essay on computer.

In this essay on computer, we are going to discuss some useful things about computers. The modern-day computer has become an important part of our daily life. Also, their usage has increased much fold during the last decade. Nowadays, they use the computer in every office whether private or government. Mankind is using computers for over many decades now. Also, they are used in many fields like agriculture, designing, machinery making, defense and many more. Above all, they have revolutionized the whole world.

History of Computers

It is very difficult to find the exact origin of computers. But according to some experts computer exists at the time of world war-II. Also, at that time they were used for keeping data. But, it was for only government use and not for public use. Above all, in the beginning, the computer was a very large and heavy machine.

Working of a Computer 

The computer runs on a three-step cycle namely input, process, and output. Also, the computer follows this cycle in every process it was asked to do. In simple words, the process can be explained in this way. The data which we feed into the computer is input, the work CPU do is process and the result which the computer give is output.

Components and Types of Computer

The simple computer basically consists of CPU, monitor, mouse, and keyboard . Also, there are hundreds of other computer parts that can be attached to it. These other parts include a printer, laser pen, scanner , etc.

The computer is categorized into many different types like supercomputers, mainframes, personal computers (desktop), PDAs, laptop, etc. The mobile phone is also a type of computer because it fulfills all the criteria of being a computer.

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Uses of Computer in Various Fields

As the usage of computer increased it became a necessity for almost every field to use computers for their operations. Also, they have made working and sorting things easier. Below we are mentioning some of the important fields that use a computer in their daily operation.

Medical Field

They use computers to diagnose diseases, run tests and for finding the cure for deadly diseases . Also, they are able to find a cure for many diseases because of computers.

Whether it’s scientific research, space research or any social research computers help in all of them. Also, due to them, we are able to keep a check on the environment , space, and society. Space research helped us to explore the galaxies. While scientific research has helped us to locate resources and various other useful resources from the earth.

For any country, his defence is most important for the safety and security of its people. Also, computer in this field helps the country’s security agencies to detect a threat which can be harmful in the future. Above all the defense industry use them to keep surveillance on our enemy.

Threats from a Computer

Computers have become a necessity also, they have become a threat too. This is due to hackers who steal your private data and leak them on internet. Also, anyone can access this data. Apart from that, there are other threats like viruses, spams, bug and many other problems.

The computer is a very important machine that has become a useful part of our life. Also, the computers have twin-faces on one side it’s a boon and on the other side, it’s a bane. Its uses completely depend upon you. Apart from that, a day in the future will come when human civilization won’t be able to survive without computers as we depend on them too much. Till now it is a great discovery of mankind that has helped in saving thousands and millions of lives.

Frequently Asked Questions on Computer

Q.1  What is a computer?

A.1 A computer is an electronic device or machine that makes our work easier. Also, they help us in many ways.

Q.2 Mention various fields where computers are used?

A.2  Computers are majorly used in defense, medicine, and for research purposes.

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Essays About Computers: Top 5 Examples Plus Prompts

Computers are helpful technology that many of us use on a daily basis; if you are writing essays about computers, use our essay examples and prompts below. 

We often recognize computers as the devices we use to browse the internet, communicate with others, and type down notes, but there is more to a computer than this. A complex set of processes, calculations, and operations performs everything we do on a computer. Without a doubt, computers make our lives easier and enhance our personal and working life.

5 Top Essay Examples

1. types of computers by brent dawson, 2. uses of computers in education by kristina barroso, 3. our dependency on computers by nora fox, 4. neural networks: is your brain like a computer by shamli prakash.

• 5. ​​The Human Brain vs. Supercomputers… Which One Wins? By John Staughton

1. The Many Uses of Computers

2. can computers take over society, 3. is computer science a worthwhile program to study, 4. pros and cons of computers, 5. can computers compete with the human brain.

“Calculations for things such as automotive design, weather forecasting, and aerospace use supercomputers. Embedded computers are used for functions in a larger product. They are located in things such as automobiles, consumer electronics and office machines. As we all know computers come in many shapes and sizes. They can be used for many different things and can be located anywhere. Technology has increased so much that the most unheard compact thing can be a computer.

Dawson stresses that computers can come in all shapes and sizes. There are different types of computers, such as personal computers, mobile computers, game consoles, and supercomputers, each with its own functions and specialties. He briefly touches on each type of computer and its uses. Technology has come a long way, as the most complex computers are everywhere, whether in laboratories, offices, or even our mobile phones or watches. 

“Critics argue that spell check and other computer features that automatically correct errors in spelling and punctuation make students too lazy to learn and apply the rules themselves. These features, however, help point out where students went wrong and offer valuable learning opportunities that can help students enhance their understanding of appropriate spelling and punctuation.”

In her essay, Barroso discusses the advantages and disadvantages of incorporating computers into education. They allow schools to maximize online resources, foster student engagement, and make it easier for teachers and students to perform school-related tasks. However, they may make students lazy to check mistakes, thinking that the computers will automatically check them. Ultimately, the pros outweigh the cons. 

“As far as I concerned, computer is a great invention and it is useful to human life. It should be impossible to live without computer as we get too much used of computers nowadays. However, we should use it wisely. We know the fact that the more we rely on computer, the more we will lose in our life. So, we should also find ways to make our dependence on computers less dangerous to us, so that we will not rely on computer completely.”

Fox discusses the state of society today where we rely far too much on computers. They help us greatly in our daily lives, but they have made us depend on technology for information rather than thinking for ourselves. And if something goes wrong, like the servers crash, the world is at a standstill. Computers are a net good for society, but we must avoid revolving our lives around technology. 

“In data science terms, this phase is somewhat akin to ‘Model Training’ — the more things a child is exposed to the more the synapses associated with it get built. A good example is language — the more a child is exposed to linguistics in early years, the more evolved the area of her brain that is associated with languages would get. Ditto for other cognitive and non-cognitive abilities.”

Prakash discusses the different ways in which our brains operate as computers. An information processing system has five components: input, output, storage, processing, and program. The human brain does have all of these components, which are used to perform our daily functions. She looks into how human intelligence can be “trained,” like computers are developed. 

5. ​​ The Human Brain vs. Supercomputers… Which One Wins? By John Staughton

“When the brain identifies a more efficient or effective way to compute and function, it can morph and alter its physical and neuronal structure, hence the term “plasticity“. Until we achieve true Artificial Intelligence (in which computers should theoretically be able to re-wire themselves), neuroplasticity will always keep the human brain at least one step ahead of “static” supercomputers.”

Staughton writes about how much more advanced computers have become in recent decades, with some of them being able to outsmart humans in tasks such as chess. However, he explains that our brains are very different from technology and are inherently superior to even the most powerful computers in terms of efficiency, adaptability, and many other factors. However, he keeps the door on computers, eventually developing beyond our capabilities in the future. 

5 Helpful Writing Prompts on Essays About Computers

Computers aid us in many tasks; it is undeniable that they make our lives easier. Think of the different uses of computers, both in your life and in general, and list them. Briefly explain each, and if you want, also explain how computers have been most helpful in your life. You can also check out these essays about the internet .

This is a question many have grappled with and is the subject of many science-fiction and dystopian stories. Many believe that only good can come from greater technological advancement, while others believe humanity will be subject to much conflict and suffering. Based on research, decide whether we should introduce computers into more aspects of our lives. You can cite articles, essays, books, or even movies to prove your point. 

In your essay, discuss how helpful an education in computer science would be. Research the course’s requirements, benefits, disadvantages, and expectations and, based on your personal opinion, write about whether it would be worth it to pursue this program. This essay is more suited for those with experience, but if not, consult online sources or interview people with experience for a solid evidence base.

Computers have many advantages as well as disadvantages. List down the pros and cons of computers you can come up with, and discuss a few of them in your essay. Then, based on the evidence you’ve provided, decide whether computers are a net good or bad for society in the long run. 

A few essay examples above have compared technology and artificial intelligence to the human brain, as they are both “computers,” so to speak. In your opinion, will technology ever come to a point where it will rival our abilities? Conduct research and cite credible sources for a strong essay .  

For help with this topic, read our guide explaining “ what is persuasive writing ?”If you’d like to learn more, our writer explains how to write an argumentative essay in this guide.

Martin is an avid writer specializing in editing and proofreading. He also enjoys literary analysis and writing about food and travel.

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Essay on Computer

Here we have shared the Essay on Computer in detail so you can use it in your exam or assignment of 150, 250, 400, 500, or 1000 words.

You can use this Essay on Computer in any assignment or project whether you are in school (class 10th or 12th), college, or preparing for answer writing in competitive exams. 

Topics covered in this article.

Essay on Computer in 150 words

Essay on computer in 200-300 words.

• Essay on Computer in 500 words

Computers have revolutionized our lives, becoming essential tools for communication, work, and access to information. They have simplified tasks, increased efficiency, and opened up new possibilities. The internet, accessible through computers, has connected people globally, changing the way we socialize and access entertainment. Industries such as healthcare and finance have been transformed by computers, improving accuracy and decision-making. However, challenges such as cybersecurity threats and privacy concerns exist. In conclusion, computers have profoundly impacted society, enhancing productivity and connectivity. Their role in education, business, and research is undeniable. While enjoying the benefits of computers, it is important to address the challenges they present and ensure responsible and secure use. Computers are a fundamental part of our lives, shaping the way we live, work, and interact with the world.

Computers have become an integral part of our modern world. They have revolutionized the way we live, work, and communicate. A computer is an electronic device that processes and stores data, performs tasks, and enables us to access information from around the world.

Computers have transformed various aspects of our lives. They have simplified tasks, increased efficiency, and opened up new possibilities for creativity and innovation. From personal computers to laptops, tablets, and smartphones, these devices have become essential tools in education, business, entertainment, and research.

The internet made accessible through computers, has connected people globally, enabling instant communication, sharing of information, and collaboration across borders. Online platforms and applications have changed the way we socialize, shop, and access entertainment.

Computers have also revolutionized industries such as healthcare, finance, and transportation, improving efficiency, accuracy, and decision-making. They play a vital role in scientific research, data analysis, and simulations.

However, the rapid advancement of technology has also brought challenges. Cybersecurity threats, privacy concerns, and the digital divide are important issues that need to be addressed.

In conclusion, computers have transformed the world, making tasks easier, connecting people globally, and enabling advancements in various fields. Their impact on society is profound, with both positive and negative consequences. As technology continues to evolve, it is crucial to embrace its benefits while also addressing the challenges it presents. Computers have undoubtedly become an indispensable part of our lives, shaping the way we live and interact with the world.

Essay on Computer in 500-1000 words

Title: The Computer Revolution – Transforming Lives, Empowering Innovation

Introduction :

The computer has undoubtedly become an integral part of our modern world, revolutionizing the way we live, work, and communicate. This essay explores the profound impact of computers on society, delving into their history, evolution, and the transformative role they play in various aspects of our lives. From personal computers to smartphones and cloud computing, the computer has become an indispensable tool in education, business, healthcare, entertainment, and research. However, as computers continue to advance, challenges such as cybersecurity threats and privacy concerns arise, necessitating responsible use and the development of ethical frameworks.

The Evolution of Computers

The computer, as we know it today, has a rich history that dates back several decades. From the early mechanical devices to modern digital computers, the evolution of computers has been driven by advancements in technology and the quest for increased computational power and efficiency. Pioneers such as Charles Babbage, Alan Turing, and Grace Hopper laid the foundation for modern computing, introducing concepts like programmability and binary code.

Computing in Education

Computers have transformed the landscape of education. They have become essential tools for students, educators, and researchers. Computers facilitate online learning, providing access to vast amounts of educational resources, interactive tutorials, and collaborative platforms. They enable personalized learning experiences, adaptive assessments, and distance education, making education accessible to a wider audience. Additionally, computers enhance productivity, allowing students to complete assignments, conduct research, and communicate with peers and teachers more efficiently.

Computers in Business

The business world has been revolutionized by computers. From small startups to multinational corporations, computers have become indispensable for efficient operations, data management, and communication. They enable streamlined processes, data analysis, and decision-making. Computers have transformed various industries, including finance, marketing, supply chain management, and customer service. With the advent of e-commerce, computers have opened up new avenues for online businesses and global trade. The digitalization of business processes has increased efficiency, reduced costs, and facilitated global collaborations.

Computers in Healthcare

Computers have significantly impacted the healthcare industry, improving patient care, diagnostics, and research. Electronic health records (EHRs) enable secure storage and efficient retrieval of patient information, reducing errors and improving healthcare delivery. Computer-aided diagnostics and medical imaging technologies have enhanced accuracy and speed in detecting diseases. Telemedicine and telehealth have extended healthcare access to remote areas, allowing patients to consult with healthcare professionals virtually. Additionally, computers play a vital role in medical research, enabling data analysis, simulations, and drug discovery.

The Role of Computers in Entertainment and Media

Computers have transformed the entertainment and media industry. From digital streaming platforms to online gaming, computers have revolutionized the way we consume and create content. They enable immersive virtual reality experiences, computer-generated imagery (CGI) in movies, and interactive storytelling. Social media platforms provide avenues for self-expression, communication, and content sharing. Computers have democratized content creation, allowing individuals to create and distribute their work on platforms like YouTube, blogs, and podcasts.

Challenges and Concerns

While computers offer immense benefits, they also present challenges and concerns. Cybersecurity threats, such as hacking and identity theft, pose risks to individuals and organizations. Privacy concerns arise as personal data becomes more accessible and vulnerable to misuse. Additionally, the digital divide creates disparities in access to technology, limiting opportunities for certain populations. It is crucial to address these challenges through robust cybersecurity measures, privacy regulations, and efforts to bridge the digital divide.

Conclusion :

The computer revolution has transformed our lives, empowering innovation, enhancing productivity, and connecting people across the globe. Computers have revolutionized education, business, healthcare, and entertainment, enabling advancements and opening up new possibilities. However, as technology continues to evolve, it is important to address challenges such as cybersecurity threats, privacy concerns, and the digital divide. Responsible use, ethical frameworks, and continuous efforts to enhance cybersecurity and privacy safeguards are necessary to harness the full potential of computers. With responsible usage and thoughtful integration into various sectors, computers will continue to shape our world, fostering progress, innovation, and connectivity.

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• Essay on Computer

Long and Short Computer Essay

The term computer was once used to refer to a person who did computation, unlike today. The development of early prototypes that led to the modern computer is credited to many individuals throughout history. A series of breakthroughs, beginning with transistor computers and then integrated circuit computers, resulted in the development of transistor technology and the integrated circuit chip, causing digital computers to largely replace analogue computers. 

In this essay, we will discuss the various components and types of computers and talk about their uses in various fields.

Long Computer Essay in English

A computer is an electronic tool that manipulates data or information. It can store, retrieve, and process information. We can type documents, send emails, play games, and browse the Web using a computer. It can also be used to edit spreadsheets, presentations, and even videos, or create them. 

Early computers were conceived only as devices for calculating. Simple manual devices such as the abacus have helped individuals do calculations since ancient times. Some mechanical devices were built early in the Industrial Revolution to automate long, tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. In the early 20th century, more sophisticated electrical machines performed specialized analogue calculations. 

Common Components of Computers

All those parts of a computer that are tangible physical objects are covered under the term hardware. The hardware includes circuits, computer chips, graphics cards, sound cards, memory (RAM), motherboards, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and "mice" input devices.

 There are five main hardware components: 

Input Devices: 

These are devices that are used to enter data/information in the central processing unit. Example- keyboard, mouse, scanner, document reader, barcode reader, optical character reader, magnetic reader etc.

Output Devices: 

These are devices that provide the processed data/information into human-readable form. Example- monitor, printer, speaker, projector etc.

Control Unit: 

The control unit handles the various components of the computer; it reads and interprets (decodes) the instructions for the program, transforming them into control signals that activate other computer parts.

Arithmetic Logic Unit: 

It is capable of performing arithmetical and logical functions. The set of arithmetic operations supported by a specific ALU may be restricted to addition and subtraction or may include functions of multiplication, division, trigonometries such as sine, cosine, etc., and square roots.

Central Processing Unit: 

The ALU, control unit and registers and together called the CPU. It is sometimes called the computer's brain, and its job is to perform commands. We send instructions to the CPU whenever we press a key, click the mouse, or start an application.

Software refers to computer parts, such as programs, data, protocols, etc., that do not have a material form. In contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built, the software is that portion of a computer system consisting of encoded information or computer instructions.

It is sometimes called "firmware" when the software is stored in hardware that can not be easily modified, such as with a BIOS ROM on an IBM PC compatible computer.

Computer hardware and software require each other, and neither of them can be realistically used on their own. There are four main components of a general-purpose computer: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the control unit, the memory, and the I/O (collectively called input and output) devices.

Uses of Computer

Computers are used in various fields, such as homes, businesses, government offices, research organizations, educational institutions, medicine, entertainment, etc. because of their features and powerful functions. They have taken sectors and companies to a whole new level.

Science- 

Computers are best suited for the collection, analysis, categorization, and storage of data in science, research and engineering. They also help scientists to exchange data both internally and internationally with each other.

Government-  

Computers in the government sector are used to perform various functions and improve their services. In most cases, data processing tasks, the maintenance of citizens' databases, and the promotion of a paperless environment are the primary purposes of using computers. In addition to this, computers play a key role in the country's defence system.

Health and Medicine- 

They are used to preserve information, records, live patient monitoring, X-rays, and more from patients. Computers assist in setting up laboratory tools, monitoring heart rate and blood pressure, etc. Besides, computers allow physicians to easily exchange patient data with other medical specialists.

Education- 

They help people get different educational materials (such as images, videos, e-books, etc.) in one place. Also, computers are best suited for online classes, online tutoring, online exams, and task and project creation. Also, they can be used to maintain and track student performance and other data.

Banking- 

Most countries use online banking systems so that customers can access their data directly. People can verify the balance of their account, transfer cash, and pay online bills, including credit cards. Besides, banks use computers to execute transactions and store client information, transaction records, etc.

Short Computer Essay in English

A computer's a programmable device that accepts raw data(input) and processes it as output with a group of instructions (a program) to supply the result. It renders output after performing mathematical and logical operations and can save the output for future use. The word "computer" derives from the word "computare" in Latin, which means calculating.

Types of Computer

Computers are of different types based on different criteria. Based on their size, computers are of five types:

Micro Computers- 

It is a single-user computer that has less capacity for speed and storage than the other types. For a CPU, it uses a microprocessor. Laptops, desktop computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs), tablets, and smartphones are common examples of microcomputers. Microcomputers are generally designed and built for general use, such as browsing, information search, the internet, MS Office, social media, etc.

Mini Computers- 

Minicomputers are also referred to as "Midrange Computers." They are multi-user computers designed to simultaneously support multiple users. Therefore, they are generally used by small companies and firms. 

Mainframe Computers- 

It is also a multi-user computer that large companies and government organizations use to run their business operations as large amounts of data can be stored and processed. Banks, universities, and insurance companies, for example, use mainframe computers to store data from their customers, students, and policyholders.

Super Computer- 

Among all types of computers, supercomputers are the fastest and most costly computers. They have an enormous capacity for storage and computing speeds and can therefore perform millions of instructions per second.

Workstations-  

It is a single-user computer with a comparatively more powerful microprocessor and a high-quality monitor compared to a mini-computer.

Benefits of Computers:

It increases productivity.

It helps in connecting to the internet.

It helps in organizing data and information.

It allows storing large amounts of data.

Fun Facts About Computers

The first electric computer that was invented weighed around 27 tons or even more than that and took up to 1800 square feet.

There are about 5000 new viruses that are released every month.

The original name of Windows was Interface Manager.

It is surely known that the life of humans would not have been so easy if computers were not a part of human life. This is also supported by a lot of pieces of evidence where we can even see in daily life how the computer is not just present in an organization but is also available right in the pockets of everyone. Thus, the computer has surely made it easy while also spoiling a lot of people's lives. 

FAQs on Essay on Computer

1. What are the disadvantages of computers?

While the computer has surely made life easier, it also has a lot of disadvantages. The disadvantages of the computers can be provided as follows:

People spend too much time sitting and doing nothing but watching the content on computers.

People staring at computers for a long time also tend to strain their eyes, and as a result, they need spectacles to understand what is being written in front of them.

Attention span is decreasing with an increase in the use of computers. 

With computers being AI-powered, it is now easier for people to do all the tasks on a computer and not work on it themselves. This has made a lot of people lazy.

2. What is the process of working on a computer?

A computer is an electronic machine and it needs information to be added in as raw data to function well. It has a flow that determines the accessing of data. The following steps take place before the results are obtained:

Information is taken in by the computer in the form of raw data. This process is also called the input.

Then the information that is not needed will be stored while the information that is needed is passed onto the next step. The storing of data is called memory.

Then the information that is required is crushed or it is split and this process is called processing.

The last step is where the results are obtained. This process is called getting the output.

Essay on Computer

500+ words essay on computer.

A computer is an electronic device that performs complex calculations. It is a wonderful product of modern technology. Nowadays, computers have become a significant part of our life. Whether it is in the sector of education or health, computers are used everywhere. Our progress is entirely dependent on computers powered by the latest technology. This ‘Essay on Computer’ also covers the history of computers as well as their uses in different sectors. By going through the ‘Computer’ Essay in English, students will get an idea of writing a good Essay on Computers. After practising this essay, they will be able to write essays on other topics related to computers, such as the ‘Uses of Computer’ Essay.

The invention of the computer has made our lives easier. The device is used for many purposes, such as securing information, messages, data processing, software programming, calculations, etc. A desktop computer has a CPU, UPS, monitor, keyboard, and mouse to work. A laptop is a modern form of computer in which all the components are inbuilt into a single device. Earlier, computers were not so fast and powerful. After thorough and meticulous research and work by various scientists, modern-day computers have come up.

History of Computers

The history of computer development is often used to reference the different generations of computing devices. Each generation of computers is characterised by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers work. Most of the major developments from the 1940s to the present day have resulted in increasingly smaller, more powerful, faster, cheaper and more efficient computing devices.

The evolution of computer technology is often divided into five generations. These five generations of computers are as follows:

Uses of Computers

Computers are used in various fields. Some of the applications are

1. Business

A computer can perform a high-speed calculation more efficiently and accurately, due to which it is used in all business organisations. In business, computers are used for:

• Payroll calculations
• Sales analysis
• Maintenance of stocks
• Managing employee databases

2. Education

Computers are very useful in the education system. Especially now, during the COVID time, online education has become the need of the hour. There are miscellaneous ways through which an institution can use computers to educate students.

3. Health Care

Computers have become an important part of hospitals, labs and dispensaries. They are used for the scanning and diagnosis of different diseases. Computerised machines do scans, which include ECG, EEG, ultrasound and CT Scan, etc. Moreover, they are used in hospitals to keep records of patients and medicines.

Computers are largely used in defence. The military employs computerised control systems, modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. It uses computers for communication, operation and planning, smart weapons, etc.

5. Government

Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields are:

• Computation of male/female ratio
• Computerisation of PAN card
• Income Tax Department
• Weather forecasting
• Computerisation of voters’ lists
• Sales Tax Department

6. Communication

Communication is a way to convey an idea, a message, a picture, a speech or any form of text, audio or video clip. Computers are capable of doing so. Through computers, we can send an email, chat with each other, do video conferencing, etc.

Nowadays, to a large extent, banking is dependent on computers. Banks provide an online accounting facility, which includes checking current balances, making deposits and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, trustee records, etc. The ATM machines, which are fully automated, use computers, making it easier for customers to deal with banking transactions.

8. Marketing

In marketing, computers are mainly used for advertising and home shopping.

Similarly, there are various other applications of computers in other fields, such as insurance, engineering, design, etc.

Students can practise more essays on different topics to improve their writing skills. Keep learning and stay tuned with BYJU’S for the latest update on CBSE/ICSE/State Board/Competitive Exams. Also, download the BYJU’S App for interactive study videos.

Frequently asked Questions on Computer Essay

How has the invention of the computer been useful to students.

Easy and ready access to information has been possible (internet) with the invention of the computer.

How to start writing an essay on a computer?

Before writing an essay, first plan the topics, sub-topics and main points which are going to be included in the body of the essay. Then, structure the content accordingly and check for information and examples.

How to use the computer to browse for information on essays?

Various search engines are available, like Google, where plenty of information can be obtained regarding essays and essay structures.

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Long Essay on Computer

Computers have revolutionized the way we live and work. From simple calculations to complex simulations, computers have become an essential tool in many industries and in everyday life. In this essay, I will discuss the history of computers, the various types of computers, and the impact of computers on society.

The history of computers can be traced back to the early 1700s, when mathematician Charles Babbage designed the Analytical Engine, a mechanical device that could perform mathematical calculations. However, it wasn’t until the 1950s that computers became widely available. The first computers were large, expensive, and only available to government agencies and large corporations. These early computers were known as mainframes and were used primarily for scientific and military research.

As technology advanced, computers became smaller and more affordable. This led to the development of personal computers (PCs), which could be used by individuals in their homes and offices. The introduction of the personal computer marked a turning point in the history of computers, as it made computing power available to the masses.

Today, there are several types of computers available. The most common type of computer is the personal computer (PC), which can be used for a wide range of tasks such as word processing, web browsing, and gaming. Another type of computer is the workstation, which is used for more demanding tasks such as video editing and 3D rendering. Additionally, there are also servers, which are used to store and manage large amounts of data and are used by businesses and organizations.

The impact of computers on society has been profound. Computers have greatly increased our productivity and efficiency, making it possible to accomplish tasks that would have been impossible just a few decades ago. For example, computers have made it possible for businesses to automate many tasks, which has led to increased productivity and cost savings. Additionally, computers have also made it possible for people to communicate and share information with each other instantly, regardless of their location.

Computers have also had a significant impact on education. The use of computers in the classroom has made it possible for students to access a wealth of information, resources, and tools. Additionally, the use of computers in the classroom has also made it possible for students to collaborate and communicate with each other, regardless of their location.

However, there are also negative impacts of computers on society. The excessive use of computers can lead to eye strain, back pain, and other health problems. Additionally, the use of computers has also led to a decrease in face-to-face interaction and social isolation. Furthermore, the constant use of computers has also led to an increase in cyberbullying and online harassment.

Computers have revolutionized the way we live and work. From simple calculations to complex simulations, computers have become an essential tool in many industries and in everyday life. However, while the impact of computers has been largely positive, it is important to be aware of the negative impacts of computers and to take steps to mitigate these negative effects.

Essay On Computer

Table of Contents

Short Essay On Computer

Computers are one of the most important inventions of the 20th century and have revolutionized the way we live, work, and communicate. A computer is an electronic device that can perform a variety of tasks, including data processing, storing and retrieving information, and communication.

The first computers were large, expensive, and could only be used by experts in a laboratory setting. However, advances in technology have made computers more accessible and affordable, and they are now an integral part of daily life for people all over the world.

Computers have greatly improved the efficiency and accuracy of many tasks, including data analysis, accounting, and scientific research. They have also made it possible to store and access vast amounts of information, which has greatly expanded the knowledge base and resources available to individuals and organizations.

In addition to their practical uses, computers have also had a profound impact on the way we communicate and interact with each other. The internet and social media have made it possible to connect with people from all over the world, share information and ideas, and collaborate on projects in real-time.

However, computers also have their drawbacks and challenges. The widespread use of computers has raised concerns about privacy, security, and the potential for misuse and exploitation. There is also a growing concern about the negative effects of prolonged screen time and the potential impact on physical and mental health.

In conclusion, computers are an essential part of modern life and have had a profound impact on the way we live, work, and communicate. They have greatly improved the efficiency and accuracy of many tasks and have expanded the knowledge base and resources available to individuals and organizations. However, it is important to be aware of the potential drawbacks and challenges associated with computer use and to use them responsibly.

Long Essay On Computer

Computers have been part of our lives for decades, and their importance has only grown over time. In this essay, we will discuss the role of computers in our daily lives and how they have changed the way we interact with each other. We will also take a look at some of the ways that computer technology is being used to solve problems and improve efficiency. So let’s dive into the world of computers and see what all the hype is about!

Introduction to Computer

A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data. You may already know that you can use a computer to type documents, send email, play games, and browse the Web.

But did you know that computers can also be used to create artwork and music? They can be used for scientific research, to control machinery in factories, and even to fly airplanes! The possibilities are endless.

In this section, we’ll introduce you to some of the basics of working with a computer. We’ll start by showing you how to turn a computer on and off. Then we’ll move on to more advanced topics like using the mouse and keyboard, opening and closing programs, and saving your work. By the end of this section, you’ll have a good understanding of how a computer works and how to use one effectively.

History of Computers

Computers have a long and complicated history. They were first created in the early 1800s, and their development has been ongoing ever since. In the early days, computers were large, expensive, and difficult to use. They were mostly used by governments and businesses.

As time went on, computers became smaller and more affordable. This made them more accessible to individuals and schools. Today, there are different types of computers for different purposes. Some are designed for gaming, while others are made for specific tasks like graphic design or video editing.

The history of computers is fascinating, and it’s always evolving. With each new generation of computer comes new capabilities and possibilities. Who knows what the future holds for computing technology?

Benefits of Computers

Computers have become an integral part of our lives and our homes. They help us with our work, our play, and even our day-to-day tasks. Here are some of the ways in which computers can benefit us:

Time management: Computers can help us keep track of time and manage our schedules more effectively. We can use them to set alarms, create reminders, and stay organized.

Productivity: Computers can help us be more productive in both our personal and professional lives. We can use them to write documents, create presentations, and stay on top of our work.

Communication: Computers can help us communicate with others more efficiently. We can use them to send emails, make video calls, and stay connected with loved ones.

Entertainment: Computers can also be a source of entertainment. We can use them to play games, listen to music, and watch movies.

Different Types of Computers

Different Types of Computers Computers come in a variety of shapes and sizes, each designed for different purposes. Here are some of the most common types of computers:

Desktop computers: These are the most common type of computer, typically used for general purpose tasks such as word processing, internet browsing, and playing media files. They come in a variety of form factors, including tower cases, which are larger and have more expandability options; mini towers, which are smaller and more compact; all-in-one designs, which integrate the monitor and main system unit into a single unit; and small form factor designs, which are even more compact.

Laptop computers: Laptops are portable versions of desktop computers, typically with less power and expandability but longer battery life. They come in a variety of form factors as well, including traditional clamshell designs, convertible laptops that can be used as tablets, and ultralight laptops that trade off some features for extreme portability.

Tablet computers: Tablet computers are a relatively new category, characterized by their touchscreens and lack of physical keyboards. They’re designed for use on the go and may include features such as cellular connectivity and GPS. Some tablets run traditional desktop operating systems such as Windows or macOS, while others use mobile operating systems such as Android or iOS.

Server computers: Server computers are designed to provide network services to other computers. They typically have more powerful processors and storage than other types of computers and are designed to run continuously.

Workstation computers: Workstations are powerful desktop computers designed for demanding tasks such as 3D modeling, video editing, and scientific computing. They typically have more RAM, higher-end graphics capabilities, and faster processors than other types of computers.

How to Use a Computer?

Assuming you would like a detailed section on how to use a computer for someone who has never used one before:

Computers are becoming increasingly commonplace in homes and workplaces around the world. They can be used for a wide variety of purposes, from checking email and browsing the internet to more complex tasks such as video editing and 3D modelling. If you’ve never used a computer before, or if you’re not sure how to do something specific, this guide will show you the basics of using a computer.

Using a computer is relatively simple once you know what you’re doing. The first thing you need to do is sit down in front of the monitor (the screen). In front of the monitor, there will be a keyboard and mouse. The keyboard is used for typing and the mouse is used for pointing and clicking. To turn on the computer, find the power button on the monitor or CPU (the large box that houses all of the computer’s components) and press it. Once the computer has booted up, you will see the desktop. This is where you can access all of your programs and files.

To open a program, simply double-click on its icon. For example, to open Microsoft Word, find its icon on the desktop (it may be in a folder called “Programs”) and double-click it. Once the program has opened, you can start using it. To close a program, click on the ‘X’ in the top -right corner of the window.

To open a file, find its icon on the desktop (or in any folder) and double-click it. Depending on the type of file, a program may open automatically to view or edit it. To close the file, click on the ‘X’ in the top-right corner of the window.

To navigate around your computer, use the mouse to point and click. For example, to go to a different folder or program, simply double-click on its icon. To select multiple items at once, hold down the ‘Ctrl’ key while clicking them with your mouse.

To save a file, click on ‘File’ in the top menu bar and then select ‘Save’. You will be asked where you want to save it – choose either your desktop or a specific folder that you have created. Once you have chosen where to save it, enter a name for your file and click ‘Save’. The next time you need to open that file, just go back to the same location and double-click on its icon.

These are just some basic tips for using a computer; there is much more that you can learn about computers as you become more comfortable with them. For more detailed information about specific tasks, use the help section of your computer or search online for tutorials.

Importance of Computers in Our Lives

Computers play a very important role in our lives. They help us do our work, stay connected with our friends and family, and entertain us when we are bored.

Without computers, our world would be very different. We rely on them for so much in our everyday lives that it is hard to imagine life without them.

Computers help us stay organized and efficient in our work. They can store large amounts of data and allow us to access it quickly and easily. They also help us communicate with others through email, instant messaging, and video conferencing.

In our personal lives, computers can help us stay connected with our friends and family members who live far away. We can stay in touch by sharing photos, stories, and experiences with each other online. We can also use computers to entertain ourselves when we are bored or need a break from reality.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer Use

Computers have become such an integral part of our lives that it’s hard to imagine functioning without them. We use them for everything from work and school to shopping and entertainment. But as with anything, there are both advantages and disadvantages to using a computer.

Advantages:

1. Speed and Efficiency 2. Increased Productivity 3. Communication 4. Storage and Organization 5. Flexibility and Accessibility 6. Cost-effectiveness 7. Accuracy 8. Entertainment Value 9. Creative Outlet 10. Safety Net .

Disadvantages:

1. Security Risks 2. Physical Health Issues 3. Isolation and Loneliness 4. Addiction Risk 5. Social Impact 6. Job Losses 7. Mental Stress from Overwork 8. Dependence on Technology 9. Environmental Cost 10. Expense.

The Future of Computing

The future of computing is shrouded in a great deal of uncertainty. However, there are a number of factors that suggest that the field of computing will continue to grow and evolve rapidly in the coming years. First and foremost among these is the increasing power and capabilities of computer hardware. As Moore’s Law continues to hold true, computers will become ever more powerful, offering users unprecedented levels of speed, storage, and processing power. In addition, the continued miniaturization of computing components will lead to ever-more portable and convenient devices.

Another key factor driving the future growth of computing is the increasing demand for more sophisticated software applications. As businesses and individuals increasingly rely on computers to perform complex tasks, there will be a growing need for software that can handle these tasks efficiently and effectively. Additionally, as more people gain access to computers and the internet, there will be a greater demand for apps and services that cater to their specific needs and interests.

Finally, the future of computing will also be shaped by the evolving landscape of artificial intelligence (AI). As AI technology continues to advance, it will become increasingly important for businesses and individuals to utilize AI-powered applications in order to stay competitive. In particular, AI-based automation tools will become essential for those looking to streamline their workflow or boost their productivity.

All in all, the future of computing looks very bright. With continued advancements in hardware and software technology, along with the growing importance of AI, it is clear that computers will play an ever-greater role in our lives.

The computer is an amazing device that has revolutionized our lives and made it easier for us to do things like shop online, communicate with others around the world and access vast amounts of information. As technology progresses, computers are becoming faster and more powerful than ever before. We should all be thankful for how far we have come in such a short amount of time thanks to computers and the internet.

Manisha Dubey Jha is a skilled educational content writer with 5 years of experience. Specializing in essays and paragraphs, she’s dedicated to crafting engaging and informative content that enriches learning experiences.

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Essay on Importance of Computer

Students are often asked to write an essay on Importance of Computer in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Importance of Computer

Introduction to computers.

Computers are important in our lives. They help in various tasks like learning, communication, and entertainment.

Role in Education

Computers make learning fun. They offer educational games and online classes.

Communication

Computers help us communicate with friends and family through emails and social media.

Entertainment

Computers provide entertainment like movies, music, and games.

In conclusion, computers have a significant role in our lives. They make tasks easier and more enjoyable.

Also check:

• 10 Lines on Importance of Computer

250 Words Essay on Importance of Computer

The emergence of computers.

The advent of computers has revolutionized the world, dramatically transforming human life and societal structures. Computers, initially designed for complex computations, now permeate every aspect of our daily lives, from education and business to entertainment and communication.

Computers in Education

The importance of computers in education is undeniable. They have transformed the way we learn, making education more interactive and engaging. With the help of computers, vast amounts of information can be accessed within seconds, facilitating research and broadening the scope of knowledge. Moreover, online learning platforms have made education accessible to everyone, irrespective of geographical boundaries.

Role in Business

In the business world, computers have become indispensable. They assist in managing large databases, conducting financial transactions, and executing marketing strategies. The advent of e-commerce, largely facilitated by computers, has reshaped the global economy, enabling businesses to reach customers worldwide.

Impact on Communication

Computers have also revolutionized communication. Emails, social networks, and video conferencing have made communication instantaneous, bridging the gap between people across the globe. This has not only enhanced personal interactions but also fostered international collaborations.

Entertainment and Leisure

In the realm of entertainment and leisure, computers have introduced new dimensions. From digital art and music to online gaming and streaming services, computers have enriched our recreational experiences.

In conclusion, the importance of computers is vast and multifaceted. They have become an integral part of our lives, continually shaping our world. As we move forward, the influence of computers will only continue to grow, making them an undeniable necessity in our modern existence.

500 Words Essay on Importance of Computer

Introduction.

The computer, a revolutionary invention of the twentieth century, has become a fundamental part of our daily lives. Its importance cannot be overstated as it has revolutionized various sectors including business, education, healthcare, and entertainment. This essay explores the significance of computers in our contemporary world.

The role of computers in education is transformative. They serve as an interactive medium where students can learn and explore new concepts. Online learning platforms, digital libraries, and educational software have made learning more accessible, engaging, and personalized. Furthermore, computers have also simplified research, data analysis, and presentation of academic work, enhancing the overall educational experience.

Impact on Business and Economy

Computers have reshaped the business landscape. They have facilitated automation, leading to increased productivity and efficiency. Businesses are now able to manage large volumes of data, aiding in informed decision-making and strategic planning. E-commerce, digital marketing, and online banking are other significant contributions of computers, driving economic growth and globalization.

Healthcare Advancements

In healthcare, computers have been instrumental in improving patient care and medical research. They have enabled advanced diagnostic tools, telemedicine, electronic health records, and medical imaging. These advancements have resulted in improved patient outcomes, efficient healthcare delivery, and groundbreaking medical discoveries.

Entertainment and Communication

The entertainment industry has been revolutionized by computers. They have given birth to digital media, video games, and computer-generated imagery (CGI) in films. Moreover, computers have redefined communication, making it instant and borderless. Social media, email, and video conferencing are now integral parts of our social and professional lives.

Challenges and Future Prospects

Despite the numerous benefits, the use of computers also brings challenges such as cybersecurity threats and digital divide. Addressing these issues is crucial for a safe and inclusive digital future. On the brighter side, the future of computers is promising with advancements like quantum computing, artificial intelligence, and virtual reality. These technologies are expected to further enhance our lives, solve complex problems, and open new avenues of exploration.

In conclusion, the importance of computers in our modern society is undeniable. They have transformed the way we learn, work, communicate, and entertain ourselves. While challenges exist, the prospective advancements in computer technology signify exciting possibilities. As we continue to integrate computers into our lives, it is essential to harness their potential responsibly and ethically.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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412 Computers Topics & Essay Examples

🏆 best computers topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics about computers, 💡 easy computer science essay topics, 🥇 computer science argumentative essay topics, 🎓 good research topics about computers, 🔍 interesting computer topics to write about, ❓ computer essay questions.

Looking for interesting topics about computer science? Look no further! Check out this list of trending computer science essay topics for your studies. Whether you’re a high school, college, or postgraduate student, you will find a suitable title for computer essay in this list.

• Life Without Computers Essay One of the major contributions of the computer technology in the world has been the enhancement of the quality of communication.
• How Computers Affect Our Lives In the entertainment industry, many of the movies and even songs will not be in use without computers because most of the graphics used and the animations we see are only possible with the help […]
• Are We Too Dependent on Computers? The duration taken to restore the machine varies depending on the cause of the breakdown, expertise of the repairing engineer and the resources needed to restore the machine.
• Computer Use in Schools: Effects on the Education Field The learning efficiency of the student is significantly increased by the use of computers since the student is able to make use of the learning model most suited to him/her.
• Are We Too Dependent on Computers? To reinforce this assertion, this paper shall consider the various arguments put forward in support of the view that computers are not overused. This demonstrates that in the education field, computers only serve as a […]
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer Graphics Essay One is able to put all of his/her ideas in a model, carry out tests on the model using graphical applications, and then make possible changes.
• Impact of Computers on Business This paper seeks to explore the impact of the computer and technology, as well as the variety of its aspects, on the business world.
• Apex Computers: Problems of Motivation Among Subordinates In the process of using intangible incentives, it is necessary to use, first of all, recognition of the merits of employees.
• How to Build a Computer? Preparation and Materials In order to build a personal computer, it is necessary to choose the performance that you want by considering the aspects such as the desired processor speed, the memory, and storage capacity. […]
• The Causes and Effect of the Computer Revolution Starting the discussion with the positive effect of the issue, it should be stated that the implementation of the computer technologies in the modern world has lead to the fact that most of the processes […]
• Dependency on Computers For example, even the author of this paper is not only using the computer to type the essay but they are also relying on the grammar checker to correct any grammatical errors in the paper. […]
• Computer Technology: Evolution and Developments The development of computer technology is characterized by the change in the technology used in building the devices. The semiconductors in the computers were improved to increase the scale of operation with the development of […]
• Impact of Computer Based Communication It started by explaining the impact of the internet in general then the paper will concentrate on the use of Instant Messaging and blogs.
• The Impact of Computer-Based Technologies on Business Communication The Importance of Facebook to Business Communication Facebook is one of the most popular social networking tools among college students and businesspersons. Blogs and Facebook can be used for the benefit of an organization.
• Impact on Operations Resources of JIT at Dell Computer JIT inventory system stresses on the amount of time required to produce the correct order; at the right place and the right time.
• Computers Have Changed Education for the Better Considering the significant effects that computers have had in the educational field, this paper will set out to illustrate how computer systems have changed education for the better.
• Solutions to Computer Viruses Efforts should also be made to ensure that once a computer system is infected with viruses, the information saved in it is salvaged.
• Print and Broadcast Computer Advertisements The use of pictures and words to bring out the special features in any given computer and types of computers is therefore crucial in this type of advertisement because people have to see to be […]
• Pointing Devices of Human-Computer Interaction The footpad also has a navigation ball that is rolled to the foot to move the cursor on a computer screen.
• The Use of Computers in the Aviation Industry The complicated nature of the software enables the Autopilot to capture all information related to an aircraft’s current position and uses the information to guide the aircraft’s control system.
• Introduction to Human-Computer Interaction It is a scope of study that explores how individuals view and ponder about computer related technologies, and also investigates both the human restrictions and the features that advance usability of computer structures.
• Computers vs. Humans: What Can They Do? The differences between a human being and a computer can be partly explained by looking at their reaction to an external stimulus. To demonstrate this point, one can refer to chess computers that can assess […]
• Challenges of Computer Technology Computer Technologies and Geology In fact, computer technologies are closely connected to any sphere of life, and it is not surprisingly that geology has a kind of dependence from the development of computers and innovative […]
• Computer’s Memory Management Memory management is one of the primary responsibilities of the OS, a role that is achieved by the use of the memory management unit.
• Impact of Computer Technology on Economy and Social Life The rapid development of technologies and computer-human interactions influences not only the individual experience of a person but also the general conditions of social relations.
• Advantages of Using Computers at Work I have learned what I hoped to learn in that I have become more aware of the advantages of using computers and why I should not take them for granted.
• Computer Hardware: Past, Present, and Future Overall, one can identify several important trends that profoundly affected the development of hardware, and one of them is the need to improve its design, functionality, and capacity.
• Human-Computer Interface in Nursing Practice HCI in the healthcare impacts the quality of the care and patients’ safety since it influences communication among care providers and between the latter and their clients.
• Corporate Governance in Satyam Computer Services LTD The Chief Executive Officer of the company in the UK serves as the chairman of the board, but his/her powers are controlled by the other board members.
• Computer Hardware Components and Functions Hardware is the physical components of a computer, while the software is a collection of programs and related data to perform the computers desired function.
• Computers Will Not Replace Teachers On the other hand, real teachers can emotionally connect and relate to their students; in contrast, computers do not possess feeling and lack of empathy.
• Computers R Us Company’s Customer Satisfaction The company uses a survey to draw data-driven conclusions about the current customer satisfaction level within the business and the strategies that will most effectively increase their customer satisfaction.
• Computer Network Types and Classification For a computer to be functional it must meet three basic requirements, which are it must provide services, communications and most of all a connection whether wireless or physical.the connection is generally the hardware in […]
• The Influence of Computer on the Living Standards of People All Over the World In the past, people considered computers to be a reserve for scientist, engineers, the army and the government. Media is a field that has demonstrated the quality and value of computers.
• How Computer Works? In order for a computer to function, stuff such as data or programs have to be put through the necessary hardware, where they would be processed to produce the required output.
• Use of Robots in Computer Science Currently, the most significant development in the field of computer science is the inclusion of robots as teaching tools. The use of robots in teaching computer science has significantly helped to endow students with valuable […]
• Human Mind Simply: A Biological Computer When contemplating the man-like intelligence of machines, the computer immediately comes to mind but how does the amind’ of such a machine compare to the mind of man?
• Computer Technology in the Student Registration Process The registration process became more efficient due to the reduction in the number of registration staff because they are only tasked with the transfer of the students’ information to their respective departments.
• Dell Computer Corporation: Competitive Advantages Rivkin et al.claim that Dell remains a company to beat in the personal computer industry despite the initiatives the rival companies have taken.
• Computer Fraud and Contracting The law does not provide the consumers with measures to enforcing the online contracts because the argument is that, it is impossible to tell the intention and the consent of the consumer when they signed […]
• Computer Laboratory Staff and Their Work This will depend on the discretion of the staff to look into it that the rules that have been set in the system are followed dully. This is the work of the staff in this […]
• Ethical and Illegal Computer Hacking For the ethical hackers, they pursue hacking in order to identify the unexploited areas or determine weaknesses in systems in order to fix them.
• Computer Evolution, Its Future and Societal Impact In spite of the computers being in existence since the abacus, it is the contemporary computers that have had a significant impact on the human life.
• Ethics in Computer Technology: Cybercrimes The first one is the category of crimes that are executed using a computer as a weapon. The second type of crime is the one that uses a computer as an accessory to the crime.
• Doing Business in India: Outsourcing Manufacturing Activities of a New Tablet Computer to India Another aim of the report is to analyse the requirements for the establishment of the company in India, studying the competitors in the industry and their experience.
• Computer Forensics Tools and Evidence Processing The purpose of this paper is to analyze available forensic tools, identify and explain the challenges of investigations, and explain the legal implication of the First and Fourth Amendments as they relate to evidence processing […]
• Purchasing and Leasing Computer Equipment, Noting the Advantages and Disadvantages of Each In fact, this becomes hectic when the equipment ceases to be used in the organization before the end of the lease period. First, they should consider how fast the equipment needs to be updated and […]
• Building a PC, Computer Structure The choices available are Western Digital 320GB and Seagate 320GB and my advice would be to go for Western Digital as it is a good performer all along.
• Computers in Education: More a Boon Than a Bane Thus, one of the greatest advantages of the computer as a tool in education is the fact that it builds the child’s capacity to learn things independently.
• Computer-Based Learning and Virtual Classrooms E-learning adds technology to instructions and also utilizes technologies to advance potential new approaches to the teaching and learning process. However, e-learners need to be prepared in the case of a technology failure which is […]
• Apple Inc.’s Competitive Advantages in Computer Industry Competitive advantage is significant in any company A prerequisite of success It enhances sustainable profit growth It shows the company’s strengths Apple Inc.explores its core competencies to achieve it Apple Inc.is led by Tim […]
• Computer Sciences Technology: Smart Clothes In this paper we find that the smart clothes are dated back to the early 20th century and they can be attributed to the works of artists and scientists.
• Mathematics as a Basis in Computer Science For example, my scores in physics and chemistry were also comparable to those I obtained in mathematics, a further testament to the importance of mathematics in other disciplines.
• Human Computer Interface: Evolution and Changes The conferences will not require members to be there in person as the events can be transmitted to people in their homes and they can make suggestions too.
• People Are Too Dependent on Computers One thing which is common in computer use is that computers have increased efficiency and minimized the time spent on tasks. In the end, computers have destroyed the friendships, families and the very relationships that […]
• The American Military and the Evolution of Computer Technology From the Early 1940s to Early 1960s During the 1940s-1960, the American military was the only wouldriver’ of computer development and innovations.”Though most of the research work took place at universities and in commercial firms, military research organizations such as the Office […]
• Computer-Based Systems Effective Implementation Under this methodology, there is a provision that gives attention to the needs of the people involved in the organization about the demands of the technology.
• Computer System Review and Upgrade The main purpose of this computer program is going to be the more effective identification of the hooligan groups and their organisation with the purpose to reduce the violation actions.
• Key Issues Concerning Computer Security, Ethics, and Privacy The issues facing computer use such as defense, ethics, and privacy continue to rise with the advent of extra ways of information exchange.
• HP Computer Marketing Concept The marketing concept is the criteria that firms and organizations use to meet the needs of their clients in the most conducive manner.
• Pipeline Hazards in Computer Architecture Therefore, branch instructions are the primary reasons for these types of pipeline hazards to emerge. In conclusion, it is important to be able to distinguish between different pipeline types and their hazards in order to […]
• Computer Problems: Review I was referred to the these three websites by my peers who told me they had experienced problems with their computers in the past and were of the opinion that these websites could provide me […]
• “Failure to Connect – How Computers Affect Our Children’s Minds and What We Can Do About It” by Jane M. Healy Detailed analysis of several chapters of the book will help to understand the impact of computer technologies on children’s health and mental development. To begin with, chapter 4 of the book deals with the impact […]
• The Popularity of Esports Among Computer Gamers E-sports or cybersports are the new terms that can sound odd to the men in the street but are well-known in the environment of video gamers.
• Computer-Based Technologies That Assist People With Disabilities The visually impaired To assist the visually impaired to use computers, there are Braille computer keyboards and Braille display to enable them to enter information and read it. Most of these devices are very expensive […]
• Strategic Marketing: Dell and ASUSTeK Computer Inc. Another factor contributing to the success of iPad is the use of stylish, supreme marketing and excellent branding of the products.
• Online Video and Computer Games Video and computer games emerged around the same time as role playing games during the 1970s, and there has always been a certain overlap between video and computer games and larger fantasy and sci-fi communities.
• Computer-Based Testing: Beneficial or Detrimental? Clariana and Wallace found out that scores variations were caused by settings of the system in computer-based and level of strictness of examiners in paper-based. According to Meissner, use of computer based tests enhances security […]
• Computer Viruses: Spreading, Multiplying and Damaging A computer virus is a software program designed to interfere with the normal computer functioning by infecting the computer operating system.
• The Drawbacks of Computers in Human Lives Since the invention of computers, they have continued to be a blessing in many ways and more specifically changing the lives of many people.
• Computers and Information Gathering On the other hand, it would be correct to say that application of computers in gathering information has led to negative impacts in firms.
• Computer-Aided Design in Knitted Apparel and Technical Textiles In doing so, the report provides an evaluation of the external context of CAD, a summary of the technology, and the various potential applications and recommendations of CAD.
• History of Computers: From Abacus to Modern PC Calculators were among the early machines and an example of this is the Harvard Mark 1 Early man was in need of a way to count and do calculations.
• Computer Network: Data Flow and Protocol Layering The diagram below shows a simplex communication mode Half-duplex mode is one in which the flow of data is multidirectional; that is, information flow in both directions.
• Computer Virus User Awareness It is actually similar to a biological virus wherein both the computer and biological virus share the same characteristic of “infecting” their hosts and have the ability to be passed on from one computer to […]
• How Computers Negatively Affect Student Growth Accessibility and suitability: most of the school and student do not have computers that imply that they cannot use computer programs for learning, lack of availability of internet facilities’ availability also makes the students lack […]
• Bill Gates’ Contributions to Computer Technology Upon examination of articles written about Gates and quotations from Gates recounting his early childhood, several events stand out in significance as key to depicting the future potential of Gates to transform the world with […]
• Internship in the Computer Service Department In fact, I know that I am on track because I have been assessed by the leaders in the facility with the aim of establishing whether I have gained the required skills and knowledge.
• Human Computer Interaction in Web Based Systems The personalization of web services has been seen to improve the interaction that the user will have with the information presented by the machine.
• How Computers Work: Components and Power The CPU of the computer determines the ultimate performance of a computer because it is the core-processing unit of a computer as shown in figure 2 in the appendix.
• Computer Technology in the Last 100 Years of Human History These communication tools are based on computer technology, and are the foundation of younger generations’ living. Computer technology is detrimental to the lives of younger generations because it fails.
• Computer R Us Company: Initiatives for Improving Customer Satisfaction The result of the second question shows that the overall satisfaction of female customers is higher than that of male customers. Therefore, there is a need to improve the level of satisfaction of the male […]
• Dell Computer Company and Michael Dell These numbers prove successful reputation of the company and make the organization improve their work in order to attract the attention of more people and help them make the right choice during the selection of […]
• Effects of Computer Programming and Technology on Human Behavior Phones transitioned from the basic feature phones people used to own for the sole purpose of calling and texting, to smart phones that have amazing capabilities and have adapted the concepts of computers.
• Computers Brief History: From Pre-Computer Hardware to Modern Computers This continued until the end of the first half of the twentieth century. This led to the introduction of first-generation computers.
• The Concept of Computer Hardware and Software The physical devices can still be the components that are responsible for the execution of the programs in a computer such as a microprocessor.
• Globalization Influence on the Computer Technologies In spite of the fact that globalization may be defined as a serious problem in different spheres of life, it is wrong to believe that the future of IT may undergo negative effects; it seems […]
• Tablet Computer Technology It weighs less than 500g and operates on the technology of AMOLED display with a resolution of WVGA 800 480 and a detachable input pen.
• Computer Survey Analysis: Preferences of the People The survey was conducted with the aid of the research questions which included; what type of computer was owned by the respondent and the brand of the primary computer.
• How to Teach Elderly Relatives to Use the Computer The necessary safety information: Do not operate the computer if there is external damage to the case or the insulation of the power cables.
• Why Is Speed More Important in Computer Storage Systems? While there are indications of how speed may be more significant than storage in the context of a computer system, both storage and speed are important to efficiency.
• Current Trends and Projects in Computer Networks and Security That means the management of a given organization can send a request to communicate to the network the intended outcome instead of coding and executing the single tasks manually.
• How to Sell Computers: PC Type and End User Correlation The specification of each will depend on the major activities the user will conduct on the computer. The inbuilt software is also important to note.
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• How to Build a Desktop Personal Computer The processor will determine the speed of the system but the choice between the two major types-Intel and AMD- remains a matter of taste.
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• Computer Hardware: Structure, Purpose, Pros and Cons The main focus of the post is with respect to the security issues of web 2. 0 technologies is susceptible to is SQL injection attacks, which primarily entail the use of a code injection technique […]
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• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Computer Essay

A computer is an electronic device capable of performing complex calculations and tasks impossible for a human brain to accomplish. First ever mechanical computer was developed in 19 th century by Charles Babbage. Since then computers have undergone many transformational changes in size and processing speed. Modern computers are capable of taking human instructions in a form of language called programming language and delivering output in fraction of a second.

Today, computers are used in every office and institution for performing a number of tasks from maintaining and processing data, keeping records of transactions and employees, preparing and maintaining account statements, balance sheets etc. High speed computers are used in more complex science programs such as space exploration missions and satellite launch. Computers have become an integral part of our life due to its usefulness into various fields.

Long and Short Essay on Computer in English

Find very simple to write and easy to learn essay on computer. Computer is a very high technique invention which everyone must know about and its advantages in life.

It is very much liked by kids. So bring some creativity in the education of your kids and children through computer.

We have provided below various computer essay in different words limit like 100 words, 150 words, 200 words, 250 words, 300 words and 400 words according to the need and requirement of students.

Computer Essay 1 (100 words)

A computer is a great invention of the modern technology. It is generally a machine which has capability to store large data value in its memory. It works using input (like keyboard) and output (like printer) devices. It is very simple to handle the computer as its functioning is so common that a child can handle it. It is a very reliable device which we can carry with us and use anywhere and anytime. It allows us to make changes in the already stored data as well as store new data. Computer is a new technology which is used in offices, banks, educational institutions, etc.

Computer Essay 2 (150 words)

Computer is a modern tool which has made life very easy and simple. It has capability to complete more than one task in small time. It is able to do work of many human beings alone within less time. It is the utility of highest efficiency. The first computer was a mechanical computer which was created by the Charles Babbage. A computer works successfully using its hardware and fully installed application software. Other accessories of the computer are keyboard, mouse, printer, CPU and UPS.

The data which we put into the computer using device is called input data and device as input device and data which we take outside using printer or other device is called as output data and device as output device. The input data gets changed into the information which can be stored and changed anytime. Computer is very safe tool for data storage which is being used in various fields. We can shop, pay our electricity bill, water bill, video chat, messaging, e-mail messages anywhere in the world and lots of online activities using internet.

Computer Essay 3 (200 words)

Computer is the latest technology which is used almost everywhere. It has made possible to do large amount of works in very small time. It has reduced the man effort in the offices means it gives high level of work output in very small time, less effort, low man power, etc. Now a day, it has become hard to imagine our lives without computer. We can use internet in the computer which gives us lots of required information on any subject in very less time. There are great contributions of the computer in the lives of human being. It is playing big role in every field and helping us every single moment. Old generations of the computer were less effective with less functions but new generations of it are amazing with high capacity, easy to handle and more functions.

Future generations of the computer would be more effective and lots of functioning. It has made our life easier. Using this we can easily learn anything and enhance our skill. We can get any information about any service or product or other thing within no time. We can buy anything online using computer and internet and get free delivery. It is very useful for the preparation of project work of any student reading in any class.

Computer Essay 4 (250 words)

Computer is the wonderful and mastermind gift of the science to the whole human fraternity. It can be used to do any kind of works. It is very easy to handle by anyone and takes very less time to learn. Because of its easiness and high work efficiency, it is being used in many fields like offices, banks, hotels, educational institutions, shops, hospitals, commercial places, schools, colleges, training institutes, military establishments, military, industries, etc. Many people buy laptop or desktop for their kids to learn about required things in their schools or playing computerized video-games, etc.

Computer is a big dictionary and large storage device which we use to save any type of large amount of data like information, study materials, projects, photos, images, video, audio, songs, clips, games, and many more. It is an electronic machine which is able to calculate and solve big problems. It helps in enhancing our skill level and get information easily. It is very simple data based machine. It provides facility of many other tools like paint tool, text tool, etc which are very beneficial for the kids, children and students to use it more effectively.

We can use it for any big or small mathematical calculations very accurately. It is used to forecast the information about weather, in printing books, news papers, diagnosing diseases, etc. It is used to make online railway reservations, ticket booking, hotel or restaurant booking from any place all over the world. It is used by MNC companies for the accounting purpose, invoicing, pay rolls, stock control, etc.

Computer Essay 5 (300 words)

In the modern world of technological advancement, computer is the amazing gift given by the science to us. It has changed the living style and standard of the people. No one can imagine the life without computer as it has made lots of works so easy within less time. Computer is playing great role in the development of the developing countries. It is not only a storage or processing device but it is like an angel which can make anything possible. By many people it is used as the source of entertainment and communication.

We can get connected to our friends, relatives, parents or others in no time through the use of video chat or email. Using internet in the computer we can search and retrieve vast information on any subject useful for our education or project work. It is very safe and easy for the business transactions purposes through banks to any accounts. By providing the facility of data storage it has lessen the paper works in the governmental and non-governmental offices or colleges. One can save lots of time and effort by online shopping, paying bill, etc by being at home through the computer.

Computer education has been made compulsory by the government of India in all the schools, colleges and other educational institutions for enhancing the skill level as well as the easiness of the students in their professional life. Learning computer has become very essential in all the modern-day jobs. In the higher education there are subjects like network administration, hardware maintenance, software installation, etc for the enhancement of skill.

Computer Essay 6 (400 words)

Invention of the computer has made many dreams come true even we cannot imagine our lives without computer. Generally computer is a device used for many purposes like information storage, email, messaging, software programming, calculation, data processing and many more. Desktop computer need a CPU, an UPS, a keyboard and a mouse for well functioning however laptop does not need anything to add outside as it is included with all inside. Computer is an electronic device having big memory which can save any data value. We are living in the advanced world of computer in the 21 st century.

Earlier the functioning of the old generation computer was very limited but new generation computers are amazing with lots of functioning. Charles Babbage had invented the first mechanical computer which was totally different from the modern day computer. The aim of computer invention was to create a machine which can perform very fast mathematical calculations. During the World War II it was used to locate and estimate the direction and speed of weapons of the enemies. Modern day computers are available with the artificial Intelligence technology to helps us in every sector of life.

New generation computer are being highly advanced means smaller, lighter, speedier and more powerful. Now a day, it is running in almost all walks of life like weather forecasting, guidance of spacecraft, examinations, education, shopping, traffic control, high level programming, automation in banks, railway ticket booking, playing games, medical sector, machinery operations, job opening, business, crime detection etc.

It is the backbone of the Information Technology including with the internet and proved that nothing is impossible today. If there are positive effects of the computer on the life of human being, it also negatively affected the human lives such as rise in the Cyber crime, pornographic websites can be accessed by kids or younger and many more however using some preventive measures we can be safe from its negative effects.

The whole human fraternity is becoming highly dependent on the computer technology; no one can imagine life without computer. As, it has spread its wings so deeply in every area and made people used of it. It is very beneficial for the students of any class. They can use it to prepare their projects, learn poems, read different stories, download notes for exam preparations, collect large information within seconds, learn about painting, drawing, etc. It enhances the professional skills of the students and helps in getting job easily.

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The Evolution Of Computers: A Brief History And Future Trends Of Computer Paragraph

Computer Paragraph: Computers have come a long way since their inception in the 19th century. From mechanical calculators to quantum computing, computers have evolved to become a ubiquitous part of modern society. In this article, we will discuss the evolution of computers and their future trends.

In this blog, we include the Computer Paragraph, in 100, 200, 250, and 300 words. Also cover the Computer Paragraph belonging to classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and up to the 12th class. You can read more essays in 10 lines, and Essay Writing about sports, events, occasions, festivals, etc… Computer Paragraph is also available in different languages.

The Evolution Of Computers

Early Computers

The first mechanical computers were invented in the 19th century, but it wasn’t until the 1940s that electronic computers were developed. The first electronic computers were large, expensive, and slow, but they paved the way for modern computing. Pioneers such as Charles Babbage and Alan Turing made significant contributions to the development of early computers.

Personal Computers

In the 1980s, personal computers emerged, and they quickly became a part of homes and businesses. The rise of personal computers changed the way we work and communicate, leading to the development of the internet and social media. Companies such as Apple and Microsoft played a significant role in the development of personal computers.

Mobile Computing

The emergence of mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets has revolutionized computing. Mobile computing has made it possible to work and communicate on the go, leading to the rise of remote work and e-commerce. The future of mobile computing is likely to include more wearable technology such as smartwatches and augmented reality devices.

Artificial Intelligence And Quantum Computing

Artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential to transform every aspect of modern life, from healthcare to transportation. With the development of AI, computers can process and analyze vast amounts of data, leading to more accurate predictions and insights. Quantum computing is a technology in its infancy, but it has the potential to revolutionize computing by solving problems that classical computers cannot solve.

Computers have come a long way since their inception, and they are likely to continue to evolve rapidly. With the development of new technologies such as AI and quantum computing, computers will become even more powerful and ubiquitous in our lives. As we look towards the future of computing, we must be mindful of the ethical considerations surrounding these technologies and work towards creating a world where technology is used for the greater good.

Read More: Components Of A Computer System

FAQs On Computer Paragraphs

Question 1. What is a computer in 250 words?

Answer: A computer is an electronic device that processes and stores data. It can perform various tasks based on the instructions given to it. A computer consists of hardware components such as a central processing unit (CPU), memory, input/output devices, and storage devices. The software programs and operating system installed on a computer enable it to perform complex tasks, making it an indispensable tool in today’s digital age.

Question 2. What are the 10 lines of computers?

Answer: A computer is an electronic device that can perform a variety of tasks by following a set of instructions.

• It is capable of processing, storing, and retrieving large amounts of data quickly and accurately.
• Computers come in different sizes and types, ranging from desktops and laptops to tablets and smartphones.
• They consist of various hardware components, such as a central processing unit (CPU), memory, storage, and input/output devices.
• A computer operates using software programs that allow it to perform specific functions, such as word processing, internet browsing, and gaming.
• Computers can connect to networks and the internet, allowing users to access and share information globally.
• They have revolutionized the way we work, communicate, and learn, making tasks faster, easier, and more efficient.
• Artificial intelligence and machine learning have further advanced the capabilities of computers, enabling them to perform complex tasks that were once only possible for humans.
• With the increasing reliance on technology, computers have become an essential part of everyday life, used in education, healthcare, finance, entertainment, and many other fields.
• The rapid pace of technological advancement means that computers will continue to evolve, shaping the future of society and transforming the way we live and work.

Question 3. What is computer 80 words?

Answer: A computer is an electronic device that can perform various operations and calculations at high speed. It can store, retrieve, and process data in a way that humans find useful. Computers come in various forms, from desktops to laptops, tablets, and smartphones. They are essential tools in modern society and are used in many fields, including business, education, healthcare, entertainment, and more. With the advancement of technology, computers continue to evolve and improve, making tasks more efficient and accessible.

Question 4. What is a computer paragraph in 100 words?

Answer: A computer is an electronic device that can process data and perform tasks according to a set of instructions or programs. It consists of several hardware components such as the processor, memory, storage, and input/output devices. Computers have revolutionized the way we work, communicate, and access information. They are used in various fields such as education, healthcare, entertainment, and business. With the advancement of technology, computers have become faster, more efficient, and smaller in size, making them more accessible and affordable to people worldwide.

Question 5. What is a computer in 150 words?

Answer: A computer is an electronic device that can process, store and retrieve data quickly and accurately. It is made up of hardware components such as the motherboard, CPU, RAM, storage devices, and input/output devices, as well as software components such as the operating system and applications. Computers can perform a variety of tasks, including word processing, browsing the internet, playing games, and running complex simulations.

They have become an integral part of our daily lives, used for work, entertainment, education, and communication. The evolution of computers has been rapid, with advancements in technology allowing for smaller, faster, and more powerful devices. With the increasing reliance on technology, it is important to understand how computers work and how to use them effectively.

Computer Essay

A computer is an electronic device used to carry out several complex tasks, such as managing large data, doing complex calculations, printing, controlling heavy machinery and complex protection system, etc. They are used in almost every field because of their high efficiency, almost zero possibility of an error and functional ease and excellence.

Short and Long Essay on Computer in English

Here I’m presenting short and long essays on computer in different word limits for students of classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12. 10 Lines essay on computer is also added to help lower class students:

Computer Essay 10 Lines (100 – 150 Words)

1) Computer is an electronic machine that can be used to perform complex tasks.

2) Computers can be used to manage large data, complex calculations, store bulk data, etc.

3) Computer performs the task very fast with zero error.

4) Input devices, Output devices, and CPU (Central Processing Unit) are the main parts of a computer.

5) According to size, Mainframe, Micro, Mini, and Supercomputer are the types of computers.

6) He was Charges Babbage who designed the first mechanical computer in 1822.

7) In railway stations, computers are used for managing signals and holding records.

8) Computers play a major role in education and are thus useful for students.

9) Hospitals use computers to keep records of doctors, patients, and other related information.

10) Today in every field, computers are widely used to simplify work.

Essay 1 (250 Words) – Uses of Computer

Introduction

Computer is a device that is used for several purposes like storing records and data, printing and performing other complex tasks. Their high level of usefulness has made computers being used in almost every office, schools and houses today.

Here are some of the fields where computers are used:

Hospitals have to keep several records. They have to keep records of their patients, their medical history, dates of the last visit, addresses, diagnosis, etc. They also have to maintain a stock of medicines available and regularly update it. Maintaining such huge data related to different subjects would be an impossible task if it is to be done manually. Computers, make this colossal-looking job much easier by storing Gigabytes of information in its memory and reveal the information with a simple push of a button.

Schools and Offices

Computers are used in schools mainly for educational purposes and for maintaining relevant data of students and staff, as well as in the offices for a wide range of purposes. Computers in schools contain all academic and personal records of the students. It contains everything from grades obtained to the contact number of the person in case of an emergency.

Railway Stations

Computer is also widely used in railway stations. They are used in the operation of locomotives, through signals and systems, as well as for very basic yet important job of booking and printing tickets of the passengers.

Computers are widely used at almost every commercial location for their efficiency and ease of adaptability. Today any business would stand still without computers.

Essay 2 (400 Words) – Components and Types of Computer

Computer is a machine that can carry out complex functions as per the instructions provided by humans. Their high efficiency and ability to perform any task has made them widely in use.

Components of Computer

Any computer mainly has three main components – Input (I/p) Device, the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and the Output (O/p) Device.

• An input device is used to feed instructions to the computer. Keyboard, joysticks, touch pens are some of the examples of Input devices.
• The Central Processing Unit is the brain of a computer. It consists of the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and the Memory Unit. ALU performs all the complex functions while the Memory Unit stores the data and information.
• Output devices are used to display the output as desired by the user. Some of the most common output devices are monitors and printers, etc.

Types of Computer

Depending on their architecture, size, and performance, computers can be classified into different types as listed below-

• Supercomputer

A supercomputer is a high-performance computer that performs much better than the general-purpose computer. Supercomputers require large spaces, often a big room or hall and an effective cooling mechanism to operate.

• Mainframe Computer

Mainframe Computers are used by large organizations for critical applications such as bulk data processing, enterprise resource planning (ERP), census, etc. They are larger than personal computers and also have more processing power and speed as well.

• Personal Computer

A personal computer is a computer used for personal use. Its unique size, capabilities, and price, makes it suitable to be used as a personal computer. Unlike, mainframe and supercomputers, personal computers are not shared and are solely operated by a single owner.

A laptop is also a kind of personal computer, but unlike the conventional personal computer, the desktop, it is handy, portable and lightweight. It is easy to carry a laptop and it is so light that it could be placed comfortably on your lap.

Smartphone widely used today are also a kind of mobile computing device. These operate on their own operating systems; those provide them with a wide range of software adaptability and features like internet, web browsing, cameras, etc.

Modern-day computers are used in almost every industry depending on the requirements and needs. From supercomputers to laptops to smartphones, every device is useful in its own unique way and varies widely in price and specification.

Essay 3 (500 – 600 Words) – History of Computer

Computer is an electronic device that is used to perform complex arithmetical and analytical functions much beyond the natural capacity of humans. Computers are highly efficient devices and perform really fast and accurate. Output generated by a computer is precise and there is no possibility for an error except human error.

History of Computer

The history of the computer is long and has many phases of development. Some consider that an early calculating device named ‘Abacus’ led further to the invention of calculator and computer. Though, the abacus was only a mechanical device consisting of wooden beads those can move on thin rods or wires. Even to this day ‘Abacus’ has retained its original form and doesn’t contain any electronic or electrical part.

• The Difference Engine

The first-ever mechanical computer was developed by Charles Babbage, no earlier than 1822. This machine was called the ‘Difference Engine’. Charles Babbage is often referred to as ‘Father of the computer’ though; his invention was completely different from the modern-day computers.

• The Analytical Engine

This machine was a proposal made by Charles Babbage in 1837. It contained ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit), flow control, punch card, and integrated memory. It was the first concept to make the general-purpose computer. But unfortunately, due to financial problems, this concept of Babbage, never materialized in his life span. However, his son Henry Babbage was able to develop a portion of the machine as conceptualized by Charles Babbage, no sooner than in 1910.

• Z1 – The First Ever Programmable Computer

This computer was developed by a German inventor named Konrad Zuse. He developed it during 1936-1938, in his parents’ living room while he was around 26 years old. ‘Z1’ was the first binary programmable computer and the actual predecessor of modern-day computers.

• The Turing Machine

This machine was proposed by Alan Turing in 1936. Turing was a mathematician and a computer scientist based in the United Kingdom. Turing machine was capable of simulating and algorithm and printing symbols on a paper tape.

• The Colossus

The Colossus was a set of machines developed by the British during World War II. These were developed by the British code breakers, during 1943-1945 to read high-level messages of the German Army during the Second World War.

• First Digital Computer

The first digital computer used plus 300 vacuum tubes and could perform mathematical calculations and Boolean logic. It was also called Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC Computer), after its two inventors John Vincent Atanasoff and Cliff Berry. They developed it from 1937-1942 at Iowa State College which is now Iowa State University.

• First Electronic Computer (ENIAC)

ENIAC is an abbreviation of Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator, developed in 1943, at the University of Pennsylvania by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly. It was colossal, heavy and required 1800 square feet. It also used around 18,000 vacuum tubes and weighs approximately 50 tons. This was the first fully functional digital computer.

• First Computer Company

The first computer company was founded in 1949 and it was named Electronics Control Company. It was founded by two persons who helped create the ENIAC – J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly.

Modern computers have evolved through hundreds of years to reach the efficiency and shape that we see today. But, evolution is not over yet and will continue for centuries to come with the help of humans innovating to bring new technological advancements.

FAQs: Frequently Asked Questions on Computer

Ans . Charles Babbage is called the father of computer.

Ans . The microprocessor is considered the heart of the computer.

Ans . Bit is the smallest unit of data in a computer.

Ans . RAM is located on the motherboard of the computer.

Ans . Vint Cerf is regarded as the father of the internet.

Ans . The name of the first supercomputer of India is PARAM 8000.

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Essay on Computer in English for Children and Students

Table of Contents

Essay on Computer: A computer is a machine that can be programmed to perform a set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. Computers have become an integral part of our lives. They are used in almost every field, from medicine and space exploration to business and communication.

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Computers have made our lives easier in many ways. They help us perform tasks that would otherwise be difficult or impossible. For example, computers can help us keep track of large amounts of information, communicate with others around the world, and entertain us with games and videos.

A computer is an electronic device capable of performing complex calculations and tasks impossible for a human brain to accomplish. First ever mechanical computer was developed in 19 th century by Charles Babbage. Since then computers have undergone many transformational changes in size and processing speed. Modern computers are capable of taking human instructions in a form of language called programming language and delivering output in fraction of a second.

Today, computers are used in every office and institution for performing a number of tasks from maintaining and processing data, keeping records of transactions and also employees, preparing and maintaining account statements, balance sheets etc. High speed computers are used in more complex science programs such as space exploration missions and satellite launch. Computers have become an integral part of our life due to its usefulness into various fields.

Long and Short Essay on Computer in English

Find very simple to write and easy to learn essay on computer. Computer is a very high technique invention which everyone must know about and also its advantages in life.

It is very much liked by kids. So bring some creativity in the education of your kids and children through computer.

We have provided below various computer essay in different words limit like 100 words, 150 words, 200 words, 250 words, 300 words and also 400 words according to the need and requirement of students.

Short Essay on Computer

Computer essay 10 lines.

• Computers are amazing machines of modern technology.
• They can store a lot of information in their memory.
• You can use a keyboard to give them commands and a printer to get things on paper.
• Even kids can use computers because they are easy to handle.
• Computers are everywhere, from offices to schools.
• They can do many tasks quickly and efficiently.
• You can use a mouse, keyboard, and printer with a computer.
• Computers are great for learning and getting information from the internet.
• But we should be careful online to avoid bad stuff.
• In the end, computers have changed our lives and made many things easier.

Computer Essay 1 (100 words)

A computer is a great invention of the modern technology. It is generally a machine which has capability to store large data value in its memory. Computer works using input (like keyboard) and output (like printer) devices. It is very simple to handle the computer as its functioning is so common that a child can handle it. It is a very reliable device which we can carry with us and use anywhere and anytime. Computer allows us to make changes in the already stored data as well as store new data. It is a new technology which is used in offices, banks, educational institutions, etc.

Computer Essay 2 (150 words)

It is a modern tool which has made life very easy and simple. Computer has capability to complete more than one task in small time. It is able to do work of many human beings alone within less time. Computer is the utility of highest efficiency. The first computer was a mechanical computer which was created by the Charles Babbage. However a computer works successfully using its hardware and fully installed application software. Other accessories of the computer are keyboard, mouse, printer, CPU and UPS.

The data which we put into the computer using device is called input data and device as input device and data which we take outside using printer or other device is called as output data and device as output device. Therefore the input data gets changed into the information which can be stored and changed anytime. Computer is very safe tool for data storage which is being used in various fields. We can shop, pay our electricity bill, water bill, video chat also messaging, e-mail messages anywhere in the world and lots of online activities using internet.

Computer Essay 3 (200 words)

Computer is the latest technology which is used almost everywhere. It has made possible to do large amount of works in very small time. It has reduced the man effort in the offices means it gives high level of work output in very small time, less effort also low man power, etc. Now a day, it has become hard to imagine our lives without computer. We often use internet in the computer which gives us lots of required information on any subject in very less time. Therefore there are great contributions of the computer in the lives of human being. It is playing big role in every field and helping us every single moment. Old generations of the computer were less effective with less functions but new generations of it are amazing with high capacity, easy to handle and more functions.

Future generations of the computer would be more effective and lots of functioning. However it has made our life easier. Using this we can easily learn anything and enhance our skill. We can get any information about any service or product or other thing within no time. However we can buy anything online using computer and internet and get free delivery. It is very useful for the preparation of project work of any student reading in any class.

Computer Essay 4 (250 words)

Computer is the wonderful and mastermind gift of the science to the whole human fraternity. It can used to do any kind of works. It is very easy to handle by anyone and takes very less time to learn. Because of its easiness and high work efficiency, it used in many fields like offices, banks, hotels, educational institutions, shops, hospitals, commercial places, schools, colleges, training institutes, military establishments, military, industries, etc. Many people buy laptop or desktop for their kids to learn about required things in their schools or playing computerized video-games, etc.

Computer is a big dictionary and large storage device which we use to save any type of large amount of data like information, study materials, projects, photos, images, video, audio, songs, clips, games, and also many more. Computer is an electronic machine which is able to calculate and solve big problems. It helps in enhancing our skill level and also get information easily. It is very simple data based machine. Computer provides facility of many other tools like paint tool, text tool, etc which are very beneficial for the kids, children and students to use it more effectively.

We can use it for any big or small mathematical calculations very accurately. It used to forecast the information about weather, in printing books, news papers, diagnosing diseases, etc. Moreover computer used to make online railway reservations, ticket booking, hotel or restaurant booking from any place all over the world. It used by MNC companies for the accounting purpose, invoicing, pay rolls, stock control, etc.

Computer Essay 5 (300 words)

In the modern world of technological advancement, computer is the amazing gift given by the science to us. It has changed the living style and standard of the people. No one can imagine the life without computer as it has made lots of works so easy within less time. Computer is playing great role in the development of the developing countries. It is not only a storage or processing device but it is like an angel which can make anything possible. By many people it used as the source of entertainment and communication.

We can get connected to our friends, relatives, parents or others in no time through the use of video chat or email. Using internet in the computer we can search and retrieve vast information on any subject useful for our education or project work. However it is very safe and easy for the business transactions purposes through banks to any accounts. By providing the facility of data storage it has lessen the paper works in the governmental and non-governmental offices or colleges. One can save lots of time and effort by online shopping, paying bill, etc by being at home through the computer.

Computer education has made compulsory by the government of India in all the schools, colleges and other educational institutions for enhancing the skill level as well as the easiness of the students in their professional life. Learning computer has become very essential in all the modern-day jobs. In the higher education there are subjects like network administration, hardware maintenance, software installation, etc., for the enhancement of skill.

Long Essay on Computer 400 words

Computer essay 6 (400 words).

Invention of the computer has made many dreams come true even we cannot imagine our lives without computer. Generally computer a device used for many purposes like information storage, email, messaging, software programming, calculation, data processing and many more. Desktop computer need a CPU, an UPS, a keyboard and a mouse for well functioning however laptop does not need anything to add outside as it included with all inside. Computer is an electronic device having big memory which can save any data value. We are living in the advanced world of computer in the 21 st century.

Earlier the functioning of the old generation computer very limited but new generation computers are amazing with lots of functioning. Charles Babbage had invented the first mechanical computer which was totally different from the modern day computer. The aim of computer invention was to create a machine which can perform very fast mathematical calculations. During the World War II it used to locate and estimate the direction and speed of weapons of the enemies. Modern day computers are available with the artificial Intelligence technology to helps us in every sector of life.

New generation computer highly advanced means smaller, lighter, speedier and more powerful. Now a day, it is running in almost all walks of life like weather forecasting, guidance of spacecraft, examinations, education, shopping, traffic control, high level programming, automation in banks, railway ticket booking, playing games, medical sector, machinery operations, job opening, business also crime detection etc.

It is the backbone of the Information Technology including with the internet and proved that nothing is impossible today. If there are positive effects of the computer on the life of human being, it also negatively affected the human lives such as rise in the Cyber crime, pornographic websites can accessed by kids or younger and many more however using some preventive measures we can safe from its negative effects.

The whole human fraternity is becoming highly dependent on the computer technology; no one can imagine life without computer. As, it has spread its wings so deeply in every area and made people used of it. It is very beneficial for the students of any class. They can use it to prepare their projects, learn poems, read different stories, download notes for exam preparations, collect large information within seconds, learn about painting, drawing, etc. However it enhances the professional skills of the students and helps in getting job easily.

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Visit Infinity Learn (IL) for more study resources.

Frequently Asked Questions on Computer

What is the definition of a computer.

A computer is an electronic machine that can store, process, and retrieve information. It can do various tasks, like calculations, data storage, and connecting to the internet.

What are the 4 types of computer?

There are four main types of computers: desktop computers, laptop computers, tablet computers, and smartphones. Each type serves different purposes and comes in various sizes.

What is computer introduction?

A computer introduction is a brief explanation of what a computer is and what it can do. It's like an overview of how computers work and their importance in our lives.

What is computer 50 words?

A computer is a device that processes information using electronic circuits. It can perform tasks like calculations, storing data, and connecting to the internet. Computers come in various forms, from big desktops to small smartphones, and play a crucial role in our daily lives.

Who was the father of the computer?

The title father of the computer is often attributed to Charles Babbage. He designed a mechanical computer in the 19th century, known as the Analytical Engine, which laid the foundation for modern computers.

What is the function of RAM and ROM?

RAM (Random Access Memory) stores data that the computer is currently using, like running programs. ROM (Read-Only Memory) stores important instructions that help the computer start up and perform basic functions.

What are the 3 main parts of a computer?

The three main parts of a computer are the central processing unit (CPU), which does the computing, the memory (RAM and ROM), which stores data and instructions, and input/output devices like the keyboard, mouse, and monitor.

What are computer parts?

Computer parts are the components that make up a computer system. These include the CPU, memory, storage devices, input devices (like the keyboard and mouse), output devices (like the monitor and printer), and various internal circuits and connections. Each part plays a specific role in the computer's functioning.

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• Open access
• Published: 04 December 2018

The computer for the 21st century: present security & privacy challenges

• Leonardo B. Oliveira 1 ,
• Fernando Magno Quintão Pereira 2 ,
• Rafael Misoczki 3 ,
• Diego F. Aranha 4 ,
• Fábio Borges 5 ,
• Michele Nogueira 6 ,
• Michelle Wangham 7 ,
• Min Wu 8 &
• Jie Liu 9  

Journal of Internet Services and Applications volume  9 , Article number:  24 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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Decades went by since Mark Weiser published his influential work on the computer of the 21st century. Over the years, some of the UbiComp features presented in that paper have been gradually adopted by industry players in the technology market. While this technological evolution resulted in many benefits to our society, it has also posed, along the way, countless challenges that we have yet to surpass. In this paper, we address major challenges from areas that most afflict the UbiComp revolution:

Software Protection: weakly typed languages, polyglot software, and networked embedded systems.

Long-term Security: recent advances in cryptanalysis and quantum attacks.

Cryptography Engineering: lightweight cryptosystems and their secure implementation.

Resilience: issues related to service availability and the paramount role of resilience.

Identity Management: requirements to identity management with invisibility.

Privacy Implications: sensitivity data identification and regulation.

Forensics: trustworthy evidence from the synergy of digital and physical world.

We point out directions towards the solutions of those problems and claim that if we get all this right, we will turn the science fiction of UbiComp into science fact.

1 Introduction

In 1991, Mark Weiser described a vision of the Computer for the 21st Century [ 1 ]. Weiser, in his prophetic paper, argued the most far-reaching technologies are those that allow themselves to disappear, vanish into thin air. According to Weiser, this oblivion is a human – not a technological – phenomenon: “Whenever people learn something sufficiently well, they cease to be aware of it,” he claimed. This event is called “tacit dimension” or “compiling” and can be witnessed, for instance, when drivers react to street signs without consciously having to process the letters S-T-O-P [ 1 ].

A quarter of a century later, however, Weiser’s dream is far from becoming true. Over the years, many of his concepts regarding pervasive and ubiquitous computing (UbiComp) [ 2 , 3 ] have been materialized into what today we call Wireless Sensor Networks [ 4 , 5 ], Internet of Things [ 6 , 7 ], Wearables [ 8 , 9 ], and Cyber-Physical Systems [ 10 , 11 ]. The applications of these systems range from traffic accident and CO 2 emission monitoring to autonomous automobile and patient in-home care. Nevertheless, besides all their benefits, the advent of those systems per se have also brought about some drawbacks. And, unless we address them appropriately, the continuity of Weiser’s prophecy will be at stake.

UbiComp poses new drawbacks because, vis-à-vis traditional computing, it exhibits an entirely different outlook [ 12 ]. Computer systems in UbiComp, for instance, feature sensors, CPU, and actuators. Respectively, this means they can hear (or spy on) the user, process her/his data (and, possibly, find out something confidential about her/him), and respond to her/his actions (or, ultimately, expose she/he by revealing some secret). Those capabilities, in turn, make proposals for conventional computers ill-suited in the UbiComp setting and present new challenges.

In the above scenarios, some of the most critical challenges lie in the areas of Security and Privacy [ 13 ]. This is so because the market and users often pursue a system full of features at the expense of proper operation and protection; although, conversely, as computing elements pervade our daily lives, the demand for stronger security schemes becomes greater than ever. Notably, there is a dire need for a secure mechanism able to encompass all aspects and manifestations of UbiComp, across time as well as space, and in a seamless and efficient manner.

In this paper, we discuss contemporary security and privacy issues in the context of UbiComp (Fig.  1 ). We examine multiple research problems still open and point to promising approaches towards their solutions. More precisely, we investigate the following challenges and their ramifications.

Current security and privacy issues in UbiComp

Software protection in Section 2 : we study the impact of the adoption of weakly typed languages by resource-constrained devices and discuss mechanisms to mitigate this impact. We go over techniques to validate polyglot software (i.e., software based on multiple programming languages), and revisit promising methods to analyze networked embedded systems.

Long-term security in Section 3 : we examine the security of today’s widely used cryptosystems (e.g., RSA and ECC-based), present some of the latest threats (e.g., the advances in cryptanalysis and quantum attacks), and explore new directions and challenges to guarantee long-term security in the UbiComp setting.

Cryptography engineering in Section 4 : we restate the essential role of cryptography in safeguarding computers, discuss the status quo of lightweight cryptosystems and their secure implementation, and highlight challenges in key management protocols.

Resilience in Section 5 : we highlight issues related to service availability and we reinforce the importance of resilience in the context of UbiComp.

Identity Management in Section 6 : we examine the main requirements to promote identity management (IdM) in UbiComp systems to achieve invisibility, revisit the most used federated IdM protocols, and explore open questions, research opportunities to provide a proper IdM approach for pervasive computing.

Privacy implications in Section 7 : we explain why security is necessary but not sufficient to ensure privacy, go over important privacy-related issues (e.g., sensitivity data identification and regulation), and discuss some tools of the trade to fix those (e.g., privacy-preserving protocols based on homomorphic encryption).

Forensics in Section 8 we present the benefit of the synergistic use of physical and digital evidences to facilitate trustworthy operations of cyber systems.

We believe that only if we tackle these challenges right, we can turn the science fiction of UbiComp into science fact.

Particularly, we choose to address the areas above because they represent promising research directions e cover different aspects of UbiComp security and privacy.

2 Software protection

Modern UbiComp systems are rarely built from scratch. Components developed by different organizations, with different programming models and tools, and under different assumptions are integrated to offer complex capabilities. In this section, we analyze the software ecosystem that emerges from such a world. Figure  2 provides a high-level representation of this ecosystem. In the rest of this section, we shall focus specially on three aspects of this environment, which pose security challenges to developers: the security shortcomings of C and C++, the dominant programming languages among cyber-physical implementations; the interactions between these languages and other programming languages, and the consequences of these interactions on the distributed nature of UbiComp applications. We start by diving deeper into the idiosyncrasies of C and C++.

A UbiComp System is formed by modules implemented as a combination of different programming languages. This diversity poses challenges to software security

2.1 Type safety

A great deal of the software used in UbiComp systems is implemented in C or in C++. This fact is natural, given the unparalleled efficiency of these two programming languages. However, if, on the one hand, C and C++ yield efficient executables, on the other hand, their weak type system gives origin to a plethora of software vulnerabilities. In programming language’s argot, we say that a type system is weak when it does not support two key properties: progress and preservation [ 14 ]. The formal definitions of these properties are immaterial for the discussion that follows. It suffices to know that, as a consequence of weak typing, neither C, nor C++, ensure, for instance, bounded memory accesses. Therefore, programs written in these languages can access invalid memory positions. As an illustration of the dangers incurred by this possibility, it suffices to know that out-of-bounds access are the principle behind buffer overflow exploits.

The software security community has been developing different techniques to deal with the intrinsic vulnerabilities of C/C++/assembly software. Such techniques can be fully static, fully dynamic or a hybrid of both approaches. Static protection mechanisms are implemented at the compiler level; dynamic mechanisms are implemented at the runtime level. In the rest of this section, we list the most well-known elements in each category.

Static analyses provide a conservative estimate of the program behavior, without requiring the execution of such a program. This broad family of techniques includes, for instance, abstract interpretation [ 15 ], model checking [ 16 ] and guided proofs [ 17 ]. The main advantage of static analyses is the low runtime overhead, and its soundness: inferred properties are guaranteed to always hold true. However, static analyses have also disadvantages. In particular, most of the interesting properties of programs lay on undecidable land [ 18 ]. Furthermore, the verification of many formal properties, even though a decidable problem, incur a prohibitive computational cost [ 19 ].

Dynamic analyses come in several flavors: testing (KLEE [ 20 ]), profiling (Aprof [ 21 ], Gprof [ 22 ]), symbolic execution (DART [ 23 ]), emulation (Valgrind [ 24 ]), and binary instrumentation (Pin [ 25 ]). The virtues and limitations of dynamic analyses are exactly the opposite of those found in static techniques. Dynamic analyses usually do not raise false alarms: bugs are described by examples, which normally lead to consistent reproduction [ 26 ]. However, they are not required to always find security vulnerabilities in software. Furthermore, the runtime overhead of dynamic analyses still makes it prohibitive to deploy them into production software [ 27 ].

As a middle point, several research groups have proposed ways to combine static and dynamic analyses, producing different kinds of hybrid approaches to secure low-level code. This combination might yield security guarantees that are strictly more powerful than what could be obtained by either the static or the dynamic approaches, when used separately [ 28 ]. Nevertheless, negative results still hold: if an attacker can take control of the program, usually he or she can circumvent state-of-the-art hybrid protection mechanisms, such as control flow integrity [ 29 ]. This fact is, ultimately, a consequence of the weak type system adopted by languages normally seen in the implementation of UbiComp systems. Therefore, the design and deployment of techniques that can guard such programming languages, without compromising their efficiency to the point where they will no longer be adequate to UbiComp development, remains an open problem.

In spite of the difficulties of bringing formal methods to play a larger role in the design and implementation of programming languages, much has already been accomplished in this field. Testimony to this statement is the fact that today researchers are able to ensure the safety of entire operating system kernels, as demonstrated by Gerwin et al. [ 30 ], and to ensure that compilers meet the semantics of the languages that they process [ 31 ]. Nevertheless, it is reasonable to think that certain safety measures might come at the cost of performance and therefore we foresee that much of the effort of the research community in the coming years will be dedicated to making formal methods not only more powerful and expressive, but also more efficient to be used in practice.

2.2 Polyglot programming

Polyglot programming is the art and discipline of writing source code that involves two or more programming languages. It is common among implementations of cyber-physical systems. As an example, Ginga, the Brazilian protocol for digital TV, is mostly implemented in Lua and C [ 32 ]. Figure  3 shows an example of communication between a C and a Lua program. Other examples of interactions between programming languages include bindings between C and Python [ 33 ], C and Elixir [ 34 ] and the Java Native Interface [ 35 ]. Polyglot programming complicates the protection of systems. Difficulties arise due to a lack of multi-language tools and due to unchecked memory bindings between C/C++ and other languages.

Two-way communication between a C and a Lua program

An obstacle to the validation of polyglot software is the lack of tools that analyze source code written in different programming languages, under a unified framework. Returning to Fig.  3 , we have a system formed by two programs, written in different programming languages. Any tool that analyzes this system as a whole must be able to parse these two distinct syntaxes and infer the connection points between them. Work has been performed towards this end, but solutions are still very preliminary. As an example, Maas et al. [ 33 ] have implemented automatic ways to check if C arrays are correctly read by Python programs. As another example, Furr and Foster [ 36 ] have described techniques to ensure type-safety of OCaml-to-C and Java-to-C bindings.

A promising direction to analyze polyglot systems is based on the idea of compilation of source code partially available. This feat consists in the reconstruction of the missing syntax and the missing declarations necessary to produce a minimal version of the original program that can be analyzed by typical tools. The analysis of code partially available makes it possible to test parts of a polyglot program in separate, in a way to produce a cohesive view of the entire system. This technique has been demonstrated to yield analyzable Java source code [ 37 ], and compilable C code [ 38 ]. Notice that this type of reconstruction is not restricted to high-level programming languages. Testimony of this fact is the notion of micro execution , introduced by Patrice Godefroid [ 39 ]. Godefroid’s tool allows the testing of x86 binaries, even when object files are missing. Nevertheless, in spite of these developments, the reconstruction is still restricted to the static semantics of programs. The synthesis of behavior is a thriving discipline in computer science [ 40 ], but still far away from enabling the certification of polyglot systems.

2.3 Distributed programming

Ubiquitous computing systems tend to be distributed. It is even difficult to conceive any use for an application in this world that does not interact with other programs. And it is common knowledge that distributed programming opens up several doors to malicious users. Therefore, to make cyber-physical technology safer, security tools must be aware of the distributed nature of such systems. Yet, two main challenges stand in front of this requirement: the difficulty to build a holistic view of the distributed application, and the lack of semantic information bound to messages exchanged between processes that communicate through a network.

To be accurate, the analysis of a distributed system needs to account for the interactions between the several program parts that constitute this system [ 41 ]. Discovering such interactions is difficult, even if we restrict ourselves to code written in a single programming language. Difficulties stem from a lack of semantic information associated with operations that send and receive messages. In other words, such operations are defined as part of a library, not as part of the programming language itself. Notwithstanding this fact, there are several techniques that infer communication channels between different pieces of source code. As examples, we have the algorithms of Greg Bronevetsky [ 42 ], and Teixeira et al. [ 43 ], which build a distributed view of a program’s control flow graph (CFG). Classic static analyses work without further modification on this distributed CFG. However, the distributed CFG is still a conservative approximation of the program behavior. Thus, it forces already imprecise static analyses to deal with communication channels that might never exist during the execution of the program. The rising popularization of actor-based libraries, like those available in languages such as Elixir [ 34 ] and Scala [ 44 ] is likely to mitigate the channel-inference problem. In the actor model channels are explicit in the messages exchanged between the different processing elements that constitute a distributed system. Nevertheless, if such model will be widely adopted by the IoT community is still a fact to be seen.

Tools that perform automatic analyses in programs rely on static information to produce more precise results. In this sense, types are core for the understanding of software. For instance, in Java and other object-oriented languages, the type of objects determines how information flows along the program code. However, despite this importance, messages exchanged in the vast majority of distributed systems are not typed. Reason for this is the fact that such messages, at least in C, C++ and assembly software, are arrays of bytes. There have been two major efforts to mitigate this problem: the addition of messages as first class values to programming languages, and the implementation of points-to analyses able to deal with pointer arithmetics in languages that lack such feature. Concerning the first front, several programming languages, such as Scala, Erlang and Elixir, incorporate messages as basic constructs, providing developers with very expressive ways to implement the actor model [ 45 ] – a core foundation of distributed programming. Even though the construction of programming abstractions around the actor model is not a new idea [ 45 ], their raising popularity seems to be a phenomenon of the 2000’s, boosted by increasingly more expressive abstractions [ 46 ] and increasingly more efficient implementations [ 47 ]. In the second front, researchers have devised analyses that infer the contents [ 48 ] and the size of arrays [ 49 ] in weakly-typed programming languages. More importantly, recent years have seen a new flurry of algorithms designed to analyze C/C++ style pointer arithmetics [ 50 – 53 ]. The wide adoption of higher-level programming languages coupled with the construction of new tools to analyze lower-level languages is exciting. This trend seems to indicate that the programming languages community is dedicating each time more attention to the task of implementing safer distributed software. Therefore, even though the design of tools able to analyze the very fabric of UbiComp still poses several challenges to researchers, we can look to the future with optimism.

3 Long-term security

Various UbiComp systems are designed to withstand a lifespan of many years, even decades [ 54 , 55 ]. Systems in the context of critical infrastructure, for example, often require an enormous financial investment to be designed and deployed in the field [ 56 ], and therefore would offer a better return on investment if they remain in use for a longer period of time. The automotive area is a field of particular interest. Vehicles are expected to be reliable for decades [ 57 ], and renewing vehicle fleets or updating features ( recalls ) increase costs for their owners. Note that modern vehicles are part of the UbiComp ecosystem as they are equipped with embedded devices with Internet connectivity. In the future, it is expected that vehicles will depend even more on data collected and shared across other vehicles/infrastructure through wireless technologies [ 58 ] in order to enable enriched driving experiences such as autonomous driving [ 59 ].

It is also worth mentioning that systems designed to endure a lifespan of several years or decades might suffer from lack of future maintenance. The competition among players able to innovate is very aggressive leading to a high rate of companies going out of business within a few years [ 60 ]. A world inundate by devices without proper maintenance will offer serious future challenges [ 61 ].

From the few aforementioned examples, it is already evident that there is an increasing need for UbiComp systems to be reliable for a longer period of time and, whenever possible, requiring as few updates as possible. These requirements have a direct impact on the security features of such systems: comparatively speaking, they would offer fewer opportunities for patching eventual security breaches than conventional systems. This is a critical situation given the intense and dynamic progresses on devising and exploiting new security breaches. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to understand what the scientific challenges are to ensure long-term security from the early stage of the design of an UbiComp system, instead of resorting to palliative measures a posteriori.

3.1 Cryptography as the core component

Ensuring long-term security is a quite challenging task for any system, not only for UbiComp systems. At a minimum, it requires that every single security component is future-proof by itself and also when connected to other components. To simplify this excessively large attack surface and still be able to provide helpful recommendations, we will focus our attention on the main ingredient of most security mechanisms, as highlighted in Section 4 , i.e. Cryptography.

There are numerous types of cryptographic techniques. The most traditional ones rely on the hardness of computational problems such as integer factorization [ 62 ] and discrete logarithm problems [ 63 , 64 ]. These problems are believed to be intractable by current cryptanalysis techniques and the available technological resources. Because of that, cryptographers were able to build secure instantiation of cryptosystems based on such computational problems. For various reasons (to be discussed in the following sections), however, the future-proof condition of such schemes is at stake.

3.2 Advancements in classical cryptanalysis

The first threat for the future-proof condition of any cryptosystem refers to potential advancements on cryptanalysis, i.e., on techniques aiming at solving the underlying security problem in a more efficient way (with less processing time, memory, etc.) than originally predicted. Widely-deployed schemes have a long track of academic and industrial scrutiny and therefore one would expect little or no progress on the cryptanalysis techniques targeting such schemes. Yet, the literature has recently shown some interesting and unexpected results that may suggest the opposite.

In [ 65 ], for example, Barbulescu et al. introduced a new quasi-polynomial algorithm to solve the discrete logarithm problem in finite fields of small characteristics. The discrete logarithm problem is the underlying security problem of the Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange [ 66 ], the Digital Signature Algorithm [ 67 ] and their elliptic curve variants (ECDH [ 68 ] and ECDSA [ 67 ], respectively), just to mention a few widely-deployed cryptosystems. This cryptanalytic result is restricted to finite fields of small characteristics, something that represents an important limitation to attack real-world implementations of the aforementioned schemes. However, any sub-exponential algorithm that solves a longstanding problem should be seen as a relevant indication that the cryptanalysis literature might still be subject to eventual breakthroughs.

This situation should be considered by architects designing UbiComp systems that have long-term security as a requirement. Implementations that support various (i.e. higher than usual) security levels are preferred when compared to fixed, single key size support. The same approach used for keys should be used to other quantities in the scheme that somehow impact on its overall security. In this way, UbiComp systems would be able to consciously accommodate future cryptanalytic advancements or, at the very least, reduce the costs for security upgrades.

3.3 Future disruption due to quantum attacks

Quantum computers are expected to offer dramatic speedups to solve certain computational problems, as foreseen by Daniel R. Simon in his seminal paper on quantum algorithms [ 69 ]. Some of these speedups may enable significant advancements to technologies currently limited by its algorithmic inefficiency [ 70 ]. On the other hand, to our misfortune, some of the affected computational problems are the ones currently being used to secure widely-deployed cryptosystems.

As an example, Lov K. Grover introduced a quantum algorithm [ 71 ] able to find an element in the domain of a function (of size N ) which leads, with high probability, to a desired output in only \(O(\sqrt {N})\) steps. This algorithm can be used to speed up the cryptanalysis of symmetric cryptography. Block ciphers of n bits keys, for example, would offer only n /2 bits of security against a quantum adversary. Hash functions would be affected in ways that depend on the expected security property. In more details, hash functions of n bits digests would offer only n /3 bits of security against collision attacks and n /2 bits of security against pre-image attacks. Table  1 summarizes this assessment. In this context, AES-128 and SHA-256 (collision-resistance) would not meet the minimum acceptable security level of 128-bits (of quantum security). Note that both block ciphers and hash function constructions will still remain secure if longer keys and digest sizes are employed. However, this would lead to important performance challenges. AES-256, for example, is about 40% less efficient than AES-128 (due to the 14 rounds, instead of 10).

Even more critical than the scenario for symmetric cryptography, quantum computers will offer an exponential speedup to attack most of the widely-deployed public-key cryptosystems. This is due to Peter Shor’s algorithm [ 72 ] which can efficiently factor large integers and compute the discrete logarithm of an element in large groups in polynomial time. The impact of this work will be devastating to RSA and ECC-based schemes as increasing the key sizes would not suffice: they will need to be completely replaced.

In the field of quantum resistant public-key cryptosystems, i.e. alternative public key schemes that can withstand quantum attacks, several challenges need to be addressed. The first one refers to establishing a consensus in both academia and industry on how to defeat quantum attacks. In particular, there are two main techniques considered as capable to withstand quantum attacks, namely: post-quantum cryptography (PQC) and quantum cryptography (QC). The former is based on different computational problems believed to be so hard that not even quantum computers would be able to tackle them. One important benefit of PQC schemes is that they can be implemented and deployed in the computers currently available [ 73 – 77 ]. The latter (QC) depends on the existence and deployment of a quantum infrastructure, and is restricted to key-exchange purposes [ 78 ]. The limited capabilities and the very high costs for deploying quantum infrastructure should eventually lead to a consensus towards the post-quantum cryptography trend.

There are several PQC schemes available in the literature. Hash-Based Signatures (HBS), for example, are the most accredited solutions for digital signatures. The most modern constructions [ 76 , 77 ] represent improvements of the Merkle signature scheme [ 74 ]. One important benefit of HBS is that their security relies solely on certain well-known properties of hash functions (thus they are secure against quantum attacks, assuming appropriate digest sizes are used). Regarding other security features, such as key exchange and asymmetric encryption, the academic and industry communities have not reached a consensus yet, although both code-based and lattice-based cryptography literatures have already presented promising schemes [ 79 – 85 ]. Isogeny-based cryptography [ 86 ] is a much more recent approach that enjoys certain practical benefits (such as fairly small public key sizes [ 87 , 88 ]) although it has just started to benefit from a more comprehensive understanding of its cryptanalysis properties [ 89 ]. Regarding standardization efforts, NIST has recently started a Standardization Process on Post-Quantum Cryptography schemes [ 90 ] which should take at least a few more years to be concluded. The current absence of standards represents an important challenge. In particular, future interoperability problems might arise.

Finally, another challenge in the context of post-quantum public-key cryptosystems refers to potentially new implementation requirements or constraints. As mentioned before, hash-based signatures are very promising post-quantum candidates (given efficiency and security related to hash functions) but also lead to a new set of implementation challenges, such as the task of keeping the scheme state secure. In more details, most HBS schemes have private-keys (their state ) that evolve along the time. If rigid state management policies are not in place, a signer can re-utilize the same private-key twice, something that would void the security guarantees offered by the scheme. Recently, initial works to address these new implementation challenges have appeared in the literature [ 91 ]. A recently introduced HBS construction [ 92 ] showed how to get rid of the state management issue at the price of much larger signatures. These examples indicate potentially new implementation challenges for PQC schemes that must be addressed by UbiComp systems architects.

4 Cryptographic engineering

UbiComp systems involve building blocks of very different natures: hardware components such as sensors and actuators, embedded software implementing communication protocols and interface with cloud providers, and ultimately operational procedures and other human factors. As a result, pervasive systems have a large attack surface that must be protected using a combination of techniques.

Cryptography is a fundamental part of any modern computing system, but unlikely to be the weakest component in its attack surface. Networking protocols, input parsing routines and even interface code with cryptographic mechanisms are components much more likely to be vulnerable to exploitation. However, a successful attack on cryptographic security properties is usually disastrous due to the risk concentrated in cryptographic primitives. For example, violations of confidentiality may cause massive data breaches involving sensitive information. Adversarial interference on communication integrity may allow command injection attacks that deviate from the specified behavior. Availability is crucial to keep the system accessible by legitimate users and to guarantee continuous service provisioning, thus cryptographic mechanisms must also be lightweight to minimize potential for abuse by attackers.

Physical access by adversaries to portions of the attack surface is a particularly challenging aspect of deploying cryptography in UbiComp systems. By assumption, adversaries can recover long-term secrets and credentials that provide some control over a (hopefully small) portion of the system. Below we will explore some of the main challenges in deploying cryptographic mechanisms for pervasive systems, including how to manage keys and realize efficient and secure implementation of cryptography.

4.1 Key management

UbiComp systems are by definition heterogeneous platforms, connecting devices of massively different computation and storage power. Designing a cryptographic architecture for any heterogeneous system requires assigning clearly defined roles and corresponding security properties for the tasks under responsibility of each entity in the system. Resource-constrained devices should receive less computationally intensive tasks, and their lack of tamper-resistance protections indicate that long-term secrets should not reside in these devices. More critical tasks involving expensive public-key cryptography should be delegated to more powerful nodes. A careful trade-off between security properties, functionality and cryptographic primitives must then be addressed per device or class of devices [ 93 ], following a set of guidelines for pervasive systems:

Functionality: key management protocols must manage lifetime of cryptographic keys and ensure accessibility to the currently authorized users, but handling key management and authorization separately may increase complexity and vulnerabilities. A promising way of combining the two services into a cryptographically-enforced access control framework is attribute-based encryption [ 94 , 95 ], where keys have sets of capabilities and attributes that can be authorized and revoked on demand.

Communication: components should minimize the amount of communication, at risk of being unable to operate if communication is disrupted. Non-interactive approaches for key distribution [ 96 ] are recommended here, but advanced protocols based on bilinear pairings should be avoided due to recent advances on solving the discrete log problem (in the so called medium prime case [ 97 ]). These advances forcedly increase the parameter sizes, reduce performance/scalability and may be improved further, favoring more traditional forms of asymmetric cryptography.

Efficiency: protocols should be lightweight and easy to implement, mandating that traditional public key infrastructures (PKIs) and expensive certificate handling operations are restricted to the more powerful and connected nodes in the architecture. Alternative models supporting implicit certification include identity-based [ 98 ] (IBC) and certificate-less cryptography [ 99 ] (CLPKC), the former implying inherent key escrow. The difficulties with key revocation still impose obstacles for their wide adoption, despite progress [ 100 ]. A lightweight pairing and escrow-less authenticated key agreement based on an efficient key exchange protocol and implicit certificates combines the advantages of the two approaches, providing high performance while saving bandwidth [ 101 ].

Interoperability: pervasive systems are composed of components originating from different manufacturers. Supporting a cross-domain authentication and authorization framework is crucial for interoperability [ 102 ].

Cryptographic primitives involved in joint functionality must then be compatible with all endpoints and respect the constraints of the less powerful devices.

4.2 Lightweight cryptography

The emergence of huge collections of interconnected devices in UbiComp motivate the development of novel cryptographic primitives, under the moniker lightweight cryptography . The term lightweight does not imply weaker cryptography, but application-tailored cryptography that is especially designed to be efficient in terms of resource consumption such as processor cycles, energy and memory footprint [ 103 ]. Lightweight designs aim to target common security requirements for cryptography but may adopt less conservative choices or more recent building blocks.

As a first example, many new block ciphers were proposed as lightweight alternatives to the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) [ 104 ]. Important constructions are LS-Designs [ 105 ], modern ARX and Feistel networks [ 106 ], and substitution-permutation networks [ 107 , 108 ]. A notable candidate is the PRESENT block cipher, with a 10-year maturity of resisting cryptanalytic attempts [ 109 ], and whose performance recently became competitive in software [ 110 ].

In the case of hash functions, a design may even trade-off advanced security properties (such as collision resistance) for simplicity in some scenarios. A clear case is the construction of short Message Authentication Codes (MAC) from non-collision resistant hash functions, such as in SipHash [ 111 ], or digital signatures from short-input hash functions [ 112 ]. In conventional applications, BLAKE2 [ 113 ] is a stronger drop-in replacement to recently cryptanalyzed standards [ 114 ] and faster in software than the recently published SHA-3 standard [ 115 ].

Another trend is to provide confidentiality and authentication in a single step, through Authenticated Encryption with Associated Data (AEAD). This can be implemented with a block cipher operation mode (like GCM [ 116 ]) or a dedicated design. The CAESAR competition Footnote 1 selected new AEAD algorithms for standardization across multiple use cases, such as lightweight and high-performance applications and a defense-in-depth setting. NIST has followed through and started its own standardization process for lightweight AEAD algorithms and hash functions Footnote 2 .

In terms of public-key cryptography, Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) [ 63 , 117 ] continues to be the main contender in the space against factoring-based cryptosystems [ 62 ], due to an underlying problem conjectured to be fully exponential in classical computers. Modern instantiations of ECC enjoy high performance and implementation simplicity and are very suited for embedded systems [ 118 – 120 ]. The dominance of number-theoretic primitives is however threatened by quantum computers as described in Section 3 .

The plethora of new primitives must be rigorously evaluated from both the security and performance point of views, involving both theoretical work and engineering aspects. Implementations are expected to consume smaller amounts of energy [ 121 ], cycles and memory [ 122 ] in ever decreasing devices and under more invasive attacks.

4.3 Side-channel resistance

If implemented without care, an otherwise secure cryptographic algorithm or protocol can leak critical information which may be useful to an attacker. Side-channel attacks [ 123 ] are a significant threat against cryptography and may use timing information, cache latency, power and electromagnetic emanations to recover secret material. These attacks emerge from the interaction between the implementation and underlying computer architecture and represent an intrinsic security problem to pervasive computing environments, since the attacker is assumed to have physical access to at least some of the legitimate devices.

Protecting against intrusive side-channel attacks is a challenging research problem, and countermeasures typically promote some degree of regularity in computation. Isochronous or constant time implementations were among the first strategies to tackle this problem in the case of variances in execution time or latency in the memory hierarchy. The application of formal methods has enabled the first tools to verify isochronicity of implementations, such as information flow analysis [ 124 ] and program transformations [ 125 ].

While there is a recent trend towards constructing and standardizing cryptographic algorithms with some embedded resistance against the simpler timing and power analysis attacks [ 105 ], more powerful attacks such as differential power analysis [ 126 ] or fault attacks [ 127 ] are very hard to prevent or mitigate. Fault injection became a much more powerful attack methodology it was after demonstrated in software [ 128 ].

Masking techniques [ 129 ] are frequently investigated as a countermeasure to decorrelate leaked information from secret data, but frequently require robust entropy sources to achieve their goal. Randomness recycling techniques have been useful as a heuristic, but formal security analysis of such approaches is an open problem [ 130 ]. Modifications in the underlying architecture in terms of instruction set extensions, simplified execution environments and transactional mechanisms for restarting faulty computation are another promising research direction but may involve radical and possibly cost-prohibitive changes to current hardware.

5 Resilience

UbiComp relies on essential services as connectivity, routing and end-to-end communication. Advances in those essential services make possible the envisioned Weiser’s pervasive applications, which can count on transparent communication while reaching the expectations and requirements of final users in their daily activities. Among user’s expectations and requirements, the availability of services – not only communication services, but all services provided to users by UbiComp – is a paramount. Users more and more expect, and pay, for 24/7 available services. This is even more relevant when we think about critical UbiComp systems, such as those related to healthcare, urgency, and vehicular embedded systems.

Resilience is highlighted in this article, because it is one of the pillars of security. Resilience aims at identifying, preventing, detecting and responding to process or technological failures to recover or mitigate damages and financial losses resulted from service unavailability [ 131 ]. In general, service unavailability has been associated with non-intentional failures, however, more and more the intentional exploitation of service availability breaches is becoming disruptive and out of control, as seen in the latest Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack against the company DYN, a leading DNS provider, and the DDoS attack against the company OVH, the French website hosting giant [ 132 , 133 ]. The latter reached an intense volume of malicious traffic of approximately 1 TB/s, generated from a large amount of geographically distributed and infected devices, such as printers, IP cameras, residential gateways and baby monitors. Those devices are directly related to the modern concept of UbiComp systems [ 134 ] and they intend to provide ubiquitous services to users.

However, what attracts the most the attention here is the negative side effect of the ubiquity exploitation against service availability. It is fact today that the Mark Weiser’s idea of Computer for the 21st Century has open doors to new kind of highly disruptive attacks. Those attacks are in general based on the idea of invisibility and unawareness for the devices in our homes, works, cities, and countries. But, exactly because of this, people seems to not pay enough attention to basic practices, such as change default passwords in Internet connect devices as CCTV cameras, baby monitors, smart TVs and other. This simple fact has been pointed as the main cause of the two DDoS attacks mentioned before and a report by global professional services company Deloitte suggests that Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks, that compromise exactly service availability, increased in size and scale in 2017, thanks in part to the growing multiverse of connected things Footnote 3 . They also mentioned that DDoS attacks will be more frequent, with an estimated 10 million attacks in few months.

As there is no guarantee to completely avoid these attacks, resilient solutions become a way to mitigate damages and quickly resume the availability of services. Resilience is then necessary and complementary to the other solutions we observe in the previous sections of this article. Hence, this section focuses on highlighting the importance of resilience in the context of UbiComp systems. We overview the state-of-the-art regarding to resilience in the UbiComp systems and point out future directions for research and innovation [ 135 – 138 ]. We also understand that resilience in these systems still requires a lot of investigations, however we believe that it was our role to raise this point to discussion through this article.

In order to contextualize resilience in the scope of UbiComp, it is important to observe that improvements on information and communication technologies, such as wireless networking, have increased the use of distributed systems in our everyday lives. Network access is becoming ubiquitous through portable devices and wireless communications, making people more and more dependent on them. This raising dependence claims for simultaneous high level of reliability and availability. The current networks are composed of heterogeneous portable devices, communicating among themselves generally in a wireless multi-hop manner [ 139 ]. These wireless networks can autonomously adapt to changes in their environment such as device position, traffic pattern and interference. Each device can dynamically reconfigure its topology, coverage and channel allocation in accordance with changes.

UbiComp poses nontrivial challenges to resilience design due to the characteristics of the current networks, such as shared wireless medium, highly dynamic network topology, multi-hop communication and low physical protection of portable devices [ 140 , 141 ]. Moreover, the absence of central entities in different scenarios increases the complexity of resilience management, particularly, when it is associated with access control, node authentication and cryptographic key distribution.

Network characteristics, as well as constraints on other kind of solutions against attacks that disrupt service availability, reinforce the fact that no network is totally immune to attacks and intrusions. Therefore, new approaches are required to promote the availability of network services. Such requirements motivate the design of resilient network services. In this work, we focus on the delivery of data from one UbiComp device to another as a fundamental network functionality and we emphasize three essential services: physical and link-layer connectivity, routing and end-to-end logical communication. However, resilience has also been observed under other perspectives. We follow the claim that resilience is achieved upon a cross-layer security solution that integrates preventive (i.e., cryptography and access control), reactive (i.e., intrusion detection systems) and tolerant (i.e., packet redundancy) defense lines in a self-adaptive and coordinated way [ 131 , 142 ].

However, what are still the open challenges to achieve resilience in the UbiComp context? First of all, we emphasize the heterogeneity of devices and technologies that compose UbiComp environments. The integration from large-scale systems, such as Cloud data centers, to tiny devices, such as wearable and implantable sensors, is a huge challenge itself due to the complexity resulted from it. Then, in addition, providing integration of preventive, reactive and tolerant solutions and their adaptation is even harder in face of the different requirements of these devices, their capabilities in terms of memory and processing, and application requirements. Further, dealing with heterogeneity in terms of communication technology and protocols makes challenging the analysis of network behavior and topologies, what in conventional systems are employed to assist in the design of resilient solutions.

Another challenge is how to deal with scale. First, the UbiComp systems tend to be hyper-scale and geographically distributed. How to cope, then, with the complexity resulted from that? How to define and construct models to understand these systems and offer resilient services? Finally, we also point out as challenges the uncertainty and speed. If on the one hand, it is so hard to model, analyze and define resilient services in this complex system, on the other hand uncertainly is a norm on them, being speed and low response time a strong requirement for the applications in these systems. Hence, how to address all these elements together? How to manage them in order to offer resilient services considering diverse kind of requirements from the various applications?

All these questions lead to deep investigation and challenges. However, they also show opportunities for applied research in designing and engineering resilient systems, mainly for the UbiComp context. Particularly, if we advocate for designing resilient systems that manage the three defense lines in an adaptive way. We believe that this management can promote a great advance for applied research and for resilience.

6 Identity management

Authentication and Authorization Infrastructure (AAI) is the central element for providing security in distributed applications. AAI is a way to fulfill the security requirements in UbiComp systems. It is possible to provide identity management with this infrastructure to prevent legitimate or illegitimate users/devices to access non-authorized resources. IdM can be defined as a set of processes, technologies and policies used for assurance of identity information (e.g., identifiers, credentials, attributes), assurance of the identity of an entity (e.g., users, devices, systems), and enabling businesses and security applications [ 143 ]. Thus, IdM allows these identities to be used for authentication, authorization and auditing mechanisms [ 144 ]. A proper identity management approach is necessary for pervasive computing to be invisible to users [ 145 ]. Figure  4 provides an overview of the topics discussed in this section.

Pervasive IdM Challenges

According to [ 143 ], electronic identity (eID) comprises a set of data about an entity that is sufficient to identify that entity in a particular digital context. An eID may be comprised of:

Identifier - a series of digits, characters and symbols or any other form of data used to uniquely identify an entity (e.g., UserID, e-mail addresses, URI and IP addresses). IoT requires a global unique identifier for each entity in the network;

Credentials - an identifiable object that can be used to authenticate the claimant (e.g., digital certificates, keys, tokens and biometrics);

Attributes - descriptive information bound to an entity that specifies its characteristics.

In UbiComp systems, identity has both a digital and a physical component. Some entities might have only an online or physical representation, whereas others might have a presence in both planes. IdM requires relationships not only between entities in the same planes but also across them [ 145 ].

6.1 Identity management system

An IdM system deals with the lifecycle of an identity, which consists of registration, storage, retrieval, provisioning and revocation of identity attributes [ 146 ]. Note that the management of devices’ identify lifecycle is more complicated than people’s identity lifecycle due to the complexity of operational phases of a device (i.e., from the manufacturing to the removed and re-commissioned) in the context of a given application or use case [ 102 , 147 ].

For example, consider a given device life-cycle. In the pre-deployment, some cryptographic material is loaded into the device during its manufacturing process. Next, the owner of the device purchases it and gets a PIN that grants the owner the initial access to the device. The device is later installed and commissioned within a network by an installer during the bootstrapping phase. The device identity and the secret keys used during normal operation are provided to the device during this phase. After being bootstrapped, the device is in operational mode. During this operational phase, the device will need to prove its identity (D2D communication) and to control the access to its resources/data. For devices with lifetimes spanning several years, maintenance cycles should be required. During each maintenance phase, the software on the device can be upgraded, or applications (running on the device) can be reconfigured. The device continues to loop through the operational phase until the device is decommissioned at the end of its lifecycle. Furthermore, the device can also be removed and re-commissioned to be used in a different system under a different owner thereby starting the lifecycle all over again. During this phase, the cryptographic material held by the device is wiped, and the owner is unbound from the device [ 147 ].

An IdM system involves two main entities: identity provider (IdP - responsible for authentication and user/device information management in a domain) and service provider (SP - also known as relying party, which provides services to user/device based on their attributes). The arrangement of these entities in an IdM system and the way in which they interact with each other characterize the IdM models, which can be traditional (isolated or silo), centralized, federated or user-centric [ 146 ].

In traditional model, IdP and SP are grouped into a single entity whose role is to authenticate and control access to their users or devices without relying on any other entity. In this model, the providers do not have any mechanisms to share this identity information with other organizations/entities. This makes the identity provisioning cumbersome for the end user or device, since the users and devices need to proliferate their sensitive data to different providers [ 146 , 148 ].

The centralized model emerged as a possible solution to avoid the redundancies and inconsistencies in the traditional model and to give the user/device a seamless experience. Here, a central IdP became responsible for collecting and provisioning the user’s or device’s identity information in a manner that enforced the preferences of the user/device. The centralized model allows the sharing of identities among SPs and provides Single Sign-On (SSO). This model has several drawbacks as the IdP not only becomes a single point of failure but also may not be trusted by all users, devices and service providers [ 146 ]. In addition, a centralized IdP must provide different mechanisms to authenticate either users or autonomous devices to be adequate with UbiComp system requirements [ 149 ].

UbiComp systems are composed of heterogeneous devices that need to prove their authenticity to the entities they communicate with. One of the problems in this scenario is the possibility of devices being located in different security domains using distinct authentication mechanisms. An approach for providing IdM in a scenario with multiple security domains is through an AAI that uses the federated IdM model (FIM) [ 150 , 151 ]. In a federation, trust relationships are established among IdPs and SPs to enable the exchange of identity information and service sharing. Existing trust relationships guarantee that users/devices authenticated in home IdP may access protected resources provided by SPs from other federation security domains [ 148 ]. Single Sign-On (SSO) is obtained when the same authentication event can be used to access different federated services [ 146 ].

Considering the user authentication perspective, the negative points of the centralized and federated models focus primarily on the IdP, as it has full control over the user’s data [ 148 ]. Besides, the user depends on an online IdP to provide the required credentials. In the federated model, users cannot guarantee that their information will not be disclosed to third parties without the users’ consent [ 146 ].

The user-centric model provides the user full control over transactions involving his or her identity data [ 148 ]. In the user-centric model, the user identity can be stored on a Personal Authentication Device, such as, a smartphone or a smartcard. Users have the freedom to choose the IdPs which will be used and to control the personal information disclosed to SPs. In this model, the IdPs continue acting as a trusted third party between users and SPs. However, IdPs act according to the user’s preferences [ 152 ]. The major drawback of the user-centric model is that it is not able to handle delegations. Several solutions that adopted this model combine it with FIM or centralized model, however, novel solutions prefer federated model.

6.1.1 Authentication

User and device authentication within an integrated authentication infrastructure (IdP is responsible for user and device authentication) might use a centralized IdM model [ 149 , 153 ] or a traditional model [ 154 ]. Other works [ 155 – 157 ] proposed AAIs for IoT using the federated model, however, only for user authentication and not for device authentication. Kim et al. [ 158 ] proposes a centralized solution that enables the use of different authentication mechanisms for devices that are chosen based on device energy autonomy. However, user authentication is not provided.

Based on the traditional model, an AAI composed by a suite of protocols that incorporate authentication and access control during the entire IoT device lifecycle is proposed in [ 102 ]. Domenech et al. [ 151 ] proposes an AAI for the Web of Things, which is based on the federated IdM model (FIM) and enables SSO for users and devices. In this AAI, IdPs may be implemented as a service in a Cloud (IdPaaS - Identity Provider as a Service) or on premise. Some IoT platforms provide IdPaaS to user and device authentication such as Amazon Web Services (AWS) IoT, Microsoft Azure IoT, Google Cloud IoT platform.

Authentication mechanisms and protocols consume computational resources. Thus, to integrate an AAI into a resource constrained embedded device can be a challenge. As mentioned in Section 4.2 , a set of lightweight cryptographic algorithms, which do not impose certificate-related overheads on devices, can be used to provide device authentication in UbiComp systems. There is a recent trend that investigates the benefits of using identity-based (IBC) cryptography to provide cross-domain authentication for constrained devices [ 102 , 151 , 159 ]. However, some IoT platforms still provide certificate-based device authentication such as Azure IoT, WSO2 or per-device public/private key authentication (RSA and Elliptic Curve algorithms) using JSON Web Tokens such as Google Cloud IoT Platform and WSO2.

Identity theft is the fastest growing crime in recent years. Currently, password-based credentials are the most used by user authentication mechanisms, despite of their weaknesses [ 160 ]. There are multiple opportunities for impersonation and other attacks that fraudulently claim another subject’s identity [ 161 ]. Multi-factor authentication (MFA) is a solution created to improve the authentication process robustness and it generally combines two or more authentication factors ( something you know , something you have , and something you are ) for successful authentication [ 161 ]. In this type of authentication, an attacker needs to compromise two or more factors which makes the task more complex. Several IdPs and SPs already offer MFA to authenticate its users, however, device authentication is still an open question.

6.1.2 Authorization

In UbiComp system, a security domain can have client devices and SPs devices (SP embedded). In this context, physical devices and online providers can offer services. Devices join and leave, SPs appear and disappear, and access control must adapt itself to maintain the user perception of being continuously and automatically authenticated [ 145 ]. The data access control provided by AAI embedded in the device is also a significant requirement. Since these devices are cyber-physical systems (CPS), a security threat against these can likely impact the physical world. Thus, if a device is improperly accessed, there is a chance that this violation will affect the physical world risking people’s well-being and even their lives [ 151 ].

Physical access control systems (PACS) provide access control to physical resources, such as buildings, offices or any other protected areas. Current commercial PACS are based on traditional IdM model and usually use low-cost devices such as smart cards. However, there is a trend to threat PACS as a (IT) service, i.e. unified physical and digital access [ 162 ]. Considering IoT scenarios, the translation of SSO authentication credentials for PACS across multiple domains (in a federation), is also a challenge due to interoperability, assurance and privacy concerns.

In the context of IoT, authorization mechanisms are based on access control models used in classic Internet such as Discretionary model, for example Access Control List (ACL) [ 163 ]), Capability Based Access Control (CapBAC) [ 164 , 165 ], Role Based Access Control (RBAC) [ 156 , 166 , 167 ] and Attribute Based Access Control (ABAC) [ 102 , 168 , 169 ]. ABAC and RBAC are the models better aligned to federated IdM and UbiComp systems. As proposed in [ 151 ], an IdM system that supports different access control models, such as RBAC and ABAC, can more easily adapt to the needs of the administration processes in the context of UbiComp.

Regarding policy management models to access devices, there are two approaches: provisioning [ 151 , 170 ] and outsourcing [ 150 , 151 , 171 , 172 ]. In provisioning, the device is responsible for the authorization decision making, which requires the policy to be in a local base. In this approach, Policy Enforcement Point (PEP), which controls the access to the device, and Policy Decision Point (PDP) are both in the same device. In outsourcing, the decision making takes place outside the device, in a centralized external service, that replies to all policy evaluation requests from all devices (PEPs) of a domain. In this case, the decision making can be offered as a service (PDPaaS) in the cloud or on premise [ 151 ].

For constrained devices, the provisioning approach is robust since it does not depend on an external service. However, in this approach, the decision making and the access policy management can be costly for the device. The outsourcing approach simplifies the policy management, but it has communication overhead and single point of failure (centralized PDP).

6.2 Federated identity management system

The IdM models guide the construction of policies and business processes for IdM systems but do not indicate which protocols or technologies should be adopted. SAML (Security Assertion Markup Language) [ 173 ], OAuth2 [ 174 ] and OpenId Connect specifications stand out in the federated IdM context [ 175 , 176 ] and are adequate for UbiComp systems. SAML, developed by OASIS, is an XML-based framework for describing and exchanging security information between business partners. It defines syntax and rules for requesting, creating, communicating and using SAML Assertions, which enables SSO across domain boundaries. Besides, SAML can describe authentication events that use different authentication mechanisms [ 177 ]. These characteristics are very important for the interoperability between security technologies of different administrative domains to be accomplished. According to [ 151 , 178 , 179 ], the first step toward achieving interoperability is the adoption of SAML. However, XML-based SAML is not a lightweight standard and has a high computational cost for IoT resource-constrained devices [ 176 ].

Enhanced Client and Proxy (ECP), a SAML profile, defines the security information exchange that involves clients who do not use a web browser and consequently allows device SSO authentication. Nevertheless, ECP requires SOAP protocol, which is not suitable due to its high computational cost [ 180 ]. Presumably, due to its computational cost, this profile is still not widely used in IoT devices.

OpenID Connect (OIDC) is an open framework that adopts user-centric and federated IdM models. It is decentralized, which means no central authority approves or registers SPs. With OpenID, an user can choose the OpenID Provider (IdP) he or she wants to use. OpenID Connect is a simple identity layer on top of the OAuth 2.0 protocol. It allows Clients (SPs) to verify user or device identity based on the authentication performed by an Authorization Server (OpenID Provider), as well as to obtain basic profile information about the user or device in an interoperable and REST-like manner [ 181 ]. OIDC uses JSON-based security token (JWT) that enables identity and security information to be shared across security domains, consequently it is a lightweight standard and suitable for IoT. Nevertheless, it is a developing standard that requires more time and enterprise acceptance to become a established standard [ 176 ].

An IoT architecture based on OpenID, which treats authentication and access control in a federated environment was proposed in [ 156 ]. Devices and users may register at a trusted third party of the home domain, which helps the user’s authentication process. In [ 182 ], OpenId connect is used for authentication and authorization of users and devices and to establish trust relationships among entities in an ambient assisted living environment (medical devices acting as a SP), in a federated approach.

SAML and OIDC are used for user authentication in Cloud platforms (Google, AWS, Azure). FIWARE platform Footnote 4 (an open source IoT platform), via Keyrock Identity Management Generic Enabler, which brings support to SAML and OAuth2-based for authentication of users. However, platforms usually use certification-based or token-based certification for device authentication using a centralized or traditional model. In future works, it may be interesting to perform practical investigations on SAML (ECP profile with different lightweight authentication mechanisms) and OIDC for various types of IoT devices and cross-domain scenarios and compare them with current authentication solutions.

OAuth protocol Footnote 5 is an open authorization framework that allows an user/ application to delegate Web resources to a third-party without sharing its credentials. With OAuth protocol it is possible to use a Json Web Token or a SAML assertion as a means for requesting an OAuth 2.0 access token as well as for client authentication [ 176 ]. Fremantle et al. [ 150 ] discusses the use of OAuth for IoT applications that use MQTT protocol, which is a lightweight message queue protocol (publish/subscribe model) for small sensors and mobile devices.

A known standard for authorization in distributed systems is XACML (eXtensible Access Control Markup Language). XACML is a language based on XML for authorization policy description and request/response for access control decisions. Authorization decisions may be based on user/device attributes, on requested actions, and environment characteristics. Such features enable the building of flexible authorization mechanisms. Furthermore, XACML is generic, regardless of the access control model used (RBAC, ABAC) and enables the use of a local authorization decision making (provisioning model) or by an external service provider (outsourcing model). Another important aspect is that there are profiles and extensions that provide interoperability between XACML and SAML [ 183 ].

6.3 Pervasive IdM challenges

Current federation technologies rely on preconfigured static agreements, which are not well-suited for the open environments in UbiComp scenarios. These limitations negatively impact scalability and flexibility [ 145 ]. Trust establishment is the key for scalability. Although FIM protocols can cover security aspects, dynamic trust relationship establishment are open question [ 145 ]. Some requirements, such as usability, device authentication and the use of lightweight cryptography, were not properly considered in Federated IdM solutions for UbiComp systems.

Interoperability is another key requirement for successful IdM system. UbiComp systems integrates heterogeneous devices that interact with humans, systems in the Internet, and with other devices, which leads to interoperability concerns. These systems can be formed by heterogeneous domains (organizations) that go beyond the barriers of a Federation with the same AAI. The interoperability between federations that use different federated identity protocols (SAML, OpenId and OAuth) is still a problem and also a research opportunity.

Lastly, IdM systems for UbiComp systems must appropriately protect user information and adopt proper personal data protection policies. Section 7 discusses the challenges to provide privacy in UbiComp systems.

7 Privacy implications

UbiComp systems tend to collect a lot of data and generate a lot of information. Correctly used, information generates innumerable benefits to our society that has provided us with a better life over the years. However, the information can be used for illicit purposes, just as computer systems are used for attacks. Protecting private information is a great challenge that can often seem impractical, for instance, protecting customers’ electrical consumption data from their electricity distribution company [ 184 – 186 ].

Ensuring security is a necessary condition for ensuring privacy, for instance, if the communication between clients and a service provider is not secure, then privacy is not guaranteed. However, it is not a sufficient condition, for instance, the communication is secure, but a service provider uses the data in a not allowed way. We can use cryptography to ensure secure as well as privacy. Nevertheless, even though one uses encrypted communication, the metadata from the network traffic might reveal private information. The first challenge is to find the extend of the data relevance and the impact of data leakage.

7.1 Application scenario challenges

Finding which data might be sensitive is a challenging task. Some cultures classify some data as sensitive when others classify the same data as public. Another challenge is to handle regulations from different countries.

7.1.1 Identifying sensitive data

Classifying what may be sensitive data might be a challenging task. The article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948 states: No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home, or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks. Lawmakers have improved privacy laws around the world. However, there is still plenty of room for improvements, specially, when we consider data from people, animals, and products. Providers can use such data to profile and manipulate people and market. Unfair competitors might use private industrial data to get advantages over other industries.

7.1.2 Regulation

UbiComp systems tend to run worldwide. Thus, their developers need to deal with several laws from distinct cultures. The abundance of laws is a challenge for international institutions. The absence of laws too. On the one hand, the excess of laws compels institutions to handle a huge bureaucracy to follow several laws. On the other hand, the absence of laws causes unfair competition because unethical companies can use private data to get advantages over ethical companies. Business models must use privacy-preserving protocols to ensure democracy and avoid a surveillance society (see [ 187 ]). Such protocols are the solution for the dilemma between privacy and information. However, they have their own technological challenges.

7.2 Technological challenges

We can deal with already collected data from legacy systems or private-by-design data that are collected by privacy-preserving protocols, for instance, databases used in old systems and messages from privacy-preserving protocols, respectively. If a scenario can be classified as both, we can just tackle it as an already collected data in the short term.

7.3 Already collected data

One may use a dataset for information retrieval while keeping the anonymity of the true owners’ data. One may use data mining techniques over a private dataset. Several techniques are used in privacy preserving data mining [ 188 ]. ARX Data Anonymization Tool Footnote 6 is a very interesting tool for anonymization of already collected data. In the following, we present several techniques used to provide privacy in already collected data.

7.3.1 Anonymization

Currently, we have several techniques for anonymization and to evaluate the level of anonymization, for instance, k -anonymity, l -diversity, and t -closeness [ 189 ]. They use a set E from data indistinguishable for an identifier in a table.

The method k -anonymity suppresses table columns or replace them for keeping each E with at least k registers. It seems safe, but only 4 points marking the position on the time are enough to identify uniquely 95% of the cellphone users [ 190 ].

The method l -diversity requires that each E have at least l values “well-represented” for each sensitive column. Well-represented can be defined in three ways:

at least l distinct values for each sensitive column;

for each E , the Shannon entropy is limited, such that \(H(E)\geqslant \log _{2} l\) , where \(H(E)=-\sum _{s\in S}\Pr (E,s)\log _{2}(\Pr (E,s)),\) S is the domain of the sensitive column, and Pr( E , s ) is the probability of the lines in E that have sensitive values s ;

the most common values cannot appear frequently, and the most uncommon values cannot appear infrequently.

Note that some tables do not have l distinct sensitive values. Furthermore, the table entropy should be at least log2 l . Moreover, the frequency of common and uncommand values usually are not close to each other.

We say that E is t -closeness if the distance between the distribution of a sensitive column E end the distribution of column in all the table is not more than a threshold t . Thus, we say that a table has t -closeness if every E in a table have t -closeness. In this case, the method generates a trade-off between data usefulness and privacy.

7.3.2 Differential privacy

The idea of differential privacy is similar to the idea of indistinguishability in cryptography. For defining it, let ε be a positive real number and \(\mathcal {A}\) be a probabilistic algorithm with a dataset as input. We say that \(\mathcal {A}\) is ε -differentially private if for every dataset D 1 and D 2 that differ in one element, and for every subset S of the image of \(\mathcal {A}\) , we have \(\Pr \left [{\mathcal {A}}\left (D_{1}\right)\in S\right ]\leq e^{\epsilon }\times \Pr \left [{\mathcal {A}}\left (D_{2}\right)\in ~S\right ],\) where the probability is controlled for the algorithm randomness.

Differential privacy is not a metric in the mathematical sense. However, if the algorithms keep the probabilities based on the input, we can construct a metric d to compare the distance between two algorithms with \(d\left (\mathcal {A}_{1},\mathcal {A}_{2}\right)=|\epsilon _{1}-\epsilon _{2}|.\) In this way, we can determine if two algorithms as equivalents ε 1 = ε 2 , and we can determine the distance from an ideal algorithm computing

7.3.3 Entropy and the degree of anonymity

The degree of anonymity g can be measured with the Shannon entropy \(H(X)=\sum _{{i=1}}^{{N}}\left [p_{i}\cdot \log _{2} \left ({\frac {1}{p_{i}}}\right)\right ],\) where H ( X ) is the network entropy, N is the number of nodes, and p i is the probability for each node i . The maximal entropy happens when the probability is uniform, i.e., all nodes are equiprobably 1/ N , hence H M = log2( N ). Therefore, the anonymity degree g is defined by \(g=1-{\frac {H_{M}-H(X)}{H_{M}}}={\frac {H(X)}{H_{M}}}.\)

Similar to differential privacy, we can construct a metric to compare the distance between two networks computing d ( g 1 , g 2 )=| g 1 − g 2 |. Similarly, we can compare if they are equivalent g 1 = g 2 . Thus, we can determine the distance from an ideal anonymity network computing d ( g 1 , g ideal )=| g 1 −1|.

The network can be replaced by a dataset, but in this model, each register should have a probability.

7.3.4 Complexity

Complexity analysis also can be used as a metric to measure the time required in the best case for retrieving information from an anonymized dataset. It can also be used in private-by-design data as the time required to break a privacy-preserving protocol. The time measure can be done with asymptotical analysis or counting the number of steps to break the method.

All techniques have their advantages and disadvantages. However, even though the complexity prevents the leakage, even though the algorithm has differential privacy, even though the degree of anonymity is the maximum, privacy might be violated. For example, in an election with 3 voters, if 2 collude, then the third voters will have the privacy violated independent of the algorithm used. In [ 191 ], we find how to break protocols based on noise for smart grids, even when they are provided with the property of differential privacy.

Cryptography should ensure privacy in the same way that ensures security. An encrypted message should have maximum privacy metrics as well as cryptography ensures for security. We should use the best algorithm that leaks privacy and compute its worst-case complexity.

7.3.5 Probability

We can use probabilities to measure the chances of leakage. This approach is independent of algorithm used to protect privacy.

For example, consider an election with 3 voters. If 2 voters cast yes and 1 voter cast no, an attacker knows that the probability of a voter cast yes is 2/3 and for no is 1/3. The same logics applies if the number of voters and candidates grow.

Different from the case of yes and no, we may keep the privacy from valued measured. For attackers to discover the time series of three points, they represent each point for a number of stars, i.e., symbols ⋆ . Thus, attackers can split the total number of stars in three boxes. Let the sum of the series be 7, a probability would be ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ . For simplicity, attackers can split the stars by bars instead of boxes. Hence, ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ | ⋆ | ⋆ ⋆ is the same solution. With such notation, the binomial of 7 stars plus 2 bars chosen 7 stars determines the possible number of solutions, i.e., \( {7+2 \choose 7}=\frac {9!}{7!(9-7)!}=36.\)

Generalizing, if t is the number of points in a time series and s its sum, then the number of possible time series for the attackers to decide the correct is determined by s plus t −1 chosen s , i.e.,

If we collect multiple time series, we can form a table, e.g., a list of candidates with the number of votes by states. The tallyman cold reveal only the total number of voter by state and the total number of votes by candidate, who could infer the possible number of votes by state [ 191 ]. Data from previous elections may help the estimation. The result of the election could be computed over encrypted data in a much more secure way than anonymization by k -anonymity, l -diversity, and t -closeness. Still, depending on the size of the table and its values, the time series can be found.

In general, we can consider measurements instead of values. Anonymity techniques try to reduce the number of measurements in the table. Counterintuitively, smaller the number of measurements, bigger the chances of discover them [ 191 ].

If we consider privacy by design, we do not have already collected data.

7.4 Private-by-design data

Messages is the common word for private-by-design data. Messages are transmitted data, processed, and stored. For privacy-preserving protocols, individual messages should not be leaked. CryptDB Footnote 7 is an interesting tool, which allows us to make queries over encrypted datasets. Although messages are stored in a dataset, they are encrypted messages with the users’ keys. To keep performance reasonable, privacy-preserving protocols aggregate or consolidate messages and solve a specific problem.

7.4.1 Computing all operators

In theory, we can compute a Turin machine over encrypted data, i.e., we can use a technique called fully homomorphic encryption [ 192 ] to compute any operator over encrypted data. The big challenge of fully homomorphic encryption is performance. Hence, constructing a fully homomorphic encryption for many application scenarios is a herculean task. The most usual operation is addition. Thus, most privacy-preserving protocols use additive homomorphic encryption [ 193 ] and DC-Nets (from “Dining Cryptographers”) [ 194 ]. Independent of the operation, the former generates functions, and the latter generates families of functions. We can construct an asymmetric DC-Net based on an additive homomorphic encryption [ 194 ].

7.4.2 Trade-off between enforcement and malleability

The privacy enforcement has a high cost. With DC-Nets, we can enforce privacy. However, every encrypted message need to be considered in the computation for users to decrypt and to access the protocol output. It is good for privacy but bad for fault tolerance. For illustration, consider an election where all voters need to vote. Homomorphic encryption enables protocols to decrypt and output even missing an encrypted message. Indeed, it enables the decryption of a single encrypted message. Therefore, homomorphic encryption cannot ensure privacy. For illustration, consider an election where one can read and change all votes. Homomorphic encryption techniques are malleable, and DC-Nets are non-malleable. On the one hand, mailability simplifies the process and improve fault tolerance but disables privacy enforcement. On the other hand, non-mailability enforces privacy but complicates the process and diminishes fault tolerance. In addition, the key distribution with homomorphic encryption is easier than with DC-Net schemes.

7.4.3 Key distribution

Homomorphic encryption needs a public-private key pair. Who owns the private key controls all the information. Assume that a receiver generates the key pair and send the public key to the senders in a secure communication channel. Thus, senders will use the same key to encrypt their messages. Since homomorphic encryption schemes are probabilistic, sender can use the same key to encrypt the same message that their encrypted messages will be different from each other. However, the receiver does not know who sent the encrypted messages.

DC-Net needs a private key for each user and a public key for the protocol. Since DC-Nets do not require senders and receiver, the users are usually named participants. They generate their own private key. Practical symmetric DC-Nets need that participants send a key to each other in a secure communication channel. Afterward, each participant has a private key given by the list of shared keys. Hence, each participant encrypts computing \(\mathfrak {M}_{i,j}\leftarrow \text {Enc}\left (m_{i,j}\right)=m_{i,j}+\sum _{o\in \mathcal {M}-\{i\}}\, \text {Hash}\left (s_{i,o}\ || \ j\right)-\text {Hash}\left (s_{o,i}\ || \ j\right),\) where m i , j is the message sent by the participant i in the time j , Hash is a secure hash function predefined by the participants, s i , o is the secret key sent from participant i to participant o , similarly, s o , i is the secret key received by i from o , and || is the concatenation operator. Each participant i can send the encrypted message \(\mathfrak {M}_{i,j}\) to each other. Thus, participants can decrypt the aggregated encrypted messages computing \(\text {Dec}=\sum _{i\in \mathcal {M}}\, \mathfrak {M}_{i,j}=\sum _{i\in \mathcal {M}}\, m_{i,j}.\) Note that if one or more messages are missing, the decryption is infeasible. Asymmetric DC-Nets do not require a private key based on shared keys. Each participant simply generates a private key. Subsequently, they use a homomorphic encryption or a symmetric DC-Net to add their private keys generating the decryption key.

Homomorphic encryption schemes have low overhead than DC-Nets for setting up keys and for distributing them. Symmetric DC-Nets need O ( I 2 ) messages to set up the keys, where I is the number of participants. Figure  5 depicts the messages to set up keys using (a) symmetric DC-Nets and (b) homomorphic encryption. Asymmetric DC-Nets can be settled easier than symmetric DC-Nets with the price of trusting the homomorphic encryption scheme.

Setting up the keys. a Symmetric DC-Nets b Homomorphic encryption

7.4.4 Aggregation and consolidation

The aggregation and consolidation with DC-Nets are easier than with homomorphic encryption. Using DC-Nets, participants can just broadcast their encrypted messages or just send directly to an aggregator. Using homomorphic encryption, senders cannot send encrypted messages directly to the receiver, who can decrypt individual messages. Somehow, senders should aggregate the encrypted messages, and the receiver should receive only the encrypted aggregation, which is a challenge in homomorphic encryption and trivial in DC-Nets due to the trade-off described in Section 7.4.2 . In this work, we are referencing DC-Nets as fully connected DC-Nets. For non-fully connected DC-Nets, aggregation is based on trust and generates new challenges. Sometimes, aggregation and consolidation are used as synonym. However, consolidation is more complicated and generates more elaborate information than the aggregation. For example, the aggregation of the encrypted textual messages is just to join them, while the consolidation of encrypted textual messages generates a speech synthesis.

7.4.5 Performance

Fully homomorphic encryption tends to have big keys and requires a prohibitive processing time. On the contrary, asymmetric DC-Nets and partially homomorphic encryption normally use modular multi-exponentiations, which can be computed in logarithmic time [ 195 ]. Symmetric DC-Nets are efficient only for a small number of participants, because each participant need an iteration over the number of participants to encrypt a message. The number of participants is not relevant for asymmetric DC-Nets and for homomorphic encryption.

8 Forensics

Digital forensics is a branch of forensic science addressing the recovery and investigation of material found in digital devices. Evidence collection and interpretation play a key role in forensics. Conventional forensic approaches separately address issues related to computer forensics and information forensics. There is, however, a growing trend in security and forensics research that utilizes interdisciplinary approaches to provide a rich set of forensic capabilities to facilitate the authentication of data as well as the access conditions including who, when, where, and how.

In this trend, there are two major types of forensic evidences [ 196 ]. One type is intrinsic to the device, the information processing chain, or the physical environment, in such forms as the special characteristics associated with specific types of hardware or software processing or environment, the unique noise patterns as a signature of a specific device unit, certain regularities or correlations related to certain device, processing or their combinations, and more. Another type is extrinsic approaches, whereby specially designed data are proactively injected into the signals/data or into the physical world and later extracted and examined to infer or verify the hosting data’s origin, integrity, processing history, or capturing environment.

In mid of the convergence between digital and physical systems with sensors, actuators and computing devices becoming closely tied together, an emerging framework has been proposed as Proof-Carrying Sensing (PCS) [ 197 ]. This was inspired by Proof-Carrying Code, a trusted computing framework that associates foreign executables with a model to prove that they have not been tampered with and they function as expected. In the new UbiComp context involving cyber physical systems where mobility and resource constraints are common, the physical world can be leveraged as a channel that encapsulates properties difficult to be tampered with remotely, such as proximity and causality, in order to create a challenge-response function. Such a Proof-Carrying Sensing framework can help authenticate devices, collected data, and locations, and compared to traditional multifactor or out-of-band authentication mechanisms, it has a unique advantage that authentication proofs are embedded in sensor data and can be continuously validated over time and space at without running complicated cryptographic algorithms.

In terms of the above-mentioned intrinsic and extrinsic view point, the physical data available to establish a mutual trust in the PCS framework can be intrinsic to the physical environment (such as temperature, luminosity, noise, electrical frequency), or extrinsic to it, for example, they are actively injected by the device into the physical world. By monitoring the propagation of intrinsic or extrinsic data, a device can confirm its reception by other devices located within its vicinity. The challenge in designing and securely implementing such protocols can be addressed by the synergy of combined expertises such as signal processing, statistical detection and learning, cryptography, software engineering, and electronics.

To help appreciate the intrinsic and extrinsic evidences in addressing the security and forensics in UbiComp that involves both digital and physical elements, we now discuss two examples. Consider first an intrinsic signature of power grids. The electric network frequency (ENF) is the supply frequency of power distribution grids, with a nominal value of 60Hz (North America) or 50Hz (Europe). At any given time, the instantaneous value of ENF usually fluctuates around its nominal value as a result of the dynamic interaction between the load variations in the grid and the control mechanisms for power generation. These variations are nearly identical in all locations of the same grid at a given time due to the interconnected nature of the grid. The changing values of instantaneous ENF over time forms an ENF signal, which can be intrinsically captured by audio/visual recordings (Fig.  6 ) or other sensors [ 198 , 199 ]. This has led to recent forensic applications, such as validating the time-of-recording of an ENF-containing multimedia signal and estimating its recording location using concurrent reference signals from power grids based on the use of ENF signals.

An example of intrinsic evidence related to the power grid. Showing here are spectrograms of ENF signals in concurrent recordings of a audio, b visual, and c power main. Cross-correlation study can show the similarity between media and power line reference at different time lags, where a strong peak appears at the temporal alignment of the matching grid

Next, consider the recent work by Satchidanandan and Kumar [ 200 ] introducing a notion of watermarking in a cyber-physical system, which can be viewed as a class of extrinsic signatures. If an actuator injects into the system a properly designed probing signal that is unknown in advance to other nodes in the system, then based on the knowledge of the cyber-physical system’s dynamics and other properties, the actuator can examine the sensors’ report about the signals at various points and can potentially infer whether there is malicious activity in the system or not, and if so, where and how.

A major challenge and research opportunity lies on discovering and characterizing suitable intrinsic and extrinsic evidences. Although qualitative properties of some signatures are known, it is important to develop quantitative models to characterize the normal and abnormal behavior in the context of the overall system. Along this line, the exploration of physical models might yield analytic approximations of such properties; and in the meantime, data-driven learning approaches can be used to gather statistical data characterizing normal and abnormal behaviors. Building on these elements, a strong synergy across the boundaries of traditionally separate domains of computer forensics, information forensics, and device forensics should be developed so as to achieve comprehensive capabilities of system forensics in UbiComp.

9 Conclusion

In the words of Mark Weiser, Ubiquitous Computing is “the idea of integrating computers seamlessly into the world at large” [ 1 ]. Thus, far from being a phenomenon from this time, the design and practice of UbiComp systems were already being discussed one quarter of a century ago. In this article, we have revisited this notion, which permeates the most varied levels of our society, under a security and privacy point of view. In the coming years, these two topics will occupy much of the time of researchers and engineers. In our opinion, the use of this time should be guided by a few observations, which we list below:

UbiComp software is often produced as the combination of different programming languages, sharing a common core often implemented in a type-unsafe language such as C, C++ or assembly. Applications built in this domain tend to be distributed, and their analysis, i.e., via static analysis tools, needs to consider a holistic view of the system.

The long-life span of some of these systems, coupled with the difficulty (both operational and cost-wise) to update and re-deploy them, makes them vulnerable to the inexorable progress of technology and cryptanalysis techniques. This brings new (and possibly disruptive) players to this discussion, such as quantum adversaries.

Key management is a critical component of any secure or private real-world system. After security roles and key management procedures are clearly defined for all entities in the framework, a set of matching cryptographic primitives must be deployed. Physical access and constrained resources complicate the design of efficient and secure cryptographic algorithms, which are often amenable to side-channel attacks. Hence, current research challenges in the space include more efficient key management schemes, in particular supporting some form of revocation; the design of lightweight cryptographic primitives which facilitate correct and secure implementation; cheaper side-channel resistance countermeasures made available through advances in algorithms and embedded architectures.

Given the increasing popularization of UbiComp systems, people become more and more dependent on their services for performing different commercial, financial, medical and social transactions. This rising dependence requires simultaneous high level of reliability, availability and security. This observation strengthens the importance of the design and implementation of resilient UbiComp systems.

One of the main challenges to providing pervasive IdM is to ensure the authenticity of devices and users and adaptive authorization in scenarios with multiple and heterogeneous security domains.

Several databases currently store sensitive data. Moreover, a vast number of sensors are constantly collecting new sensitive data and storing them in clouds. Privacy-preserving protocols are being designed and perfected to enhance user’s privacy in specific scenarios. Cultural interpretations of privacy, the variety of laws, big data from legacy systems in clouds, processing time, latency, key distribution and management, among other aforementioned are challenges for us to develop privacy-preserving protocols.

The convergence between the physical and digital systems poses both challenges and opportunities in offering forensic capabilities to facilitate the authentication of data as well as the access conditions including who, when, where, and how; a synergistic use of intrinsic and extrinsic evidences with interdisciplinary expertise will be the key.

Given these observations, and the importance of ubiquitous computing, it is easy to conclude that the future holds fascinating challenges waiting for the attention of the academia and the industry.

Finally, note the observations and the predictions presented in this work regarding how UbiComp may evolve represent our view of the field based on the technology landscape today. New scientific discoveries, technology inventions as well as economic, social, and policy factors may lead to new and/or different trends in the technology evolutionary paths.

https://competitions.cr.yp.to/caesar.html

https://csrc.nist.gov/projects/lightweight-cryptography

Deloitte’s annual Technology, Media and Telecommunications Predictions 2017 report: https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/global/Documents/Technology-Media-Telecommunications/ gx-deloitte-2017-tmt-predictions.pdf

https://www.fiware.org .

OAuth 2.0 core authorization framework is described by IETF in RFC 6749 and other specifications and profiles.

https://arx.deidentifier.org/

https://css.csail.mit.edu/cryptdb/

Abbreviations

Authentication and Authorization Infrastructure

Attribute Based Access Control

Access Control List

Advanced Encryption Standard

Capability Based Access Control

control flow graph

Certificateless cryptography

Distributed Denial of Service

Elliptic Curve Cryptography

Enhanced Client and Proxy

Electronic identity

Electric network frequency

Federated Identity Management Model

Hash-Based Signatures

Identity-based

Identity Management

Identity Provider

Identity Provider as a Service

Internet of things

Message Authentication Codes

Multi-factor authentication

Physical access control systems

Proof-Carrying Sensing

Policy Decision Point

Policy Decision Point as a Service

Policy Enforcement Point

Public key infrastructures

Post-quantum cryptography

Quantum cryptography

Role Based Access Control

Service Provider

Single Sign-On

Pervasive and ubiquitous computing

eXtensible Access Control Markup Language

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Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Artur Souza for contributing with fruitful discussions to this work.

This work was partially supported by the CNPq, NSF, RNP, FAPEMIG, FAPERJ, and CAPES.

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Leonardo B. Oliveira

Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Campinas, Brasil

Fernando Magno Quintão Pereira

Intel Labs, Hillsboro, Campinas, Brasil

Rafael Misoczki

University of Campinas, Campinas, Brasil

Diego F. Aranha

National Laboratory for Scientific Computing, Campinas, Petrópolis, Brasil

Fábio Borges

Federal University of Paraná, Campinas, Curitiba, Brasil

Michele Nogueira

Universidade do Vale do Itajaí, Campinas, Florianópolis, Brasil

Michelle Wangham

University of Maryland, Maryland, USA

Microsoft Research, Redmond, MD, USA

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Contributions

All authors wrote and reviewed the manuscript. Mainly, LBO focused on the introduction and the whole paper conception, FM focused on Software Protection, RM focused on Long-Term Security, DFA focused on Cryptographic Engineering, MN focused on Resilience, MW focused on Identity Management, FB focused on Privacy, MW focused on Forensics, JL focused on the conclusion and the whole paper conception. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Leonardo B. Oliveira .

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Leonardo B. Oliveira is an associate professor of the CS Department at UFMG, a visiting associate professor of the CS Department at Stanford, and a research productivity fellow of the Brazilian Research Council (CNPq). Leonardo has been awarded the Microsoft Research Ph.D. Fellowship Award, the IEEE Young Professional Award, and the Intel Strategic Research Alliance Award. He published papers on the security of IoT/Cyber-Physical Systems in publication venues like IPSN and SenSys, and he is the (co)inventor of an authentication scheme for IoT (USPTO Patent Application No. 62287832). Leonardo served as General Chair and TPC Chair of the Brazilian Symposium on Security (SBSeg) in 2014 and 2016, respectively, and as a member in the Advisory Board of the Special Interest Group on Information and Computer System Security (CESeg) of the Brazilian Computer Society. He is a member of the Technical Committee of Identity Management (CT-GId) of the Brazilian National Research and Education Network (RNP).

Fernando M. Q. Pereira is an associate professor at UFMG’s Computer Science Department. He got his Ph.D at the University of California, Los Angeles, in 2008, and since then does research in the field of compilers. He seeks to develop techniques that let programmers to produce safe, yet efficient code. Fernando’s portfolio of analyses and optimizations is available at http://cuda.dcc.ufmg.br/ . Some of these techniques found their way into important open source projects, such as LLVM, PHC and Firefox.

Rafael Misoczki is a Research Scientist at Intel Labs, USA. His work is focused on post-quantum cryptography and conventional cryptography. He contributes to international standardization efforts on cryptography (expert member of the USA delegation for ISO/IEC JTC1 SC27 WG2, expert member of INCITS CS1, and submitter to the NIST standardization competition on post-quantum cryptography). He holds a PhD degree from Sorbonne Universités (University of Paris - Pierre et Marie Curie), France (2013). He also holds an MSc. degree in Electrical Engineering (2010) and a BSc. degree in Computer Science (2008), both from the Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil.

Diego F. Aranha is an Assistant Professor in the Institute of Computing at the University of Campinas (Unicamp). He holds a PhD degree in Computer Science from the University of Campinas and has worked as a visiting PhD student for 1 year at the University of Waterloo. His professional experience is in Cryptography and Computer Security, with a special interest in the efficient implementation of cryptographic algorithms and security analysis of real world systems. Coordinated the first team of independent researchers capable of detecting and exploring vulnerabilities in the software of the Brazilian voting machine during controlled tests organized by the electoral authority. He received the Google Latin America Research Award for research on privacy twice, and the MIT TechReview’s Innovators Under 35 Brazil Award for his work in electronic voting.

Fábio Borges is Professor in the doctoral program at Brazilian National Laboratory for Scientific Computing (LNCC in Portuguese). He holds a Ph.D. degree in Doctor of Engineering (Dr.-Ing.) in the Department of Computer Science at TU Darmstadt, a master’s degree in Computational Modeling at LNCC, and a bachelor’s degree in mathematics at Londrina State University (UEL). Currently, he is developing research at the LNCC in the field of Algorithms, Security, Privacy, and Smart Grid. Further information is found at http://www.lncc.br/~borges/ .

Michele Nogueira is an Associate Professor of the Computer Science Department at Federal University of Paraná. She received her doctorate in Computer Science from the UPMC — Sorbonne Universités, Laboratoire d’Informatique de Paris VI (LIP6) in 2009. Her research interests include wireless networks, security and dependability. She has been working on providing resilience to self-organized, cognitive and wireless networks by adaptive and opportunistic approaches for many years. Dr. Nogueira was one of the pioneers in addressing survivability issues in self-organized wireless networks, being her works “A Survey of Survivability in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks” and “An Architecture for Survivable Mesh Networking” her prominent scientific contributions. She is an Associate Technical Editor for the IEEE Communications Magazine and the Journal of Network and Systems Management. She serves as Vice-chair for the IEEE ComSoc - Internet Technical Committee. She is an ACM and IEEE Senior Member.

Michelle S. Wangham is a Professor at University of Vale do Itajaí (Brazil). She received her M.Sc. and Ph.D. on Electrical Engineering from the Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC) in 2004. Recently, she was a Visiting Researcher at University of Ottawa. Her research interests are vehicular networks, security in embedded and distributed systems, identity management, and network security. She is a consultant of the Brazilian National Research and Education Network (RNP) acting as the coordinator of Identity Management Technical Committee (CT-GID) and member of Network Monitoring Technical Committee. Since 2013, she is coordinating the GIdLab project, a testbed for R&D in Identity Management.

Min Wu received the B.E. degree (Highest Honors) in electrical engineering - automation and the B.A. degree (Highest Honors) in economics from Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, in 1996, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from Princeton University in 2001. Since 2001, she has been with the University of Maryland, College Park, where she is currently a Professor and a University Distinguished Scholar-Teacher. She leads the Media and Security Team, University of Maryland, where she is involved in information security and forensics and multimedia signal processing. She has coauthored two books and holds nine U.S. patents on multimedia security and communications. Dr. Wu coauthored several papers that won awards from the IEEE, ACM, and EURASIP, respectively. She also received an NSF CAREER award in 2002, a TR100 Young Innovator Award from the MIT Technology Review Magazine in 2004, an ONR Young Investigator Award in 2005, a ComputerWorld “40 Under 40” IT Innovator Award in 2007, an IEEE Mac Van Valkenburg Early Career Teaching Award in 2009, a University of Maryland Invention of the Year Award in 2012 and in 2015, and an IEEE Distinguished Lecturer recognition in 2015–2016. She has served as the Vice President-Finance of the IEEE Signal Processing Society (2010–2012) and the Chair of the IEEE Technical Committee on Information Forensics and Security (2012–2013). She is currently the Editor-in-Chief of the IEEE Signal Processing Magazine. She was elected IEEE Fellow for contributions to multimedia security and forensics.

Jie Liu Dr. Jie Liu is a Principal Researcher at Microsoft AI and Research Redmond, WA. His research interests root in sensing and interacting with the physical world through computing. Examples include time, location, and energy awareness, and Internet/Intelligence of Things. He has published broadly in areas such as sensor networking, embedded devices, mobile and ubiquitous computing, and data center management. He has received 6 best paper awards in top academic conferences in these fields. In addition, he holds more than 100 patents. He is the Steering Committee chair of Cyber-Physical-System (CPS) Week, and ACM/IEEE IPSN, and a Steering Committee member of ACM SenSys. He is an Associate Editor of ACM Trans. on Sensor Networks, was an Associate Editor of IEEE Trans. on Mobile Computing, and has chaired a number of top-tier conferences. Among other recognitions, he received the Leon Chua Award from UC Berkeley in 2001; Technology Advance Award from (Xerox) PARC in 2003; and a Gold Star Award from Microsoft in 2008. He received his Ph.D. degree from Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, UC Berkeley in 2001, and his Master and Bachelor degrees from Department of Automation, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China. From 2001 to 2004, he was a research scientist in Palo Alto Research Center (formerly Xerox PARC). He is an ACM Distinguished Scientist and an IEEE Senior Member.

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Oliveira, L., Pereira, F., Misoczki, R. et al. The computer for the 21st century: present security & privacy challenges. J Internet Serv Appl 9 , 24 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13174-018-0095-2

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Received : 13 April 2018

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Published : 04 December 2018

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s13174-018-0095-2

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Computers are devices that are central to our everyday lives. When your child writes about the advantages of a computer, they learn about the importance of using this device and also understand the different uses that these devices may have for them. Computers help with class assignments for children, provide a great source of gathering information and are also one of their favourite tools for recreation, for playing video games or watching their favourite movies. Children are savvy with using computers and it will be fascinating for them to learn deeper about these devices through this essay writing exercise. Let us help your child to write an interesting essay on computers:

There are a few essential points that your child needs to remember while writing an essay on the uses of computer(s). Let’s help your child write an essay on computer.

• The first step is to let your child structure their ideas (in the head) and think of what to write about computers.
• In the second step, let your child note the ideas to form an outline, ensuring they cover all the points while composing the essay.
• They will form easy-to-read, short and simple sentences from the pointers in the third step.
• Encourage your child not to get too deep describing any single idea, and stick to the word limit.
• Help your child write with the rhythm, making them cherish writing the essay.
• Your child can write about the importance of computers, how this device helps them in different ways, details about parts of a computer, etc.

Computers have taken up a very important part of our lives in various ways. Even children are savvy with the use of computers. Let us help your child write 10 lines as an essay on computers for class 1 and class 2:

• A computer is an electronic device.
• Charles Babbage first invented the computer.
• Computers play an extremely important function in our life.
• The machine takes in data as input, processes it, and gives output.
• A computer does all the work with the help of an operating system.
• A computer understands binary language, which is made up of 0 and 1.
• The Central Processing Unit, known as CPU, is the computer’s brain.
• The device helps us with our studies to search for new information.
• It is also used by elders to do their work like make presentations and send emails.
• It is used in schools, banks, offices, hospitals, railway stations, airports and numerous other places.

Computers make up a major part of our life. Children are exposed to the use of computers at an early age for school activities or recreation. Writing an essay on computers may be challenging for kids. Let us help them write an interesting essay on computers in 200 words. They will learn closely about this device through this short paragraph on the computer.

A computer is an electronic device that plays an important role in modern times. Charles Babbage first invented it. The device takes in data as input, processes it, and gives output. A computer does all the work with the help of an operating system. A computer understands the binary language, which is 0 and 1. The CPU (Central Processing Unit ) is called the computer’s brain. The device helps humans in various day-to-day activities. It helps students with their studies. Elders use it to do their work. It is used in schools, banks, offices, hospitals, railway stations, airports, and several other institutions and places. It keeps records and does many tasks. Humans will take a very long time to do many tasks that the computer can do instantly. It makes our life very easy.

Computers are the most important device in modern times. Let us help your child write about the uses of a computer through an essay for class 3:

A computer is an electronic device that plays an important role in modern times. Today we cannot imagine our life without a computer. From studies to booking tickets, paying bills, doing office work, and keeping records, a computer makes everything very easy. Charles Babbage first invented the computer. The device takes in data as input, processes it, and gives output. A computer does all the work with the help of an operating system. A computer understands the binary language, which is 0 and 1. The CPU (Central Processing Unit ) is called the computer’s brain. The device helps us in all our day-to-day tasks. It helps us with our studies. It allows us to take online classes, take online exams, do research and gather information for our assignments. Even elders use computers for their work. It is a very useful device in almost every place like schools, banks, offices, hospitals, railway stations, airports, and many others.

We will take a very long time to do many tasks that the computer can do in an instant. It makes our life very easy. It emables us to avoid long queues to pay our bills, and do it online with just a few clicks. With use of the internet, a computer opens the window to a whole world of information that would be very difficult to gather manually. Whatever information we need is just a few taps away in modern times. Computers have made the whole world a small place. Using computers, we can sit at home and connect with our dear ones living far away from us through messages, emails or video calls. In India, the first computer was brought in Kolkata in 1952, and it was named “Siddharth.” It was a new beginning for the country’s development.

When your child writes about computers, they notice the significant role of computers in daily life. They learn interesting facts about computers. Essay writing will play a major role in developing your child’s language skills. It improves their thought process and gives structure to their ideas. It improves their creative writing skills and also their vocabulary. The act of writing also is functional in developing the fine motor skills of your little one.

We hope the above sample essays will help your child look at computers from a closer aspect. It will help your child learn about this device and understand its benefits more closely. Essay writing is one such activity that helps your child till much later in life. The earlier you introduce it to the little ones, the better they get at it with time. We have kept the language of the above write-up very simple so that it’s easy for your child to understand.

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Long and Short Essay on Computer in English for Students & Kids

Read our Essay on Computer to enhance your writing skill. This Computer essay in English,  helps you to improve your higher grades in exam.  The computer is an electronic device that can perform many functions like messaging, calculation, data storage, printing, etc. Computers developed in the 1940s. Computers used everywhere- at home, school, college, office, hotel, railway station, airport, shop, etc.

There are many types of computers, like pocket computers, laptops, and personal computers. Also, computers come in different colors and sizes. I also have a computer at home, which consists of a keyboard, a mouse, a CPU (the brain of the computer), a screen or monitor, and a UPS.

So, let’s go through or read the Computer Essay In English .

Table of Contents

Long Essay on Computer in 500 Words

In today’s time, Computer has become a need of everyone. Computers have made life very easy for all of us. Today more than one invention is being made using it. The Computer itself is giving employment to many companies and many people. Big companies like Google, Microsoft, and Facebook would not exist if computers were not among us today. Computers have simplified many of our tasks today. Today it used in shops to generate bills, and it takes the same time to calculate as it takes to press a button.

Origin of the word Computer

Now you will say that all is well, but why was only the Latin language Computer used for the word Computer? The word Computer is derived from the word compute, a Latin word that means to calculate. There is also a reason behind this, the father of the Computer, Charles Babbage, was born in London; the official language there is English, so why no word was taken from English itself; the reason for this is that the technical words of the English language, especially the ancient Greek language and It is based on the Latin language, so for the word Computer, i.e., for a machine that calculates, the Latin language word compute was taken.

What is Computer?

The Computer is an electronic device in which you can keep your data and information safe.

It can perform any calculation very quickly. By this, any work can completed efficiently in less time.

How does the Computer work?

The Computer is a device that works on our instructions. It works on input, processing, and output. A user gives this same input to the Computer.

After that, the Computer processes and outputs the information and calculations to the user.

This process happens quickly, which we do not even know. A Computer works on machine language, which called binary. It has 0 and 1.

Types of Computer

There are 3 types of Computer, which are as follows

• Digital Computer
• Analog Computer
• Hybrid Computer

Benefits of Computer

• Today the Computer has made our work very easy, and our life has also become easy. The Computer is a great invention of modern technology. Which has many benefits
• In the banking sector, all the work done quickly through the Computer.
• A Computer is essential and beneficial in works like printing books and newspapers.
• Traffic rules in big cities also controlled by Computer
• The Computer is also helpful for police in keeping records of criminals.

Hazards from Computer

Computers have become a necessity, but they have also become a threat as many hackers steal and leak your data on the internet. Also, anyone can access this data. Apart from this, other threats like viruses, spam, bug, and many other problems exist. A computer is a virtual machine that has become a valuable part of our life. It is an excellent discovery of humankind that has helped save thousands and millions of lives. Also, having twin faces on one side of the computer is a boon; on the other, it is a curse. Its usage is entirely up to you. Furthermore, there will come a day in the future when human civilization cannot survive without computers as we are heavily dependent on them.

Conclusion 

The Computer has changed human life; today, we could not even imagine this technology-filled world if it was in the Computer. The Computer has changed how humans live, and its use has dramatically benefited human beings.

Short Essay on Computer in English in 250 Words

Science has given us many important things which make our life comfortable. The computer is one of them. A computer is an electronic machine that works very fast. It can perform substantial computations, including many arithmetic and logic operations. Today computers used in every field.

The physical components of a computer are known as hardware. A set of programs that we run on a computer is called software. We put data, which is called input. Input is converted into information in the computer. Then the computer does the processing and gives the result, which is called output.

These days the telephone and electricity bills we get are all generated by computers. Several primitives have used in the logo. Primitives are the commands that were given to the computer. The Indian computer industry is growing at a rapid pace. It’s good if everyone knows how to work on a computer.

Computers are everywhere: business, job, industry, trade, insurance, bank, rail, air, transport, medicine, engineering education, management, and information technology. The truth is that computers have now become an everyday necessity.

The process of modernization associated with the use of computers. The invention of the Computer has given a new direction to scientific progress. The Computer credited with the tremendous progress of science and technology in various fields.

Today human beings are wildly anxious to advance in the technological field. Today man is setting new records in every area. The Computer is being used on a large scale in institutions and industries.

Essay on Computer in 150 Words

The Computer is the greatest invention of modern technology. It is a standard machine that can store data in its memory. It works using input (like a keyboard) and output (printer). Computer is effortless, so even young children can use it quickly. It is very reliable, and we can keep and use it anywhere and anytime. With this, we can create new data with changes in our old data.

Computers are essential for our life; in the same way, all these components are necessary for computers. If one of these parts is not there, we cannot call this machine a perfect computer.

There is much such software inside the Computer which makes the Computer suitable. If an accountant uses a Computer, he uses Tally software; if a photo editing person uses it, he can use Photoshop software. Such computers have become an essential part of our life.

The computer a beautiful gift of science made by man to help humankind. Laptops and desktops are the forms of computers that are ruling the world today, and it has undoubtedly changed the lifestyle of the people and the condition of developing countries.

Frequently Asked Questions on Computer

1. by whom was the computer first invented.

Answer: Charles Babbage, the inventor of the computer, was an English engineer in mechanical engineering. He developed the programmable computer concept.

2. What was the first virus for computers?

Answer: Creeper was the first virus for system computers, released in 1971. It filled up computer hard drives and developed by BBN technologies in the United States.

3. Tell the name of the first computer.

Answer: The first computer “the giant ENIAC machine computer” which invented by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert. It was like a colossus. This was also speedy and very flexible. It made in the United States of America.

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Essay on Computer in English

Dear students, in this post, you will read an essay on a computer. It is an opinion essay. A computer is an indispensable gadget in modern times. Read the complete essay on computer as follows:

A computer is a valuable tool. Many people use computers every day for many purposes. Think about ways that people use computers. Write an essay for your classmates explaining why you think a computer is a valuable tool.

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I have grown up on a farm, but even in our rural area, I can see ways that technology is being integrated into all areas of life. Computers play a vital role in society, affecting us as much as TV, cars, and electricity. Computers are an important tool because they help us communicate more easily, increase our efficiency, and add convenience to our hectic lives.

To begin, computers have vastly improved daily communication. E-mail has revolutionized the way many people stay in touch. For example, by using e-mail I was able to send a photograph of me, playing football, to my grandmother living away from me. She was thrilled, and that evening she sent me an electronic greeting card with an interactive football game! Also, I can communicate instantly with other friends who are online. Also, my parents don’t get mad at me for tying up the phone to talk with my friends. On the computer, if you can type, you can chat.

Working on a computer helps me create professional-looking reports and letters. I am not a very neat person, so I depend on word processing to help make my work look neat. I can tell that my teachers like it when they don’t have to read my sloppy handwriting. Besides, writing a long essay or a report by hand is extremely tiring. Computers have been a real lifesaver in that department.

Another wonderful thing about computers is that they can help you get and stay organized. Many kids, adults, and organizations store a lot of information on the computer. I know that my parents keep their tax records on it. When tax time comes along, instead of having to sort through boxes of junk, they have everything they need at their fingertips because they stored it on the computer.

Finally, shopping on the Internet is another great benefit of having a computer. I’ve bought books, music CDs, and gifts on the Internet. It’s so much better than dragging myself around from store to store, lugging shopping bags, and waiting in long lines. Of course, my parents keep an eye on what I buy and how much it costs. They don’t let me shop on the Internet that much, but I love to do it when I can.

I think that computers are marvellous machines and that what they can do is only going to increase. I’ve described here only a few of the ways that computers make a huge difference to me, my family, and my friends right now. Just think about all the other ways computers help people and organizations around the world and about the other benefits they’ll bring in the future!

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Guest Essay

How the SAT Changed My Life

By Emi Nietfeld

Ms. Nietfeld is the author of the memoir “Acceptance.”

This month, the University of Texas, Austin, joined the wave of selective schools reversing Covid-era test-optional admissions policies, once again requiring applicants to submit ACT or SAT scores.

Many colleges have embraced the test-optional rule under the assumption that it bolsters equity and diversity, since higher scores are correlated with privilege. But it turns out that these policies harmed the teenagers they were supposed to help. Many low-income and minority applicants withheld scores that could have gotten them in, wrongly assuming that their scores were too low, according to an analysis by Dartmouth. More top universities are sure to join the reversal. This is a good thing.

I was one of the disadvantaged youths who are often failed by test-optional policies, striving to get into college while in foster care and homeless. We hear a lot about the efforts of these elite schools to attract diverse student bodies and about debates around the best way to assemble a class. What these conversations overlook is the hope these tests offer students who are in difficult situations.

For many of us, standardized tests provided our one shot to prove our potential, despite the obstacles in our lives or the untidy pasts we had. We found solace in the objectivity of a hard number and a process that — unlike many things in our lives — we could control. I will always feel tenderness toward the Scantron sheets that unlocked higher education and a better life.

Growing up, I fantasized about escaping the chaos of my family for the peace of a grassy quad. Both my parents had mental health issues. My adolescence was its own mess. Over two years I took a dozen psychiatric drugs while attending four different high school programs. At 14, I was sent to a locked facility where my education consisted of work sheets and reading aloud in an on-site classroom. In a life skills class, we learned how to get our G.E.D.s. My college dreams began to seem like delusions.

Then one afternoon a staff member handed me a library copy of “Barron’s Guide to the ACT .” I leafed through the onionskin pages and felt a thunderclap of possibility. I couldn’t go to the bathroom without permission, let alone take Advanced Placement Latin or play water polo or do something else that would impress elite colleges. But I could teach myself the years of math I’d missed while switching schools and improve my life in this one specific way.

After nine months in the institution, I entered foster care. I started my sophomore year at yet another high school, only to have my foster parents shuffle my course load at midyear, when they decided Advanced Placement classes were bad for me. In part because of academic instability like this, only 3 percent to 4 percent of former foster youth get a four-year college degree.

Later I bounced between friends’ sofas and the back seat of my rusty Corolla, using my new-to-me SAT prep book as a pillow. I had no idea when I’d next shower, but I could crack open practice problems and dip into a meditative trance. For those moments, everything was still, the terror of my daily life softened by the fantasy that my efforts might land me in a dorm room of my own, with endless hot water and an extra-long twin bed.

Standardized tests allowed me to look forward, even as every other part of college applications focused on the past. The song and dance of personal statements required me to demonstrate all the obstacles I’d overcome while I was still in the middle of them. When shilling my trauma left me gutted and raw, researching answer elimination strategies was a balm. I could focus on equations and readings, like the scholar I wanted to be, rather than the desperate teenager that I was.

Test-optional policies would have confounded me, but in the 2009-10 admissions cycle, I had to submit my scores; my fellow hopefuls and I were all in this together, slogging through multiple-choice questions until our backs ached and our eyes crossed.

The hope these exams instilled in me wasn’t abstract: It manifested in hundreds of glossy brochures. After I took the PSAT in my junior year, universities that had received my score flooded me with letters urging me to apply. For once, I felt wanted. These marketing materials informed me that the top universities offered generous financial aid that would allow me to attend free. I set my sights higher, despite my guidance counselor’s lack of faith.

When I took the actual SAT, I was ashamed of my score. Had submitting it been optional, I most likely wouldn’t have done it, because I suspected my score was lower than the prep-school applicants I was up against (exactly what Dartmouth found in the analysis that led it to reinstate testing requirements). When you grow up the way I did, it’s difficult to believe that you are ever good enough.

When I got into Harvard, it felt like a miracle splitting my life into a before and after. My exam preparation paid off on campus — it was the only reason I knew geometry or grammar — and it motivated me to tackle new, difficult topics. I majored in computer science, having never written a line of code. Though a career as a software engineer seemed far-fetched, I used my SAT study strategies to prepare for technical interviews (in which you’re given one or more problems to solve) that landed me the stable, lucrative Google job that catapulted me out of financial insecurity.

I’m not the only one who feels affection for these tests. At Harvard, I met other students who saw these exams as the one door they could unlock that opened into a new future. I was lucky that the tests offered me hope all along, that I could cling to the promise that one day I could bubble in a test form and find myself transported into a better life — the one I lead today.

Emi Nietfeld is the author of the memoir “ Acceptance .” Previously, she was a software engineer at Google and Facebook.

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CBSE Board Exam 2024: Check High Mark Questions From Previous Year Computer Science Paper

Papers are available from the board year 2019 on the official website of the cbse..

The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) will conduct the board exam for Class 12 Computer Science on April 2, 2024. Students appearing in the exam can visit the official website of the CBSE to check question papers of the previous years to familiarise themselves with the paper pattern. Papers are available from the board year 2019 on the official website of the CBSE .

High mark Computer Science questions from previous year paper:

Q) Write one difference between OSV and text files. Write a program in Python that defines and calls the following user defined functions: (i) COURIER ADD: It takes the values from the user and adds the details to a cv file 'courier. csv'. Each record consists of a list with field clements as cid, s_name, Source, destination to store Courier ID, Sender name, Source and destination address respectively. (ii) COURIER SEARCH() : Takes the destination as the input and displays all the courier records going to that destination. OR Q) Why it is important to close a file before exiting? Q) Write a program in Python that defines and calls the following user defined functions: (i) Add_Book: Takes the details of the books and adds them to a csv file 'Book.csv. Each record consists of a list with field elements as book_ID, B_name and pub to store book ID, book name and publisher respectively. (ii) Search_Book : Takes publisher name as input and counts and displays number of books published by them.

Q) Shreyas is a programmer, who has recently been given a task to write a user defined function named write bin() to create a binary file called Cust_file.dat containing customer information - customer number (c_ no), name (c _name), quantity (qty), price (price) and amount (amt) of each customer. The function accepts customer number, name, quantity and price. Thereafter, it displays the message 'Quantity less than 10....Cannot SAVE', if quantity entered is less than 10. Otherwise the function calculates amount as price*quantity and then writes the record in the form of a list into the binary file.

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import pickle  def write bin(): bin file= ___ #statement 1 while True: c_no-int (input("enter customer number") ) c_name=input ("enter customer name") qty=int(input ("enter qty") price-int (input ("'enter price")) if ___#Statement  2 print ("Quantity less than 10. .Cannot SAVE") else: amt= price   *qty c_detail = [c_no, c_name, qty, price, amt] _____ #Statement 3 ans-input ("Do you wish to enter more records y/n")  if ans. Lower ()= =-'n': # Statement 4 # Statement 5 # Statement 6

Students can check the complete question paper on the official website of the CBSE. The board has also published sample papers and marking scheme for the Computer Science exam.

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More From Forbes

The future of farming: ai innovations that are transforming agriculture.

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AI-assisted Agriculture

Agriculture is a cornerstone of human civilization, a testament to our ability to harness nature for sustenance. Yet, this age-old industry faces many challenges that hamper productivity, impact livelihoods, and threaten global food security.

By 2050, we must produce 60 percent more food to feed a world population of 9.3 billion, reports the Food and Agriculture Organization. Given the current industry challenges, doing that with a farming-as-usual approach could be tricky. Moreover, this would extend the heavy toll we already place on our natural resources.

This is where Artificial Intelligence can come to our rescue. The AI in Agriculture Market is projected to grow from $1.7 billion in 2023 to $4.7 billion by 2028, highlighting the pivotal role of advanced technologies in this sector. This article explores three significant issues agriculture faces today and shows how AI is helping tackle them using real-world examples.

Three key challenges farmers face

Amongst the many issues hurting farmers, three stand out due to their global presence and financial impact:

1. Pests : Pests devour approximately 40% of global agricultural productivity annually, costing at least $70 billion. From locust swarms decimating fields in Africa to fruit flies affecting orchards, the impact is global, and financial repercussions are colossal.

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2. Soil Quality and Irrigation : Soil degradation affects nearly 33% of the Earth's soil, diminishing its ability to grow crops, leading to a loss of about $400 billion. Water scarcity and inefficient irrigation further dent agricultural output. Agriculture uses 70% of the world's accessible freshwater, but 60% of it is wasted due to leaky irrigation systems.

3. Weeds : Despite advancements in agricultural practices, weeds cause significant declines in crop yield and quality. Around 1800 weed species reduce plant production by about 31.5%, leading to economic losses of about $32 billion annually.

How AI is transforming Agriculture

Smart Farming

Artificial Intelligence is often used as a catchall phrase. Here, it refers to the systematic collection of data, pertinent use of analytics ranging from simple descriptive summaries to deep learning algorithms, and advanced technologies such as computer vision, the internet of things, and geospatial analytics. Let’s look at how AI helps address each of the above challenges:

1. Pest identification and control : Accurate, early identification and control of pests is essential to minimize crop damage and reduce the reliance on chemical pesticides. Data such as weather reports, historical pest activity, and high-resolution images captured by drones or satellites are readily available today. Machine learning models and computer vision can help predict pest invasions and identify pests in the field.

For example, Trapview has built a device that traps pests and identifies them. It uses pheromones to attract pests, which are photographed by a camera in the device. By leveraging Trapview’s database, AI identifies over 60 pest species, such as the codling moth, which afflicts apples, and the cotton bollworm, which can damage lettuce and tomatoes.

Once identified, the system uses location and weather data to map out the likely impact of the insects and pushes the findings as an app notification to farmers. These AI-driven insights enable timely and targeted interventions, significantly reducing crop losses and chemical usage. Trapview reports that its customers have seen a 5% increase in yield and quality, and overall savings of 118 million euro in growers’ costs.

2. Soil health monitoring : Continuous monitoring and analysis of soil health are essential to ensuring optimal growing conditions and sustainable farming practices. Optimizing water use is crucial to ensuring crops receive precisely what they need, reducing waste and enhancing productivity.

Data from in-ground sensors, farm machinery, drones, and satellites are used to analyze soil conditions, including moisture content, nutrient levels, and the presence of pathogens. Such soil health analysis helps predict water needs and automate irrigation systems.

For example, CropX has built a platform specializing in soil health monitoring by leveraging real-time data to help users review and compare vital parameters alongside crop performance. Farmers gain insights into soil type and vegetation indices like NDVI - normalized difference vegetation index, SAVI - soil adjusted vegetation index, and soil moisture index to optimize crop management strategies. CropX reports that its solutions have led to a 57% reduction in water usage, a 15% reduction in fertilizer usage, and up to 70% yield increase.

3. Weed Detection and Management : Precise identification and elimination of weeds is critical to preventing them from competing for precious resources with crops and minimizing herbicide use. Thanks to computer vision, drones and robots can now identify weeds amongst crops with high precision. This allows for targeted weed control, either mechanically or through precise herbicide application.

For instance, the startup Carbon Robotics leverages deep learning algorithms in its computer vision solution. It identifies weeds by analyzing data from over 42 high-resolution cameras that scan the fields in real-time. Then, it employs robotics and lasers to deliver high-precision weed control.

The LaserWeeder claims to weed up to two acres per hour and eliminate up to 5,000 weeds per minute at 99% accuracy. Its growers report reducing weed control costs by up to 80% with a potential return on investment in one to three years.

Tackling the risks of automation

Opportunities and risks of AI in agriculture

AI has numerous benefits for agriculture but isn’t without inherent risks , such as job displacement, ownership concentration, and ethical concerns. When AI automates tasks traditionally done by humans in large numbers, it could lead to job losses across both manual and cognitive roles. Moreover, it could exacerbate ownership concentration, benefiting large enterprises or wealthy individuals at the expense of smaller farms.

When farmland turns into a hotbed for data collection – underground, at the crop level, and from the sky, this could lead to data privacy issues. These challenges underscore the need for careful consideration and governance to balance AI's advantages against its potential downsides. This is unique not just to the agricultural sector but to all industries where AI is being applied.

Ushering in a transformative future

Integrating AI in agriculture is not just reshaping current practices but also paving the way for a sustainable and resilient future. AI could become a master gardener, perpetually monitoring and fine-tuning every growth stage in the farm, from seed selection to harvest and beyond. It can help adjust farming practices in real time to climatic shifts, ensuring optimal crop health and yield.

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Computer Essay In English

Our lives have been made easier by the invention of computers. They play a vital role in our lives. The device receives data as input, processes it, and outputs the results. It’s because of computers that we can now do things that were once impossible, and we can do them much faster and more efficiently. Here are some sample essays on the topic ‘Computer’.

100 Words Essay On Computer

200 words essay on computer, 500 words essay on computer.

It’s evident that computers have made our lives much easier in a variety of ways. We rely on them for communication, information, efficiency, and entertainment, and it's hard to imagine life without them. Computers have revolutionised the way we live and work. They are an essential part of our lives, and they have made our lives much easier. Computers have made our lives easier in a number of ways. They allow us to communicate with people all over the world quickly and easily, and they give us access to a vast amount of information. We can use computers to work, study, shop, bank, and entertain ourselves.

Computers have infiltrated every aspect of our lives, from the way we communicate to the way we work and play. They've made our lives easier in so many ways, and it's hard to imagine living without them.

How Computers Made Our Lives Easier

One of the most obvious ways computers have made our lives easier is in the way we communicate. Email, instant messaging, and video conferencing are all revolutionised by computers. We can instantly communicate with anyone in the world, regardless of location or time zone. Computers have also made it easier to access information. In the past, if you wanted to know something, you had to go to the library and hope they had a book on your topic. Nowadays, you can just do a quick Google search and find out whatever you need to know.

In addition, computers have made our lives more efficient. Tasks that used to take hours can now be done in minutes or even seconds with the help of a computer. For example, you can book a flight or hotel room online in just a few clicks. Or if you need to do some research for a project, you can quickly find relevant articles and data with a few keystrokes.

The contemporary computer has become an indispensable component of our daily lives. Their popularity has skyrocketed during the previous decade. Nowadays, computers are used in every office, whether it is private or public. People have been using computers for a very long time. They are utilised in numerous industries, including agriculture, design, manufacturing of machinery, and defence. Computers have brought about a global revolution.

The CPU, display, mouse, and keyboard make up the core components of a basic computer. Hundreds of additional computer components can be connected to it as well. Supercomputers, mainframes, desktop personal computers, PDAs, laptops, and many other forms of computers are all classed under this general category. Because it meets all the requirements for a computer, the mobile phone is also a form of computer.

Uses of Computer in Various Fields

As computer usage grew, using computers in practically every industry became a requirement for business operations. Additionally, they have simplified working and organising. Here are a few of the significant industries that depend on computers for day-to-day operations—

Education Sector

Many students and children are benefiting from the computer's assistance in the educational field. In the modern era, they are a reliable source of educational content. Through the intranet or internet, we can access a wide range of instructional materials in one location. Computers are now frequently used for online learning, teaching, and assessment. Computers make it simple for students to prepare assignments or projects. Computers can be used by teachers to keep track of student data and assess student performance.

Research And Development Sector

Data collection, storage, analysis, classification, and extraction are among scientists' most important needs in the fields of science, research, and engineering. Computers facilitate internal and international scientific communication and data sharing among scientists working in various locations. Working on a project with numerous scientists from different countries is usually beneficial. They use cloud storage for data exchange. The use of supercomputers in research and development is widespread. To plot and analyse data to gain a better understanding of earthquakes and other natural hazards, scientists frequently employ computers. Additionally, computers are essential for the development, upkeep, launch, and control of spacecraft as well as the operation of many other technologies.

Government Sector

The usage of computers is widespread in government-related fields. The government is responsible for many different departments and tasks, and practically all of them are outfitted with computers to carry out various tasks and boost production and efficiency. The key functions of computers include data processing, maintaining citizen information, budgeting for security measures, and many other duties. Computers are also frequently used in areas such as city planning, infrastructure, design, traffic management, and law enforcement.

Medical Sector

Computers are frequently used to keep track of patients, create bills, schedule doctor appointments, etc. Computers have digitised almost everything. Currently, a lot of online medical pharmacies offer home delivery of prescription medications to its customers. The way diseases are identified and treated in the field of medicine has been revolutionised by computers. They work together with medical equipment to continuously track a patient's blood pressure, heart rate, oxygen saturation, and many other parameters Additionally, a lot of procedures today are carried out remotely using computers and robotic surgical tools.

Explore Career Options (By Industry)

• Construction
• Entertainment
• Manufacturing
• Information Technology

Bio Medical Engineer

The field of biomedical engineering opens up a universe of expert chances. An Individual in the biomedical engineering career path work in the field of engineering as well as medicine, in order to find out solutions to common problems of the two fields. The biomedical engineering job opportunities are to collaborate with doctors and researchers to develop medical systems, equipment, or devices that can solve clinical problems. Here we will be discussing jobs after biomedical engineering, how to get a job in biomedical engineering, biomedical engineering scope, and salary. 

Data Administrator

Database professionals use software to store and organise data such as financial information, and customer shipping records. Individuals who opt for a career as data administrators ensure that data is available for users and secured from unauthorised sales. DB administrators may work in various types of industries. It may involve computer systems design, service firms, insurance companies, banks and hospitals.

Ethical Hacker

A career as ethical hacker involves various challenges and provides lucrative opportunities in the digital era where every giant business and startup owns its cyberspace on the world wide web. Individuals in the ethical hacker career path try to find the vulnerabilities in the cyber system to get its authority. If he or she succeeds in it then he or she gets its illegal authority. Individuals in the ethical hacker career path then steal information or delete the file that could affect the business, functioning, or services of the organization.

Data Analyst

The invention of the database has given fresh breath to the people involved in the data analytics career path. Analysis refers to splitting up a whole into its individual components for individual analysis. Data analysis is a method through which raw data are processed and transformed into information that would be beneficial for user strategic thinking.

Data are collected and examined to respond to questions, evaluate hypotheses or contradict theories. It is a tool for analyzing, transforming, modeling, and arranging data with useful knowledge, to assist in decision-making and methods, encompassing various strategies, and is used in different fields of business, research, and social science.

Geothermal Engineer

Individuals who opt for a career as geothermal engineers are the professionals involved in the processing of geothermal energy. The responsibilities of geothermal engineers may vary depending on the workplace location. Those who work in fields design facilities to process and distribute geothermal energy. They oversee the functioning of machinery used in the field.

Remote Sensing Technician

Individuals who opt for a career as a remote sensing technician possess unique personalities. Remote sensing analysts seem to be rational human beings, they are strong, independent, persistent, sincere, realistic and resourceful. Some of them are analytical as well, which means they are intelligent, introspective and inquisitive. 

Remote sensing scientists use remote sensing technology to support scientists in fields such as community planning, flight planning or the management of natural resources. Analysing data collected from aircraft, satellites or ground-based platforms using statistical analysis software, image analysis software or Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a significant part of their work. Do you want to learn how to become remote sensing technician? There's no need to be concerned; we've devised a simple remote sensing technician career path for you. Scroll through the pages and read.

Geotechnical engineer

The role of geotechnical engineer starts with reviewing the projects needed to define the required material properties. The work responsibilities are followed by a site investigation of rock, soil, fault distribution and bedrock properties on and below an area of interest. The investigation is aimed to improve the ground engineering design and determine their engineering properties that include how they will interact with, on or in a proposed construction. 

The role of geotechnical engineer in mining includes designing and determining the type of foundations, earthworks, and or pavement subgrades required for the intended man-made structures to be made. Geotechnical engineering jobs are involved in earthen and concrete dam construction projects, working under a range of normal and extreme loading conditions. 

Cartographer

How fascinating it is to represent the whole world on just a piece of paper or a sphere. With the help of maps, we are able to represent the real world on a much smaller scale. Individuals who opt for a career as a cartographer are those who make maps. But, cartography is not just limited to maps, it is about a mixture of art , science , and technology. As a cartographer, not only you will create maps but use various geodetic surveys and remote sensing systems to measure, analyse, and create different maps for political, cultural or educational purposes.

Budget Analyst

Budget analysis, in a nutshell, entails thoroughly analyzing the details of a financial budget. The budget analysis aims to better understand and manage revenue. Budget analysts assist in the achievement of financial targets, the preservation of profitability, and the pursuit of long-term growth for a business. Budget analysts generally have a bachelor's degree in accounting, finance, economics, or a closely related field. Knowledge of Financial Management is of prime importance in this career.

Product Manager

A Product Manager is a professional responsible for product planning and marketing. He or she manages the product throughout the Product Life Cycle, gathering and prioritising the product. A product manager job description includes defining the product vision and working closely with team members of other departments to deliver winning products.  

Underwriter

An underwriter is a person who assesses and evaluates the risk of insurance in his or her field like mortgage, loan, health policy, investment, and so on and so forth. The underwriter career path does involve risks as analysing the risks means finding out if there is a way for the insurance underwriter jobs to recover the money from its clients. If the risk turns out to be too much for the company then in the future it is an underwriter who will be held accountable for it. Therefore, one must carry out his or her job with a lot of attention and diligence.

Finance Executive

Operations manager.

Individuals in the operations manager jobs are responsible for ensuring the efficiency of each department to acquire its optimal goal. They plan the use of resources and distribution of materials. The operations manager's job description includes managing budgets, negotiating contracts, and performing administrative tasks.

Bank Probationary Officer (PO)

Investment director.

An investment director is a person who helps corporations and individuals manage their finances. They can help them develop a strategy to achieve their goals, including paying off debts and investing in the future. In addition, he or she can help individuals make informed decisions.

Welding Engineer

Welding Engineer Job Description: A Welding Engineer work involves managing welding projects and supervising welding teams. He or she is responsible for reviewing welding procedures, processes and documentation. A career as Welding Engineer involves conducting failure analyses and causes on welding issues. 

Transportation Planner

A career as Transportation Planner requires technical application of science and technology in engineering, particularly the concepts, equipment and technologies involved in the production of products and services. In fields like land use, infrastructure review, ecological standards and street design, he or she considers issues of health, environment and performance. A Transportation Planner assigns resources for implementing and designing programmes. He or she is responsible for assessing needs, preparing plans and forecasts and compliance with regulations.

An expert in plumbing is aware of building regulations and safety standards and works to make sure these standards are upheld. Testing pipes for leakage using air pressure and other gauges, and also the ability to construct new pipe systems by cutting, fitting, measuring and threading pipes are some of the other more involved aspects of plumbing. Individuals in the plumber career path are self-employed or work for a small business employing less than ten people, though some might find working for larger entities or the government more desirable.

Construction Manager

Individuals who opt for a career as construction managers have a senior-level management role offered in construction firms. Responsibilities in the construction management career path are assigning tasks to workers, inspecting their work, and coordinating with other professionals including architects, subcontractors, and building services engineers.

Urban Planner

Urban Planning careers revolve around the idea of developing a plan to use the land optimally, without affecting the environment. Urban planning jobs are offered to those candidates who are skilled in making the right use of land to distribute the growing population, to create various communities. 

Urban planning careers come with the opportunity to make changes to the existing cities and towns. They identify various community needs and make short and long-term plans accordingly.

Highway Engineer

Highway Engineer Job Description:  A Highway Engineer is a civil engineer who specialises in planning and building thousands of miles of roads that support connectivity and allow transportation across the country. He or she ensures that traffic management schemes are effectively planned concerning economic sustainability and successful implementation.

Environmental Engineer

Individuals who opt for a career as an environmental engineer are construction professionals who utilise the skills and knowledge of biology, soil science, chemistry and the concept of engineering to design and develop projects that serve as solutions to various environmental problems. 

Naval Architect

A Naval Architect is a professional who designs, produces and repairs safe and sea-worthy surfaces or underwater structures. A Naval Architect stays involved in creating and designing ships, ferries, submarines and yachts with implementation of various principles such as gravity, ideal hull form, buoyancy and stability. 

Orthotist and Prosthetist

Orthotists and Prosthetists are professionals who provide aid to patients with disabilities. They fix them to artificial limbs (prosthetics) and help them to regain stability. There are times when people lose their limbs in an accident. In some other occasions, they are born without a limb or orthopaedic impairment. Orthotists and prosthetists play a crucial role in their lives with fixing them to assistive devices and provide mobility.

Veterinary Doctor

Pathologist.

A career in pathology in India is filled with several responsibilities as it is a medical branch and affects human lives. The demand for pathologists has been increasing over the past few years as people are getting more aware of different diseases. Not only that, but an increase in population and lifestyle changes have also contributed to the increase in a pathologist’s demand. The pathology careers provide an extremely huge number of opportunities and if you want to be a part of the medical field you can consider being a pathologist. If you want to know more about a career in pathology in India then continue reading this article.

Speech Therapist

Gynaecologist.

Gynaecology can be defined as the study of the female body. The job outlook for gynaecology is excellent since there is evergreen demand for one because of their responsibility of dealing with not only women’s health but also fertility and pregnancy issues. Although most women prefer to have a women obstetrician gynaecologist as their doctor, men also explore a career as a gynaecologist and there are ample amounts of male doctors in the field who are gynaecologists and aid women during delivery and childbirth. 

An oncologist is a specialised doctor responsible for providing medical care to patients diagnosed with cancer. He or she uses several therapies to control the cancer and its effect on the human body such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy and biopsy. An oncologist designs a treatment plan based on a pathology report after diagnosing the type of cancer and where it is spreading inside the body.

Audiologist

The audiologist career involves audiology professionals who are responsible to treat hearing loss and proactively preventing the relevant damage. Individuals who opt for a career as an audiologist use various testing strategies with the aim to determine if someone has a normal sensitivity to sounds or not. After the identification of hearing loss, a hearing doctor is required to determine which sections of the hearing are affected, to what extent they are affected, and where the wound causing the hearing loss is found. As soon as the hearing loss is identified, the patients are provided with recommendations for interventions and rehabilitation such as hearing aids, cochlear implants, and appropriate medical referrals. While audiology is a branch of science that studies and researches hearing, balance, and related disorders.

Hospital Administrator

The hospital Administrator is in charge of organising and supervising the daily operations of medical services and facilities. This organising includes managing of organisation’s staff and its members in service, budgets, service reports, departmental reporting and taking reminders of patient care and services.

For an individual who opts for a career as an actor, the primary responsibility is to completely speak to the character he or she is playing and to persuade the crowd that the character is genuine by connecting with them and bringing them into the story. This applies to significant roles and littler parts, as all roles join to make an effective creation. Here in this article, we will discuss how to become an actor in India, actor exams, actor salary in India, and actor jobs. 

Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats create and direct original routines for themselves, in addition to developing interpretations of existing routines. The work of circus acrobats can be seen in a variety of performance settings, including circus, reality shows, sports events like the Olympics, movies and commercials. Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats must be prepared to face rejections and intermittent periods of work. The creativity of acrobats may extend to other aspects of the performance. For example, acrobats in the circus may work with gym trainers, celebrities or collaborate with other professionals to enhance such performance elements as costume and or maybe at the teaching end of the career.

Video Game Designer

Career as a video game designer is filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. A video game designer is someone who is involved in the process of creating a game from day one. He or she is responsible for fulfilling duties like designing the character of the game, the several levels involved, plot, art and similar other elements. Individuals who opt for a career as a video game designer may also write the codes for the game using different programming languages.

Depending on the video game designer job description and experience they may also have to lead a team and do the early testing of the game in order to suggest changes and find loopholes.

Radio Jockey

Radio Jockey is an exciting, promising career and a great challenge for music lovers. If you are really interested in a career as radio jockey, then it is very important for an RJ to have an automatic, fun, and friendly personality. If you want to get a job done in this field, a strong command of the language and a good voice are always good things. Apart from this, in order to be a good radio jockey, you will also listen to good radio jockeys so that you can understand their style and later make your own by practicing.

A career as radio jockey has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. If you want to know more about a career as radio jockey, and how to become a radio jockey then continue reading the article.

Choreographer

The word “choreography" actually comes from Greek words that mean “dance writing." Individuals who opt for a career as a choreographer create and direct original dances, in addition to developing interpretations of existing dances. A Choreographer dances and utilises his or her creativity in other aspects of dance performance. For example, he or she may work with the music director to select music or collaborate with other famous choreographers to enhance such performance elements as lighting, costume and set design.

Videographer

Multimedia specialist.

A multimedia specialist is a media professional who creates, audio, videos, graphic image files, computer animations for multimedia applications. He or she is responsible for planning, producing, and maintaining websites and applications. 

Social Media Manager

A career as social media manager involves implementing the company’s or brand’s marketing plan across all social media channels. Social media managers help in building or improving a brand’s or a company’s website traffic, build brand awareness, create and implement marketing and brand strategy. Social media managers are key to important social communication as well.

Copy Writer

In a career as a copywriter, one has to consult with the client and understand the brief well. A career as a copywriter has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. Several new mediums of advertising are opening therefore making it a lucrative career choice. Students can pursue various copywriter courses such as Journalism , Advertising , Marketing Management . Here, we have discussed how to become a freelance copywriter, copywriter career path, how to become a copywriter in India, and copywriting career outlook. 

Careers in journalism are filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. One cannot afford to miss out on the details. As it is the small details that provide insights into a story. Depending on those insights a journalist goes about writing a news article. A journalism career can be stressful at times but if you are someone who is passionate about it then it is the right choice for you. If you want to know more about the media field and journalist career then continue reading this article.

For publishing books, newspapers, magazines and digital material, editorial and commercial strategies are set by publishers. Individuals in publishing career paths make choices about the markets their businesses will reach and the type of content that their audience will be served. Individuals in book publisher careers collaborate with editorial staff, designers, authors, and freelance contributors who develop and manage the creation of content.

In a career as a vlogger, one generally works for himself or herself. However, once an individual has gained viewership there are several brands and companies that approach them for paid collaboration. It is one of those fields where an individual can earn well while following his or her passion. 

Ever since internet costs got reduced the viewership for these types of content has increased on a large scale. Therefore, a career as a vlogger has a lot to offer. If you want to know more about the Vlogger eligibility, roles and responsibilities then continue reading the article. 

Individuals in the editor career path is an unsung hero of the news industry who polishes the language of the news stories provided by stringers, reporters, copywriters and content writers and also news agencies. Individuals who opt for a career as an editor make it more persuasive, concise and clear for readers. In this article, we will discuss the details of the editor's career path such as how to become an editor in India, editor salary in India and editor skills and qualities.

Linguistic meaning is related to language or Linguistics which is the study of languages. A career as a linguistic meaning, a profession that is based on the scientific study of language, and it's a very broad field with many specialities. Famous linguists work in academia, researching and teaching different areas of language, such as phonetics (sounds), syntax (word order) and semantics (meaning). 

Other researchers focus on specialities like computational linguistics, which seeks to better match human and computer language capacities, or applied linguistics, which is concerned with improving language education. Still, others work as language experts for the government, advertising companies, dictionary publishers and various other private enterprises. Some might work from home as freelance linguists. Philologist, phonologist, and dialectician are some of Linguist synonym. Linguists can study French , German , Italian . 

Public Relation Executive

Travel journalist.

The career of a travel journalist is full of passion, excitement and responsibility. Journalism as a career could be challenging at times, but if you're someone who has been genuinely enthusiastic about all this, then it is the best decision for you. Travel journalism jobs are all about insightful, artfully written, informative narratives designed to cover the travel industry. Travel Journalist is someone who explores, gathers and presents information as a news article.

Quality Controller

A quality controller plays a crucial role in an organisation. He or she is responsible for performing quality checks on manufactured products. He or she identifies the defects in a product and rejects the product. 

A quality controller records detailed information about products with defects and sends it to the supervisor or plant manager to take necessary actions to improve the production process.

Production Manager

Merchandiser.

A QA Lead is in charge of the QA Team. The role of QA Lead comes with the responsibility of assessing services and products in order to determine that he or she meets the quality standards. He or she develops, implements and manages test plans. 

Metallurgical Engineer

A metallurgical engineer is a professional who studies and produces materials that bring power to our world. He or she extracts metals from ores and rocks and transforms them into alloys, high-purity metals and other materials used in developing infrastructure, transportation and healthcare equipment. 

Azure Administrator

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Computer Science > Computation and Language

Title: long-form factuality in large language models.

Abstract: Large language models (LLMs) often generate content that contains factual errors when responding to fact-seeking prompts on open-ended topics. To benchmark a model's long-form factuality in open domains, we first use GPT-4 to generate LongFact, a prompt set comprising thousands of questions spanning 38 topics. We then propose that LLM agents can be used as automated evaluators for long-form factuality through a method which we call Search-Augmented Factuality Evaluator (SAFE). SAFE utilizes an LLM to break down a long-form response into a set of individual facts and to evaluate the accuracy of each fact using a multi-step reasoning process comprising sending search queries to Google Search and determining whether a fact is supported by the search results. Furthermore, we propose extending F1 score as an aggregated metric for long-form factuality. To do so, we balance the percentage of supported facts in a response (precision) with the percentage of provided facts relative to a hyperparameter representing a user's preferred response length (recall). Empirically, we demonstrate that LLM agents can achieve superhuman rating performance - on a set of ~16k individual facts, SAFE agrees with crowdsourced human annotators 72% of the time, and on a random subset of 100 disagreement cases, SAFE wins 76% of the time. At the same time, SAFE is more than 20 times cheaper than human annotators. We also benchmark thirteen language models on LongFact across four model families (Gemini, GPT, Claude, and PaLM-2), finding that larger language models generally achieve better long-form factuality. LongFact, SAFE, and all experimental code are available at this https URL .

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image processing —

Playboy image from 1972 gets ban from ieee computer journals, use of "lenna" image in computer image processing research stretches back to the 1970s..

Benj Edwards - Mar 29, 2024 9:16 pm UTC

On Wednesday, the IEEE Computer Society announced to members that, after April 1, it would no longer accept papers that include a frequently used image of a 1972 Playboy model named Lena Forsén. The so-called " Lenna image ," (Forsén added an extra "n" to her name in her Playboy appearance to aid pronunciation) has been used in image processing research since 1973 and has attracted criticism for making some women feel unwelcome in the field.

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In an email from the IEEE Computer Society sent to members on Wednesday, Technical & Conference Activities Vice President Terry Benzel wrote , "IEEE's diversity statement and supporting policies such as the IEEE Code of Ethics speak to IEEE's commitment to promoting an including and equitable culture that welcomes all. In alignment with this culture and with respect to the wishes of the subject of the image, Lena Forsén, IEEE will no longer accept submitted papers which include the 'Lena image.'"

An uncropped version of the 512×512-pixel test image originally appeared as the centerfold picture for the December 1972 issue of Playboy Magazine. Usage of the Lenna image in image processing began in June or July 1973 when an assistant professor named Alexander Sawchuck and a graduate student at the University of Southern California Signal and Image Processing Institute scanned a square portion of the centerfold image with a primitive drum scanner, omitting nudity present in the original image. They scanned it for a colleague's conference paper, and after that, others began to use the image as well.

The image's use spread in other papers throughout the 1970s, '80s, and '90s , and it caught Playboy's attention, but the company decided to overlook the copyright violations. In 1997, Playboy helped track down Forsén, who appeared at the 50th Annual Conference of the Society for Imaging Science in Technology, signing autographs for fans. "They must be so tired of me... looking at the same picture for all these years!" she said at the time. VP of new media at Playboy Eileen Kent told Wired , "We decided we should exploit this, because it is a phenomenon."

The image, which features Forsén's face and bare shoulder as she wears a hat with a purple feather, was reportedly ideal for testing image processing systems in the early years of digital image technology due to its high contrast and varied detail. It is also a sexually suggestive photo of an attractive woman, and its use by men in the computer field has garnered criticism over the decades, especially from female scientists and engineers who felt that the image (especially related to its association with the Playboy brand) objectified women and created an academic climate where they did not feel entirely welcome.

Due to some of this criticism, which dates back to at least 1996 , the journal Nature banned the use of the Lena image in paper submissions in 2018.

The comp.compression Usenet newsgroup FAQ document claims that in 1988, a Swedish publication asked Forsén if she minded her image being used in computer science, and she was reportedly pleasantly amused. In a 2019 Wired article , Linda Kinstler wrote that Forsén did not harbor resentment about the image, but she regretted that she wasn't paid better for it originally. "I’m really proud of that picture," she told Kinstler at the time.

Since then, Forsén has apparently changed her mind. In 2019, Creatable and Code Like a Girl created an advertising documentary titled Losing Lena , which was part of a promotional campaign aimed at removing the Lena image from use in tech and the image processing field. In a press release for the campaign and film, Forsén is quoted as saying, "I retired from modelling a long time ago. It’s time I retired from tech, too. We can make a simple change today that creates a lasting change for tomorrow. Let’s commit to losing me."

It seems like that commitment is now being granted. The ban in IEEE publications, which have been historically important journals for computer imaging development, will likely further set a precedent toward removing the Lenna image from common use. In the email, IEEE's Benzel recommended wider sensitivity about the issue, writing, "In order to raise awareness of and increase author compliance with this new policy, program committee members and reviewers should look for inclusion of this image, and if present, should ask authors to replace the Lena image with an alternative."

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